Applications of biosensing atomic force microscopy in monitoring drug and nanoparticle delivery

Characterization Methods for Nanoparticle-Skin Interactions: An Overview

Research progresses have led to the development of different kinds of nanoplatforms to deliver drugs through different biological membranes. Particularly, nanocarriers represent a precious means to treat skin pathologies, due to their capability to solubilize lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs, to control their release, and to promote their permeation through the stratum corneum barrier. A crucial point in the development of nano-delivery systems relies on their characterization, as well as in the assessment of their interaction with tissues, in order to predict their fate under in vivo administration. The size of nanoparticles, their shape, and the type of matrix can influence their biodistribution inside the skin strata and their cellular uptake. In this respect, an overview of some characterization methods employed to investigate nanoparticles intended for topical administration is presented here, namely dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy. In addition, the main fluorescence methods employed to detect the in vitro nanoparticles interaction with skin cell lines, such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting or confocal imaging, are described, considering different examples of applications. Finally, recent studies on the techniques employed to determine the nanoparticle presence in the skin by ex vivo and in vivo models are reported.

Factors affecting the preparation of nanocrystals: characterization, surface modifications and toxicity aspects

INTRODUCTION

The fabrication of well-defined nanocrystals in size and form is the focus of much investigation. In this work, we have critically reviewed several recent instances from the literature that shows how the production procedure affects the physicochemical properties of the nanocrystals.

AREAS COVERED

Scopus, MedLine, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-review articles published in the past few years using different key words. Authors chose relevant publications from their files for this review. This review focuses on the range of techniques available for producing nanocrystals. We draw attention to several recent instances demonstrating the impact of various process and formulation variables that affect the nanocrystals' physicochemical properties. Moreover, various developments in the characterization techniques explored for nanocrystals concerning their size, morphology, etc. have been discussed. Last but not least, recent applications, the effect of surface modifications, and the toxicological traits of nanocrystals have also been reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

The selection of an appropriate production method for the formation of nanocrystals, together with a deep understanding of the relationship between the drug's physicochemical properties, unique features of the various formulation alternatives, and anticipated in-vivo performance, would significantly reduce the risk of failure during human clinical trials that are inadequate.

Nucleic acid-based electrochemical biosensors for rapid clinical diagnosis: advances, challenges, and opportunities

Clinical diagnostic tests should be quick, reliable, simple to perform, and affordable for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In this regard, owing to their novel properties, biosensors have attracted the attention of scientists as well as end-users. They are efficient, stable, and relatively cheap. Biosensors have broad applications in medical diagnosis, including point-of-care (POC) monitoring, forensics, and biomedical research. The electrochemical nucleic acid (NA) biosensor, the latest invention in this field, combines the sensitivity of electroanalytical methods with the inherent bioselectivity of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The NA biosensor exploits the affinity of single-stranded DNA/RNA for its complementary strand and is used to detect complementary sequences of NA based on hybridization. After the NA component in the sensor detects the analyte, a catalytic reaction or binding event that generates an electrical signal in the transducer ensues. Since 2000, much progress has been made in this field, but there are still numerous challenges. This critical review describes the advances, challenges, and prospects of NA-based electrochemical biosensors for clinical diagnosis. It includes the basic principles, classification, sensing enhancement strategies, and applications of biosensors as well as their advantages, limitations, and future prospects, and thus it should be useful to academics as well as industry in the improvement and application of EC NA biosensors.

Biosensing, Characterization of Biosensors, and Improved Drug Delivery Approaches Using Atomic Force Microscopy: A Review

