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K R, S VK, Saravanan P, Rajeshkannan R, Rajasimman M, Kamyab H, Vasseghian Y. Exploring the diverse applications of Carbohydrate macromolecules in food, pharmaceutical, and environmental technologies. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 240:117521. [PMID: 37890825 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Carbohydrates are a class of macromolecules that has significant potential across several domains, including the organisation of genetic material, provision of structural support, and facilitation of defence mechanisms against invasion. Their molecular diversity enables a vast array of essential functions, such as energy storage, immunological signalling, and the modification of food texture and consistency. Due to their rheological characteristics, solubility, sweetness, hygroscopicity, ability to prevent crystallization, flavour encapsulation, and coating capabilities, carbohydrates are useful in food products. Carbohydrates hold potential for the future of therapeutic development due to their important role in sustained drug release, drug targeting, immune antigens, and adjuvants. Bio-based packaging provides an emerging phase of materials that offer biodegradability and biocompatibility, serving as a substitute for traditional non-biodegradable polymers used as coatings on paper. Blending polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) with carbohydrate biopolymers, such as starch, cellulose, polylactic acid, etc., reduces the undesirable qualities of PHA, such as crystallinity and brittleness, and enhances the PHA's properties in addition to minimizing manufacturing costs. Carbohydrate-based biopolymeric nanoparticles are a viable and cost-effective way to boost agricultural yields, which is crucial for the increasing global population. The use of biopolymeric nanoparticles derived from carbohydrates is a potential and economically viable approach to enhance the quality and quantity of agricultural harvests, which is of utmost importance given the developing global population. The carbohydrate biopolymers may play in plant protection against pathogenic fungi by inhibiting spore germination and mycelial growth, may act as effective elicitors inducing the plant immune system to cope with pathogens. Furthermore, they can be utilised as carriers in controlled-release formulations of agrochemicals or other active ingredients, offering an alternative approach to conventional fungicides. It is expected that this review provides an extensive summary of the application of carbohydrates in the realms of food, pharmaceuticals, and environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramaprabha K
- School of Bio-Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Venkat Kumar S
- Department of Petrochemical Technology, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, 620 024, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Panchamoorthy Saravanan
- Department of Petrochemical Technology, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, 620 024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - R Rajeshkannan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, 608002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - M Rajasimman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, 608002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Hesam Kamyab
- Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, UTE University, Calle Rumipamba S/N and Bourgeois, Quito, Ecuador; Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, 600 077, India; Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT), Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Yasser Vasseghian
- Department of Chemistry, Soongsil University, Seoul, 06978, South Korea; School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon; University Centre for Research & Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India.
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Luo J, Zhang Z, Zhao S, Gao R. A Comparison of Etiology, Pathogenesis, Vaccinal and Antiviral Drug Development between Influenza and COVID-19. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076369. [PMID: 37047339 PMCID: PMC10094131 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza virus and coronavirus, two kinds of pathogens that exist widely in nature, are common emerging pathogens that cause respiratory tract infections in humans. In December 2019, a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 emerged, causing a severe respiratory infection named COVID-19 in humans, and raising a global pandemic which has persisted in the world for almost three years. Influenza virus, a seasonally circulating respiratory pathogen, has caused four global pandemics in humans since 1918 by the emergence of novel variants. Studies have shown that there are certain similarities in transmission mode and pathogenesis between influenza and COVID-19, and vaccination and antiviral drugs are considered to have positive roles as well as several limitations in the prevention and control of both diseases. Comparative understandings would be helpful to the prevention and control of these diseases. Here, we review the study progress in the etiology, pathogenesis, vaccine and antiviral drug development for the two diseases.
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In Silico Studies Reveal Peramivir and Zanamivir as an Optimal Drug Treatment Even If H7N9 Avian Type Influenza Virus Acquires Further Resistance. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27185920. [PMID: 36144655 PMCID: PMC9503969 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27185920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An epidemic of avian type H7N9 influenza virus, which took place in China in 2013, was enhanced by a naturally occurring R294K mutation resistant against Oseltamivir at the catalytic site of the neuraminidase. To cope with such drug-resistant neuraminidase mutations, we applied the molecular docking technique to evaluate the fitness of the available drugs such as Oseltamivir, Zanamivir, Peramivir, Laninamivir, L-Arginine and Benserazide hydrochloride concerning the N9 enzyme with single (R294K, R119K, R372K), double (R119_294K, R119_372K, R294_372K) and triple (R119_294_372K) mutations in the pocket. We found that the drugs Peramivir and Zanamivir score best amongst the studied compounds, demonstrating their high binding potential towards the pockets with the considered mutations. Despite the fact that mutations changed the shape of the pocket and reduced the binding strength for all drugs, Peramivir was the only drug that formed interactions with the key residues at positions 119, 294 and 372 in the pocket of the triple N9 mutant, while Zanamivir demonstrated the lowest RMSD value (0.7 Å) with respect to the reference structure.
