1
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Frey KM, Tabassum T. Current structure-based methods for designing non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Future Virol 2019. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2019-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In 2019, structure-based methods continue to guide the design of novel antiretroviral therapies targeting HIV reverse transcriptase. This Review summarizes key findings from reverse transcriptase–non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor analog crystal structure complexes reported from 2015 to 2019. Results from the literature and structure analysis have informed new ideas for structure-guided non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Frey
- Fairleigh Dickinson University, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, 230 Park Avenue, M-SP1-01, Florham Park, NJ 07932, USA
| | - Tasnim Tabassum
- Long Island University, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold & Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, 75 Dekalb Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
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2
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Structure-based methods to predict mutational resistance to diarylpyrimidine non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Mol Graph Model 2018; 79:133-139. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2017.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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3
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Zhou Z, Liu T, Kang D, Huo Z, Wu G, Daelemans D, De Clercq E, Pannecouque C, Zhan P, Liu X. Discovery of novel diarylpyrimidines as potent HIV-1 NNRTIs by investigating the chemical space of a less explored “hydrophobic channel”. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:1014-1028. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob02828h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We described the identification of novel HIV-1 NNRTIs via exploration of the chemical space of a seldom explored “hydrophobic channel”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxia Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Dongwei Kang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Zhipeng Huo
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Gaochan Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Dirk Daelemans
- Rega Institute for Medical Research
- K.U.Leuven
- B-3000 Leuven
- Belgium
| | - Erik De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research
- K.U.Leuven
- B-3000 Leuven
- Belgium
| | | | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education)
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Shandong University
- 250012 Jinan
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4
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From in silico hit to long-acting late-stage preclinical candidate to combat HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 115:E802-E811. [PMID: 29279368 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1717932115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The HIV-1 pandemic affecting over 37 million people worldwide continues, with nearly one-half of the infected population on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Major therapeutic challenges remain because of the emergence of drug-resistant HIV-1 strains, limitations because of safety and toxicity with current HIV-1 drugs, and patient compliance for lifelong, daily treatment regimens. Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) that target the viral polymerase have been a key component of the current HIV-1 combination drug regimens; however, these issues hamper them. Thus, the development of novel more effective NNRTIs as anti-HIV-1 agents with fewer long-term liabilities, efficacy on new drug-resistant HIV-1 strains, and less frequent dosing is crucial. Using a computational and structure-based design strategy to guide lead optimization, a 5 µM virtual screening hit was transformed to a series of very potent nanomolar to picomolar catechol diethers. One representative, compound I, was shown to have nanomolar activity in HIV-1-infected T cells, potency on clinically relevant HIV-1 drug-resistant strains, lack of cytotoxicity and off-target effects, and excellent in vivo pharmacokinetic behavior. In this report, we show the feasibility of compound I as a late-stage preclinical candidate by establishing synergistic antiviral activity with existing HIV-1 drugs and clinical candidates and efficacy in HIV-1-infected humanized [human peripheral blood lymphocyte (Hu-PBL)] mice by completely suppressing viral loads and preventing human CD4+ T-cell loss. Moreover, a long-acting nanoformulation of compound I [compound I nanoparticle (compound I-NP)] in poly(lactide-coglycolide) (PLGA) was developed that shows sustained maintenance of plasma drug concentrations and drug efficacy for almost 3 weeks after a single dose.