Since its invention, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has come forth as a powerful member of the “scanning probe microscopy” (SPM) family and an unparallel platform for high-resolution imaging and characterization for inorganic and organic samples, especially biomolecules, biosensors, proteins, DNA, and live cells. AFM characterizes any sample by measuring interaction force between the AFM cantilever tip (the probe) and the sample surface, and it is advantageous over other SPM and electron micron microscopy techniques as it can visualize and characterize samples in liquid, ambient air, and vacuum. Therefore, it permits visualization of three-dimensional surface profiles of biological specimens in the near-physiological environment without sacrificing their native structures and functions and without using laborious sample preparation protocols such as freeze-drying, staining, metal coating, staining, or labeling. Biosensors are devices comprising a biological or biologically extracted material (assimilated in a physicochemical transducer) that are utilized to yield electronic signal proportional to the specific analyte concentration. These devices utilize particular biochemical reactions moderated by isolated tissues, enzymes, organelles, and immune system for detecting chemical compounds via thermal, optical, or electrical signals. Other than performing high-resolution imaging and nanomechanical characterization (e.g., determining Young’s modulus, adhesion, and deformation) of biosensors, AFM cantilever (with a ligand functionalized tip) can be transformed into a biosensor (microcantilever-based biosensors) to probe interactions with a particular receptors of choice on live cells at a single-molecule level (using AFM-based single-molecule force spectroscopy techniques) and determine interaction forces and binding kinetics of ligand receptor interactions. Targeted drug delivery systems or vehicles composed of nanoparticles are crucial in novel therapeutics. These systems leverage the idea of targeted delivery of the drug to the desired locations to reduce side effects. AFM is becoming an extremely useful tool in figuring out the topographical and nanomechanical properties of these nanoparticles and other drug delivery carriers. AFM also helps determine binding probabilities and interaction forces of these drug delivery carriers with the targeted receptors and choose the better agent for drug delivery vehicle by introducing competitive binding. In this review, we summarize contributions made by us and other researchers so far that showcase AFM as biosensors, to characterize other sensors, to improve drug delivery approaches, and to discuss future possibilities.

Optically Manipulated Microtools to Measure Adhesion of the Nanoparticle-Targeting Ligand Glutathione to Brain Endothelial Cells

Targeting nanoparticles as drug delivery platforms is crucial to facilitate their cellular entry. Docking of nanoparticles by targeting ligands on cell membranes is the first step for the initiation of cellular uptake. As a model system, we studied brain microvascular endothelial cells, which form the anatomical basis of the blood-brain barrier, and the tripeptide glutathione, one of the most effective targeting ligands of nanoparticles to cross the blood-brain barrier. To investigate this initial docking step between glutathione and the membrane of living brain endothelial cells, we applied our recently developed innovative optical method. We present a microtool, with a task-specific geometry used as a probe, actuated by multifocus optical tweezers to characterize the adhesion probability and strength of glutathione-coated surfaces to the cell membrane of endothelial cells. The binding probability of the glutathione-coated surface and the adhesion force between the microtool and cell membrane was measured in a novel arrangement: cells were cultured on a vertical polymer wall and the mechanical forces were generated laterally and at the same time, perpendicularly to the plasma membrane. The adhesion force values were also determined with more conventional atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements using functionalized colloidal probes. The optical trapping-based method was found to be suitable to measure very low adhesion forces (≤ 20 pN) without a high level of noise, which is characteristic for AFM measurements in this range. The holographic optical tweezers-directed functionalized microtools may help characterize the adhesion step of nanoparticles initiating transcytosis and select ligands to target nanoparticles.

Polymeric micelles in drug delivery: An insight of the techniques for their characterization and assessment in biorelevant conditions

Polymeric micelles, i.e. aggregation colloids formed in solution by self-assembling of amphiphilic polymers, represent an innovative tool to overcome several issues related to drug administration, from the low water-solubility to the poor drug permeability across biological barriers. With respect to other nanocarriers, polymeric micelles generally display smaller size, easier preparation and sterilization processes, and good solubilization properties, unfortunately associated with a lower stability in biological fluids and a more complicated characterization. Particularly challenging is the study of their interaction with the biological environment, essential to predict the real in vivo behavior after administration. In this review, after a general presentation on micelles features and properties, different characterization techniques are discussed, from the ones used for the determination of micelles basic characteristics (critical micellar concentration, size, surface charge, morphology) to the more complex approaches used to figure out micelles kinetic stability, drug release and behavior in the presence of biological substrates (fluids, cells and tissues). The techniques presented (such as dynamic light scattering, AFM, cryo-TEM, X-ray scattering, FRET, symmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) and density ultracentrifugation), each one with their own advantages and limitations, can be combined to achieve a deeper comprehension of polymeric micelles in vivo behavior. The set-up and validation of adequate methods for micelles description represent the essential starting point for their development and clinical success.