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Su S, Wang C. Molybdenum-Catalyzed Diastereoselective anti-Dihydroxylation of Secondary Allylic Alcohols. Org Lett 2019; 21:2436-2440. [PMID: 30896180 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b00735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this protocol, we report a Mo-catalyzed anti-dihydroxylation of secondary allylic alcohols, providing a general method for the preparation of 1,2,3-triols bearing up to three continuous stereocenters with excellent diastereocontrol. The mechanistic studies reveal that this dihydroxylation reaction consists of two steps and up to excellent diastereomeric ratios of the final triol products can be achieved due to the high level of both diastereocontrol in the initial epoxidation and regiocontrol in the following hydrolysis in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shixia Su
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei , Anhui 230026 , P. R. China
| | - Chuan Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei , Anhui 230026 , P. R. China
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Antiviral Drugs for Influenza and Other Respiratory Virus Infections. MANDELL, DOUGLAS, AND BENNETT'S PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2015. [PMCID: PMC7152365 DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4557-4801-3.00044-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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He G, Dong C, Luan Z, McAllan BM, Xu T, Zhao L, Qiao J. Oxygen free radical involvement in acute lung injury induced by H5N1 virus in mice. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013; 7:945-53. [PMID: 23336583 PMCID: PMC4634282 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute lung injury is an important cause of death in humans infected with H5N1. It has been found that oxygen free radicals (OFRs) are elevated in lung tissue during influenza virus infections. In this study, we used a mouse model to explore the role of OFRs in acute lung injury caused by H5N1 viral infection. Methods Four‐ to six‐week‐old male specific pathogen‐free BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally with 105 50% tissue culture infective doses (TCID50) of highly pathogenic A/Chicken/Hebei/108/2002 (H5N1) viruses and were then given 1000 IU of lauric acid modified superoxide dismutase (LA‐SOD) by intraperitoneal injection, starting 2 days post‐infection and continuing for 6 days. Results The extent of lung injury and the concentration of OFRs were higher, and the SOD activity was lower in H5N1 virus‐infected mice than that in uninfected control mice on days 3, 6, and 7 post‐inoculation. Weak amelioration of clinical signs, a minor decrease in the total mortality and the extent of lung injury, and the lower OFRs concentration were seen in the LA‐SOD treatment group, but a reduction in lung virus titers was not observed in the LA‐SOD treatment at all time points. Conclusions The LA‐SOD treatment has a mild inhibitory effect on H5N1 influenza virus infection in mice. OFRs, therefore, might play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury induced by H5N1 virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guimei He
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China; Institute of Molecular Ecology and Evolution, Institutes for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
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Seco JM, Quiñoá E, Riguera R. Assignment of the Absolute Configuration of Polyfunctional Compounds by NMR Using Chiral Derivatizing Agents. Chem Rev 2012; 112:4603-41. [DOI: 10.1021/cr2003344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. M. Seco
- Department of Organic
Chemistry and Center for Research in Biological
Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CIQUS), University of Santiago
de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - E. Quiñoá
- Department of Organic
Chemistry and Center for Research in Biological
Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CIQUS), University of Santiago
de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - R. Riguera
- Department of Organic
Chemistry and Center for Research in Biological
Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CIQUS), University of Santiago
de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Zhu XB, Wang M, Wang S, Yao ZJ. Concise synthesis of zanamivir and its C4-thiocarbamido derivatives utilizing a [3+2]-cycloadduct derived from d-glucono-δ-lactone. Tetrahedron 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Abstract
Abstract
In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in the biological roles of carbohydrates and as a result it is now known that carbohydrates are involved in a vast array of disease processes. This review summarises progress in the development of carbohydrate-based therapeutics that involve: inhibition of carbohydrate-lectin interactions; immunisation, using monoclonal antibodies for carbohydrate antigens; inhibition of enzymes that synthesise disease-associated carbohydrates; replacement of carbohydrate-processing enzymes; targeting of drugs to specific disease cells via carbohydrate-lectin interactions; carbohydrate based anti-thrombotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen M I Osborn
- School of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, UK.
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Abstract
The elucidation of the precise molecular structure and dynamics of biological processes is the great work of biochemistry. From this, insights into the changes leading to process dysfunction or disease are derived, as well as the possible approaches to restore healthy function. Translating this information into effective and safe treatments for disease requires a coordinated interdisciplinary effort, a fusion of creativity and practicality, and a healthy dose of luck. Using several reviews in this volume as springboards, I discuss the broader issues of drug development, highlighting some recent successes and future directions. Such occurrences inspire awe but remain too rare for comfort.