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5
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Kudalkar SN, Beloor J, Chan AH, Lee WG, Jorgensen WL, Kumar P, Anderson KS. Structural and Preclinical Studies of Computationally Designed Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors for Treating HIV infection. Mol Pharmacol 2017; 91:383-391. [PMID: 28167742 DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.107755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The clinical benefits of HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitors (NNRTIs) are hindered by their unsatisfactory pharmacokinetic (PK) properties along with the rapid development of drug-resistant variants. However, the clinical efficacy of these inhibitors can be improved by developing compounds with enhanced pharmacological profiles and heightened antiviral activity. We used computational and structure-guided design to develop two next-generation NNRTI drug candidates, compounds I and II, which are members of a class of catechol diethers. We evaluated the preclinical potential of these compounds in BALB/c mice because of their high solubility (510 µg/ml for compound I and 82.9 µg/ml for compound II), low cytotoxicity, and enhanced antiviral activity against wild-type (WT) HIV-1 RT and resistant variants. Additionally, crystal structures of compounds I and II with WT RT suggested an optimal binding to the NNRTI binding pocket favoring the high anti-viral potency. A single intraperitoneal dose of compounds I and II exhibited a prolonged serum residence time of 48 hours and concentration maximum (Cmax) of 4000- to 15,000-fold higher than their therapeutic/effective concentrations. These Cmax values were 4- to 15-fold lower than their cytotoxic concentrations observed in MT-2 cells. Compound II showed an enhanced area under the curve (0-last) and decreased plasma clearance over compound I and efavirenz, the standard of care NNRTI. Hence, the overall (PK) profile of compound II was excellent compared with that of compound I and efavirenz. Furthermore, both compounds were very well tolerated in BALB/c mice without any detectable acute toxicity. Taken together, these data suggest that compounds I and II possess improved anti-HIV-1 potency, remarkable in vivo safety, and prolonged in vivo circulation time, suggesting strong potential for further development as new NNRTIs for the potential treatment of HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalley N Kudalkar
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Jagadish Beloor
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Albert H Chan
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Won-Gil Lee
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - William L Jorgensen
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Priti Kumar
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Karen S Anderson
- Departments of Pharmacology, School of Medicine (S.N.K., A.H.C., K.S.A.), Infectious Diseases/Internal Medicine, School of Medicine (J.B., P.K.), and Chemistry (W.-G.L., W.L.J.), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
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6
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Abstract
Antiviral therapeutics with profiles of high potency, low resistance, panserotype, and low toxicity remain challenging, and obtaining such agents continues to be an active area of therapeutic development. Due to their unique three-dimensional structural features, spirooxindoles have been identified as privileged chemotypes for antiviral drug development. Among them, spiro-pyrazolopyridone oxindoles have been recently reported as potent inhibitors of dengue virus NS4B, leading to the discovery of an orally bioavailable preclinical candidate (R)-44 with excellent in vivo efficacy in a dengue viremia mouse model. This review highlights recent advances in the development of biologically active spirooxindoles for their antiviral potential, primarily focusing on the structure-activity relationships (SARs) and modes of action, as well as future directions to achieve more potent analogues toward a viable antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Ye
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Haiying Chen
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Eric A. Wold
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Pei-Yong Shi
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Sealy Center for Structural Biology & Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Jia Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
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7
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Ohata PJ, Avihingsanon A, Ubolyam S, Putcharoen O, Kerr SJ, Volnysanne A, Nanthapisal K, Ruengpayyathip C, Bunupuradah T, Prasitsuebsai W, Kukanok S, Do T, Landolt NK, Ruxrungtham K, Phanuphak P. Updates on HIV treatment and prevention from Asia's HIV symposium: the 18th Bangkok International Symposium on HIV Medicine. Future Virol 2016. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2016-0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The 18th Bangkok International Symposium on HIV Medicine, Queen Sirikit National Convention Centre, Bangkok, Thailand, 13–15 January 2016 Consistent with HIV-NAT's mission, quality training is provided to many professional healthcare workers in the region by taking the latest knowledge from research and presenting it locally at the Bangkok International Symposium of HIV Medicine. The symposium is offered every third week of January for 3 days. Some of the plenary session content is presented below.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirapon J Ohata