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Magano J. Synthetic Approaches to the Neuraminidase Inhibitors Zanamivir (Relenza) and Oseltamivir Phosphate (Tamiflu) for the Treatment of Influenza. Chem Rev 2009; 109:4398-438. [DOI: 10.1021/cr800449m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Magano
- Pfizer Global Research & Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340
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Abstract
Viruses, particularly those that are harmful to humans, are the 'silent terrorists' of the twenty-first century. Well over four million humans die per annum as a result of viral infections alone. The scourge of influenza virus has plagued mankind throughout the ages. The fact that new viral strains emerge on a regular basis, particularly out of Asia, establishes a continual socio-economic threat to mankind. The arrival of the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 heightened the threat of a potential human pandemic to the point where many countries have put in place 'preparedness plans' to defend against such an outcome. The discovery of the first designer influenza virus sialidase inhibitor and anti-influenza drug Relenza, and subsequently Tamiflu, has now inspired a number of continuing efforts towards the discovery of next generation anti-influenza drugs. Such drugs may act as 'first-line-of-defence' against the spread of influenza infection and buy time for necessary vaccine development particularly in a human pandemic setting. Furthermore, the fact that influenza virus can develop resistance to therapeutics makes these continuing efforts extremely important. An overview of the role of the virus-associated glycoprotein sialidase (neuraminidase) and some of the most recent developments towards the discovery of anti-influenza drugs based on the inhibition of influenza virus sialidase is provided in this chapter.
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He G, Qiao J, Dong C, He C, Zhao L, Tian Y. Amantadine-resistance among H5N1 avian influenza viruses isolated in Northern China. Antiviral Res 2008; 77:72-6. [PMID: 17897729 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 08/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We tested the amantadine-resistance among avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses isolated from chicken in Hebei Province of Northern China from 2001 to 2005, and investigated the amantadine use in this area. Plague reduction assay in MDCK cells showed that 83.3% isolates (5/6) were amantadine-resistant strains. The M2 sequence analysis revealed that four of five resistant isolates contained the point mutations (Ser to Asn) at position 31 that could confer resistance to amantadine. These results indicated that the incidence of amantadine-resistant viruses isolated in Northern China was particularly high. In the investigation of amantadine use, we found that amantadine was used extensively in poultry farms in this area, which maybe was one of reasons of the high amantadine-resistance incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guimei He
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100094, People's Republic of China.
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Abstract
Zanamivir and oseltamivir, the currently marketed influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs), are prescribed for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza and are being stockpiled for pandemic influenza. Oseltamivir resistance has been reported in up to 2% of patients in clinical trials of oseltamivir and in up to 18% of treated children. There are also reports in at least three patients treated with oseltamivir for influenza A (H5N1) infections. At this stage, there are no reports of resistance occurring to zanamivir in immunocompetent patients. Zanamivir and oseltamivir bind differently at the neuraminidase catalytic site and this contributes to different drug resistance profiles. The magnitude and duration of NAI concentrations at the site of infection are also expected to be important factors and are determined by route and timing of drug administration, dose, and pharmacokinetic differences between patients. In addition, the type, strain, and virulence of the influenza strain and the nature of the immune response all appear to play a role in determining the likelihood of drug resistance arising. The clinical significance of a particular NAI-resistant isolate from a patient is often not clear but virus viability and transmissibility are clearly important characteristics. Early initiation of NAI treatment in suspected cases of influenza is important for maximizing efficacy and minimizing the risk of drug resistance. Higher NAI doses and longer periods of treatment may be required for patients with influenza A (H5N1) infections but further work is needed in this area.
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Badia Llach X, Roset Gamisans M, Francés Tudel JM, Álvarez Sanz C, Rubio Terrés C. [Study of flu costs]. Aten Primaria 2007; 38:260-7. [PMID: 17020710 PMCID: PMC7668850 DOI: 10.1157/13092984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the costs of influenza epidemics in Spanish society. DESIGN Observational, longitudinal, and multi-centre study of healthcare and non-healthcare resource use associated with flu. SETTING Two primary care centres, 3 hospital emergency services, and the medical service at an old people's home. PARTICIPANTS A total of 662 individuals diagnosed with flu who attended MAIN MEASUREMENTS Direct and indirect costs of flu in Spanish society. RESULTS The 60.7% of diagnosed cases of flu included in the study came from hospital emergency services, 36.9% from primary health care centres, and 2.4% from an old people's home. During the epidemic period, flu in Spain costs about 1036.9 million euros, taking incidence at 7.9%. Flu-derived costs are higher in over-65 and chronic patients. CONCLUSIONS Influenza costs fall mainly on hospitals and work through time off. The cost of flu is higher among patients considered to be risk groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Badia Llach
- Health Outcomes Research Europe. Barcelona. España
- Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau. Barcelona. España
| | - Montserrat Roset Gamisans
- Health Outcomes Research Europe. Barcelona. España
- Correspondencia: M. Roset Gamisans. Health Outcomes Research Europe. Avda. Diagonal, 618, 1.° C-D. 08021 Barcelona. España.