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Anchalee Avihingsanon
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Division of Allergy & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Rama IV Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sasiwimol Ubolyam
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Opass Putcharoen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Rama IV Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Stephen J Kerr
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Alain Volnysanne
- EATG in Europe (European AIDS Treatment group), Place Raymond Blyckaerts, 13, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kesdao Nanthapisal
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Chavalun Ruengpayyathip
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Torsak Bunupuradah
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Wasana Prasitsuebsai
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sivaporn Kukanok
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Tanya Do
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Nadia K Landolt
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Kiat Ruxrungtham
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Division of Allergy & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Rama IV Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Praphan Phanuphak
- HIV-NAT, Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre, 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Thai Red Cross – AIDS Research Centre (TRCARC), 104 Ratchadamri Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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8
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Hernández Arroyo MJ, Cabrera Figueroa SE, Sepúlveda Correa R, Valverde Merino MP, Luna Rodrigo G, Domínguez-Gil Hurlé A. Influence of the number of daily pills and doses on adherence to antiretroviral treatment: a 7-year study. J Clin Pharm Ther 2015; 41:34-9. [PMID: 26714444 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Antiretroviral treatment (ART) is hampered by complicated regimens, high pill burden, drug-drug interactions, and frequent short- and long-term adverse effects, leading to decreased adherence. Over recent years, considerable effort has been directed at developing regimens that are less burdening. We undertook a 7-year retrospective study of the records of 264 HIV-infected subjects enrolled in a pharmaceutical care programme to document the progress made and to study the influence of the number of ART pills and doses on the level of treatment adherence. METHODS Antiretroviral dispensing records were analysed for the number of pills and doses administered and the ART adherence rate estimated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In 2005, the patients took a mean of 6·2 pills daily (CI 95%: 5·9-6·6), and 92·9% of them were on a twice-a-day (BID) dosage regimen. By 2012, the mean number of pills was reduced to 4·1 (CI 95%: 3·8-4·4), and only 50·9% were on a BID regimen. No statistically significant relation was observed between number of daily pills and doses and ART adherence reached by the patients in any of the analyses performed. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSIONS There has been a continuous reduction in the number of pills and doses of antiretrovirals taken by individual patients over the last 7 years due largely to the introduction of improved treatments and regimens. More daily pills or doses was not associated with worse ART adherence in our pharmaceutical care programme.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - G Luna Rodrigo
- Infectious Disease Service, University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - A Domínguez-Gil Hurlé
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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9
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Lee WG, Frey KM, Gallardo-Macias R, Spasov KA, Chan AH, Anderson KS, Jorgensen WL. Discovery and crystallography of bicyclic arylaminoazines as potent inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 25:4824-4827. [PMID: 26166629 PMCID: PMC4607639 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.06.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (HIV-RT) are reported that incorporate a 7-indolizinylamino or 2-naphthylamino substituent on a pyrimidine or 1,3,5-triazine core. The most potent compounds show below 10 nanomolar activity towards wild-type HIV-1 and variants bearing Tyr181Cys and Lys103Asn/Tyr181Cys resistance mutations. The compounds also feature good aqueous solubility. Crystal structures for two complexes enhance the analysis of the structure-activity data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Gil Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA
| | - Kathleen M Frey
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066, USA
| | | | - Krasimir A Spasov
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066, USA
| | - Albert H Chan
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066, USA
| | - Karen S Anderson
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066, USA.
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10
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Frey KM. Structure-enhanced methods in the development of non-nucleoside inhibitors targeting HIV reverse transcriptase variants. Future Microbiol 2015; 10:1767-72. [PMID: 26517310 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.15.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance continues to emerge as a leading cause for antiretroviral treatment failure. Several mutations in HIV reverse transcriptase (RT) confer resistance to non-nucleoside inhibitors (NNRTIs), vital components of antiretroviral combination therapies. Since the majority of mutations are located in the NNRTI binding pocket, crystal structures of RT variants in complex with NNRTIs have provided ideas for new drug design strategies. This article reviews the impact of RT crystal structures on the multidisciplinary design and development of new inhibitors with improved resistance profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Frey
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Arnold & Marie Schwartz College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, Long Island University, 75 Dekalb Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
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11
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Gray WT, Frey KM, Laskey SB, Mislak AC, Spasov KA, Lee WG, Bollini M, Siliciano RF, Jorgensen WL, Anderson KS. Potent Inhibitors Active against HIV Reverse Transcriptase with K101P, a Mutation Conferring Rilpivirine Resistance. ACS Med Chem Lett 2015; 6:1075-9. [PMID: 26487915 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.5b00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Catechol diether compounds have nanomolar antiviral and enzymatic activity against HIV with reverse transcriptase (RT) variants containing K101P, a mutation that confers high-level resistance to FDA-approved non-nucleoside inhibitors efavirenz and rilpivirine. Kinetic data suggests that RT (K101P) variants are as catalytically fit as wild-type and thus can potentially increase in the viral population as more antiviral regimens include efavirenz or rilpivirine. Comparison of wild-type structures and a new crystal structure of RT (K101P) in complex with a leading compound confirms that the K101P mutation is not a liability for the catechol diethers while suggesting that key interactions are lost with efavirenz and rilpivirine.
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Affiliation(s)
- William T. Gray
- Department
of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Kathleen M. Frey
- Department
of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Sarah B. Laskey
- Department
of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Andrea C. Mislak
- Department
of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Krasimir A. Spasov
- Department
of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Won-Gil Lee
- Department
of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06530-8107, United States
| | - Mariela Bollini
- Department
of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06530-8107, United States
| | - Robert F. Siliciano
- Department
of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - William L. Jorgensen
- Department
of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06530-8107, United States
| | - Karen S. Anderson
- Department
of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
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12
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Clay PG, Nag S, Graham CM, Narayanan S. Meta-Analysis of Studies Comparing Single and Multi-Tablet Fixed Dose Combination HIV Treatment Regimens. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015; 94:e1677. [PMID: 26496277 PMCID: PMC4620781 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000001677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Revised: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Availability of a single source review of once-daily fixed-dose single tablet regimen (STR) and multiple tablet fixed-dose regimen (MTR) would optimally inform healthcare providers and policy makers involved in the management of population with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).We conducted a meta-analysis of published literature to compare patient adherence, clinical, and cost outcomes of STR to MTR.Published literature in English between 2005 and 2014 was searched using Embase, PubMed (Medline in-process), and ClinicalTrials.Gov databases. Two-level screening was undertaken by 2 independent researchers to finalize articles for evidence synthesis. Adherence, efficacy, safety, tolerability, healthcare resource use (HRU), and costs were assessed comparing STR to MTR. A random-effects meta-analysis was performed