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Abstract
Zanamivir is the first of two registered neuraminidase inhibitors for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza. Relenza, an orally inhaled powder form of zanamivir, is currently approved in 19 countries for treatment, and in two for prophylaxis. Relenza reduces the time to alleviation of symptoms by 1 to 2 days in the influenza-positive population, if taken within 48 h of symptom onset, and in prophylaxis in family settings, it confers an 80% reduction in the odds of contracting influenza. The resistance profile of zanamivir is encouraging in the sense that there are still no reports of patients on acute therapy shedding drug-resistant virus. However, patient uptake of the inhaled drug has been insufficient to conclude that drug resistance will not be an issue in the future. All zanamivir-resistant variants selected in the laboratory so far have diminished viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Colman
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research , 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, 3050, Australia.
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Abstract
Seasonal influenza causes significant morbidity and mortality in adults and children. However, a worldwide influenza pandemic could cause considerably more deaths (20-40 million) and would majorly disrupt everyday life in most countries. Oseltamivir has proven to be safe and effective for the prevention or treatment of all known influenza subtypes, reducing the severity and duration of symptoms, the complications arising from influenza infection (pneumonia, hospitalisation, antibiotic use) and mortality. Oseltamivir has been shown to be effective against pandemic strains of influenza, including the currently circulating strain (H5N1). As a result, the World Health Organization has recommended the stockpiling of oseltamivir in the event of an influenza pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Oxford
- Retroscreen Virology Limited, The Medical Building, Queen Mary, University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK.
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Liu KG, Yan S, Wu YL, Yao ZJ. Synthesis of 4-azido-4-deoxy-Neu5,7,8,9Ac42en1Me. A key intermediate for the synthesis of GG167 from D-glucono-delta-lactone. Org Lett 2005; 6:2269-72. [PMID: 15200337 DOI: 10.1021/ol0491890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[reaction: see text] Stereoselective synthesis of 5-acetamido-7,8,9-tri-O-acetyl-2,6-anhydro-4-azido-3,4,5-trideoxy-D-glycero-D-galacto-non-2-enonic acid methyl ester, an advanced key intermediate for the synthesis of neuraminidase inhibitor GG167 (Zanamivir, Relenza), was accomplished using D-glucono-delta-lactone as starting material. A highly diastereoselective allyllation of an imine intermediate, a regioselective azide-opening of an aziridine, and chemoselective oxidations of vicinal diols served successfully as key steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Product Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 354 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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Baskin CR, García-Sastre A, Tumpey TM, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Carter VS, Nistal-Villán E, Katze MG. Integration of clinical data, pathology, and cDNA microarrays in influenza virus-infected pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). J Virol 2004; 78:10420-32. [PMID: 15367608 PMCID: PMC516400 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.19.10420-10432.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
For most severe viral pandemics such as influenza and AIDS, the exact contribution of individual viral genes to pathogenicity is still largely unknown. A necessary step toward that understanding is a systematic comparison of different influenza virus strains at the level of transcriptional regulation in the host as a whole and interpretation of these complex genetic changes in the context of multifactorial clinical outcomes and pathology. We conducted a study by infecting pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) with a genetically reconstructed strain of human influenza H1N1 A/Texas/36/91 virus and hypothesized not only that these animals would respond to the virus similarly to humans, but that gene expression patterns in the lungs and tracheobronchial lymph nodes would fit into a coherent and complete picture of the host-virus interactions during infection. The disease observed in infected macaques simulated uncomplicated influenza in humans. Clinical signs and an antibody response appeared with induction of interferon and B-cell activation pathways, respectively. Transcriptional activation of inflammatory cells and apoptotic pathways coincided with gross and histopathological signs of inflammation, with tissue damage and concurrent signs of repair. Additionally, cDNA microarrays offered new evidence of the importance of cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells throughout infection. With this experiment, we confirmed the suitability of the nonhuman primate model in the quest for understanding the individual and joint contributions of viral genes to influenza virus pathogenesis by using cDNA microarray technology and a reverse genetics approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole R Baskin
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Box 358070, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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