and heterogeneity examined using meta-regression.Thirty-five articles were identified for qualitative evidence synthesis, of which 9 had quantifiable data for meta-analysis (4 randomized controlled trials and 5 observational studies). Patients on STR were significantly more adherent when compared to patients on MTR of any frequency (odds ratio [OR]: 2.37 [95% CI: 1.68, 3.35], P < 0.001; 4 studies), twice-daily MTR (OR: 2.53 [95% CI: 1.13, 5.66], P = 0.02; 2 studies), and once-daily MTR (OR: 1.81 [95% CI: 1.15, 2.84], P = 0.01; 2 studies). The relative risk (RR) for viral load suppression at 48 weeks was higher (RR: 1.09 [95% CI: 1.04, 1.15], P = .0003; 3 studies) while RR of grade 3 to 4 laboratory abnormalities was lower among patients on STR (RR: 0.68 [95% CI: 0.49, 0.94], P = 0.02; 2 studies). Changes in CD4 count at 48 weeks, any severe adverse events (SAEs), grade 3 to 4 AEs, mortality, and tolerability were found comparable between STR and MTR. Several studies reported significant reduction in HRU and costs among STR group versus MTR.Study depicted comparable tolerability, safety (All-SAE and Grade 3-4 AE), and mortality and fewer Grade 3 to 4 lab abnormalities and better viral load suppression and adherence among patients on FDC-containing STR versus MTR; literature depicted favorable HRU and costs for STRs.These findings may help decision makers especially in resource-poor settings to plan for optimal HIV disease management when the choice of both STRs and MTRs are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Clay
- From the University of North Texas System College of Pharmacy, Fort Worth, TX, USA (PGC) and Ipsos Healthcare, Global Evidence, Value and Access Center of Excellence, Washington, DC, USA (SN, CMG, SN)
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13
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Frey KM, Puleo DE, Spasov KA, Bollini M, Jorgensen WL, Anderson KS. Structure-based evaluation of non-nucleoside inhibitors with improved potency and solubility that target HIV reverse transcriptase variants. J Med Chem 2015; 58:2737-45. [PMID: 25700160 PMCID: PMC4378236 DOI: 10.1021/jm501908a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The
development of novel non-nucleoside inhibitors (NNRTIs) with
activity against variants of HIV reverse transcriptase (RT) is crucial
for overcoming treatment failure. The NNRTIs bind in an allosteric
pocket in RT ∼10 Å away from the active site. Earlier
analogues of the catechol diether compound series have picomolar activity
against HIV strains with wild-type RT but lose potency against variants
with single Y181C and double K103N/Y181C mutations. As guided by structure-based
and computational studies, removal of the 5-Cl substitution of compound 1 on the catechol aryl ring system led to a new analogue compound 2 that maintains greater potency against Y181C and K103N/Y181C
variants and better solubility (510 μg/mL). Crystal structures
were determined for wild-type, Y181C, and K103N/Y181C RT in complex
with both compounds 1 and 2 to understand
the structural basis for these findings. Comparison of the structures
reveals that the Y181C mutation destabilizes the binding mode of compound 1 and disrupts the interactions with residues in the pocket.
Compound 2 maintains the same conformation in wild-type
and mutant structures, in addition to several interactions with the
NNRTI binding pocket. Comparison of the six crystal structures will
assist in the understanding of compound binding modes and future optimization
of the catechol diether series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Frey
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - David E Puleo
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Krasimir A Spasov
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Mariella Bollini
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - William L Jorgensen
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
| | - Karen S Anderson
- †Department of Pharmacology, ‡Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8066, United States
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14
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Bioequivalence of a Dolutegravir, Abacavir, and Lamivudine Fixed-Dose Combination Tablet and the Effect of Food. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014; 66:393-8. [DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000000193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Chauvin B, Drouot S, Barrail-Tran A, Taburet AM. Drug-drug interactions between HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) and antiviral protease inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet 2014; 52:815-31. [PMID: 23703578 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-013-0075-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are a class of drugs also known as statins. These drugs are effective and widely prescribed for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and prevention of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Seven statins are currently available: atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin and simvastatin. Although these drugs are generally well tolerated, skeletal muscle abnormalities from myalgia to severe lethal rhabdomyolysis can occur. Factors that increase statin concentrations such as drug-drug interactions can increase the risk of these adverse events. Drug-drug interactions are dependent on statins' pharmacokinetic profile: simvastatin, lovastatin and atorvastatin are metabolized through cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A, while the metabolism of the other statins is independent of this CYP. All statins are substrate of organic anion transporter polypeptide 1B1, an uptake transporter expressed in hepatocyte membrane that may also explain some drug-drug interactions. Many HIV-infected patients have dyslipidemia and comorbidities that may require statin treatment. HIV-protease inhibitors (HIV PIs) are part of recommended antiretroviral treatment in combination with two reverse transcriptase inhibitors. All HIV PIs except nelfinavir are coadministered with a low dose of ritonavir, a potent CYP3A inhibitor to improve their pharmacokinetic properties. Cobicistat is a new potent CYP3A inhibitor that is combined with elvitegravir and will be combined with HIV-PIs in the future. The HCV-PIs boceprevir and telaprevir are both, to different extents, inhibitors of CYP3A. This review summarizes the pharmacokinetic properties of statins and PIs with emphasis on their metabolic pathways explaining clinically important drug-drug interactions. Simvastatin and lovastatin metabolized through CYP3A have the highest potency for drug-drug interaction with potent CYP3A inhibitors such as ritonavir- or cobicistat-boosted HIV-PI or the hepatitis C virus (HCV) PI, telaprevir or boceprevir, and therefore their coadministration is contraindicated. Atorvastatin is also a CYP3A substrate, but less potent drug-drug interactions have been reported with CYP3A inhibitors. Non-CYP3A-dependent statin concentrations are also affected although to a lesser extent when coadministered with HIV or HCV PIs, mainly through interaction with OATP1B1, and treatment should start with the lowest available statin dose. Effectiveness and occurrence of adverse effects should be monitored at regular time intervals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Chauvin
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bicêtre, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Sud AP/HP, 78 rue du Général Leclerc, 94270, Kremlin Bicêtre, France
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16
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Bam RA, Birkus G, Babusis D, Cihlar T, Yant SR. Metabolism and antiretroviral activity of tenofovir alafenamide in CD4+ T-cells and macrophages from demographically diverse donors. Antivir Ther 2014; 19:669-77. [PMID: 24625459 DOI: 10.3851/imp2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) is a novel investigational prodrug of tenofovir (TFV) that permits enhanced delivery of TFV into peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and lymphatic tissues. A critical step in the intracellular metabolic activation of TAF is mediated by the lysosomal protease cathepsin A (CatA). Here, we investigated CatA levels together with intracellular metabolism and antiretroviral activity of TAF in primary CD4+ T-lymphocytes (CD4s) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) isolated from a demographically diverse group of blood donors. METHODS CD4s and MDMs were prepared from fresh PBMCs. CatA levels were quantified in cell extracts by monitoring TAF hydrolysis using HPLC. Intracellular TAF metabolites were quantified by HPLC combined with mass spectrometry. Antiviral activities in activated CD4s and MDMs were determined using HIV-1 single-cycle reporter and p24 antigen production assays, respectively. RESULTS The levels of CatA and intracellular TAF metabolites differed minimally in CD4s and MDMs among 13 tested donors. TAF was >600-fold and 80-fold more potent than parent TFV in CD4s and MDMs, respectively, and its relative range of antiviral activity across all tested donors was comparable to that of other HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors, with mean ±sd (range) EC50 values of 11.0 ±3.4 (6.6-19.9) nM and 9.7 ±4.6 (2.5-15.7) nM in CD4s and MDMs, respectively. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate consistent intracellular metabolism and antiretroviral potency of TAF in relevant target cells of HIV-1 infection across multiple donors of variable gender, age and ethnicity, supporting further clinical investigation of TAF.
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17
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Skwara P, Bociąga-Jasik M, Kalinowska-Nowak A, Sobczyk-Krupiarz I, Garlicki A. Adherence to single-tablet versus multiple-tablet regimens in the treatment of HIV infection—A questionnaire-based survey on patients satisfaction. HIV & AIDS REVIEW 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hivar.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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18
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Arya V, Florian J, Marcus KA, Reynolds KS, Lewis LL, Sherwat AI. Does an increase in serum creatinine always reflect renal injury? The case of Stribild®. J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 54:279-281. [PMID: 24214102 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Single tablet, once-daily HIV treatment regimens offer patient convenience, the potential for increased adherence, and fewer patient-related dosing errors[1] . Stribild® (manufactured and marketed by Gilead Sciences; referred to as "applicant" in this report), a 4-drug fixed-dose combination (FDC) tablet, is approved for the treatment of HIV-1 infection in treatment-naïve adult patients. Stribild® contains elvitegravir (an integrase strand transfer inhibitor), cobicistat (an inhibitor of cytochrome P450 enzymes), and the nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors emtricitabine (FTC) and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Arya
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology 4, Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
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19
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Lee WG, Gallardo-Macias R, Frey KM, Spasov KA, Bollini M, Anderson KS, Jorgensen WL. Picomolar inhibitors of HIV reverse transcriptase featuring bicyclic replacement of a cyanovinylphenyl group. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:16705-13. [PMID: 24151856 PMCID: PMC3877923 DOI: 10.1021/ja408917n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Members of the catechol diether class are highly potent non-nucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (NNRTIs). The most active compounds yield EC50 values below 0.5 nM in assays using human T-cells infected by wild-type HIV-1. However, these compounds such as rilpivirine, the most recently FDA-approved NNRTI, bear a cyanovinylphenyl (CVP) group. This is an uncommon substructure in drugs that gives reactivity concerns. In the present work, computer simulations were used to design bicyclic replacements for the CVP group. The predicted viability of a 2-cyanoindolizinyl alternative was confirmed experimentally and provided compounds with 0.4 nM activity against the wild-type virus. The compounds also performed well with EC50 values of 10 nM against the challenging HIV-1 variant that contains the Lys103Asn/Tyr181Cys double mutation in the RT enzyme. Indolyl and benzofuranyl analogues were also investigated; the most potent compounds in these cases have EC50 values toward wild-type HIV-1 near 10 nM and high-nanomolar activities toward the double-variant. The structural expectations from the modeling were much enhanced by obtaining an X-ray crystal structure at 2.88 Å resolution for the complex of the parent 2-cyanoindolizine 10b and HIV-1 RT. The aqueous solubilities of the most potent indolizine analogues were also measured to be ~40 μg/mL, which is similar to that for the approved drug efavirenz and ~1000-fold greater than for rilpivirine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Gil Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107
| | | | - Kathleen M. Frey
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066
| | - Krasimir A. Spasov
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066
| | - Mariela Bollini
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107
| | - Karen S. Anderson
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8066
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20
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Bollini M, Cisneros JA, Spasov KA, Anderson KS, Jorgensen WL. Optimization of diarylazines as anti-HIV agents with dramatically enhanced solubility. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:5213-6. [PMID: 23937980 PMCID: PMC3759246 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.06.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase are reported that have ca. 100-fold greater solubility than the structurally related drugs etravirine and rilpivirine, while retaining high anti-viral activity. The solubility enhancements come from strategic placement of a morpholinylalkoxy substituent in the entrance channel of the NNRTI binding site. Compound 4d shows low-nanomolar activity similar to etravirine towards wild-type HIV-1 and key viral variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariela Bollini
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA
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21
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Long YQ, Huang SX, Zawahir Z, Xu ZL, Li H, Sanchez TW, Zhi Y, De Houwer S, Christ F, Debyser Z, Neamati N. Design of cell-permeable stapled peptides as HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. J Med Chem 2013; 56:5601-12. [PMID: 23758584 DOI: 10.1021/jm4006516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 integrase (IN) catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the host genome, involving several interactions with the viral and cellular proteins. We have previously identified peptide IN inhibitors derived from the α-helical regions along the dimeric interface of HIV-1 IN. Herein, we show that appropriate hydrocarbon stapling of these peptides to stabilize their helical structure remarkably improves the cell permeability, thus allowing inhibition of the HIV-1 replication in cell culture. Furthermore, the stabilized peptides inhibit the interaction of IN with the cellular cofactor LEDGF/p75. Cellular uptake of the stapled peptide was confirmed in four different cell lines using a fluorescein-labeled analogue. Given their enhanced potency and cell permeability, these stapled peptides can serve as not only lead IN inhibitors but also prototypical biochemical probes or "nanoneedles" for the elucidation of HIV-1 IN dimerization and host cofactor interactions within their native cellular environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qiu Long
- CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences , 555 Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai 201203, China
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22
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Goudreau N, Hucke O, Faucher AM, Grand-Maître C, Lepage O, Bonneau PR, Mason SW, Titolo S. Discovery and structural characterization of a new inhibitor series of HIV-1 nucleocapsid function: NMR solution structure determination of a ternary complex involving a 2:1 inhibitor/NC stoichiometry. J Mol Biol 2013; 425:1982-1998. [PMID: 23485336 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The nucleocapsid (NC) protein is an essential factor with multiple functions within the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication cycle. In this study, we describe the discovery of a novel series of inhibitors that targets HIV-1 NC protein by blocking its interaction with nucleic acids. This series was identified using a previously described capsid (CA) assembly assay, employing a recombinant HIV-1 CA-NC protein and immobilized TG-rich deoxyoligonucleotides. Using visible absorption spectroscopy, we were able to demonstrate that this new inhibitor series binds specifically and reversibly to the NC with a peculiar 2:1 stoichiometry. A fluorescence-polarization-based binding assay was also developed in order to monitor the inhibitory activities of this series of inhibitors. To better characterize the structural aspect of inhibitor binding onto NC, we performed NMR studies using unlabeled and (13)C,(15)N-double-labeled NC(1-55) protein constructs. This allowed the determination of the solution structure of a ternary complex characterized by two inhibitor molecules binding to the two zinc knuckles of the NC protein. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first report of a high-resolution structure of a small-molecule inhibitor bound to NC, demonstrating sub-micromolar potency and moderate antiviral potency with one analogue of the series. This structure was compared with available NC/oligonucleotide complex structures and further underlined the high flexibility of the NC protein, allowing it to adopt many conformations in order to bind its different oligonucleotide/nucleomimetic targets. In addition, analysis of the interaction details between the inhibitor molecules and NC demonstrated how this novel inhibitor series is mimicking the guanosine nucleobases found in many reported complex structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Goudreau
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5.
| | - Oliver Hucke
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5.
| | - Anne-Marie Faucher
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
| | - Chantal Grand-Maître
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
| | - Olivier Lepage
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
| | - Pierre R Bonneau
- Department of Chemistry, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
| | - Stephen W Mason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
| | - Steve Titolo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Research & Development, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, QC, Canada H7S 2G5
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23
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Goudreau N, Coulombe R, Faucher AM, Grand-Maître C, Lacoste JE, Lemke CT, Malenfant E, Bousquet Y, Fader L, Simoneau B, Mercier JF, Titolo S, Mason SW. Monitoring binding of HIV-1 capsid assembly inhibitors using (19)F ligand-and (15)N protein-based NMR and X-ray crystallography: early hit validation of a benzodiazepine series. ChemMedChem 2013; 8:405-14. [PMID: 23401268 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of resistance to existing classes of antiretroviral drugs underlines the need to find novel human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 targets for drug discovery. The viral capsid protein (CA) represents one such potential target. Recently, a series of benzodiazepine inhibitors was identified via high-throughput screening using an in vitro capsid assembly assay (CAA). Here, we demonstrate how a combination of NMR and X-ray co-crystallography allowed for the rapid characterization of the early hits from this inhibitor series. Ligand-based (19)F NMR was used to confirm inhibitor binding specificity and reversibility as well as to identify the N-terminal domain of the capsid (CA(NTD)) as its molecular target. Protein-based NMR ((1)H and (15)N chemical shift perturbation analysis) identified key residues within the CA(NTD) involved in inhibitor binding, while X-ray co-crystallography confirmed the inhibitor binding site and its binding mode. Based on these results, two conformationally restricted cyclic inhibitors were designed to further validate the possible binding modes. These studies were crucial to early hit confirmation and subsequent lead optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Goudreau
- Dept. of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Research & Development, Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd, 2100 Cunard Street, Laval, Québec, H7S 2G5, Canada.
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