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging in Turbid Liquids: A Promising Tool in Nanomedicine

Tracking of biological and physiological processes on the nanoscale is a central part of the growing field of nanomedicine. Although atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the most appropriate techniques in this area, investigations in non-transparent fluids such as human blood are not possible with conventional AFMs due to limitations caused by the optical readout. Here, we show a promising approach based on self-sensing cantilevers (SSC) as a replacement for optical readout in biological AFM imaging. Piezo-resistors, in the form of a Wheatstone bridge, are embedded into the cantilever, whereas two of them are placed at the bending edge. This enables the deflection of the cantilever to be precisely recorded by measuring the changes in resistance. Furthermore, the conventional acoustic or magnetic vibration excitation in intermittent contact mode can be replaced by a thermal excitation using a heating loop. We show further developments of existing approaches enabling stable measurements in turbid liquids. Different readout and excitation methods are compared under various environmental conditions, ranging from dry state to human blood. To demonstrate the applicability of our laser-free bio-AFM for nanomedical research, we have selected the hemostatic process of blood coagulation as well as ultra-flat red blood cells in different turbid fluids. Furthermore, the effects on noise and scanning speed of different media are compared. The technical realization is shown (1) on a conventional optical beam deflection (OBD)-based AFM, where we replaced the optical part by a new SSC nose cone, and (2) on an all-electric AFM, which we adapted for measurements in turbid liquids.

The bioconjugation of DNA with gold nanoparticles towards the spectrophotometric genosensing of pathogenic bacteria

The investigation of important bio-molecular events such as expression of special genes has shown promise with the advent of nanotechnology.

Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy for Probing Cell Targeted Nanoparticles In Vitro

In the development and design of cell targeted nanoparticle-based systems the density of targeting moieties plays a fundamental role in allowing maximal cell-specific interaction. Here, we describe the use of molecular recognition force spectroscopy as a valuable tool for the characterization and optimization of targeted nanoparticles toward attaining cell-specific interaction. By tailoring the density of targeting moieties at the nanoparticle surface, one can correlate the unbinding event probability between nanoparticles tethered to an atomic force microscopy tip and cells to the nanoparticle vectoring capacity. This novel approach allows for a rapid and cost-effective design of targeted nanomedicines reducing the need for long and tedious in vitro tests.

Mechanical determination of particle–cell interactions and the associated biomedical applications

Mechanical determination of particle–cell interactions and the associated biomedical applications.

Ampholytic starch excipients for high loaded drug formulations: Mechanistic insights

Ampholytic starch derivatives are proposed as a new class of excipients carrying simultaneously anionic carboxymethyl (CM) and cationic aminoethyl (AE) groups on starch (St) polymeric chains. Three different types of derivatives were obtained by using the same reagents and varying only the order of their addition in the reaction medium: in one step method (OS) the two reactants were added simultaneously, whereas in two steps method (TS) either CMSt or AESt were prepared separately in the first step, followed by subsequent addition of the second reactant. It was found that all ampholytic derivatives were able to generate monolithic tablets by direct compression and allowed 60% loading of acidic (Acetylsalicylic acid), basic (Metformin), zwitterion (Mesalamine) or neutral (Acetaminophen) as drug models. The in vitro dissolution tests followed for 2 h in SGF and then in SIF, showed that the mentioned starch derivatives were stabilized by self-assembling and generated matrices able to control the release of drugs for about 24 h. The addition order of reagents has an impact on ampholytic starch properties offering thus a high versatility of this new class of starch excipients that can be tailored for challenging formulations with high dosages of several drugs.

Atomic Force Microscopy as a Tool to Assess the Specificity of Targeted Nanoparticles in Biological Models of High Complexity

The ability to design nanoparticle delivery systems capable of selectively target their payloads to specific cell populations is still a major caveat in nanomedicine. One of the main hurdles is the fact that each nanoparticle formulation needs to be precisely tuned to match the specificities of the target cell and route of administration. In this work, molecular recognition force spectroscopy (MRFS) is presented as a tool to evaluate the specificity of neuron-targeted trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles to neuronal cell populations in biological samples of different complexity. The use of atomic force microscopy tips functionalized with targeted or non-targeted nanoparticles made it possible to assess the specific interaction of each formulation with determined cell surface receptors in a precise fashion. More importantly, the combination of MRFS with fluorescent microscopy allowed to probe the nanoparticles vectoring capacity in models of high complexity, such as primary mixed cultures, as well as specific subcellular regions in histological tissues. Overall, this work contributes for the establishment of MRFS as a powerful alternative technique to animal testing in vector design and opens new avenues for the development of advanced targeted nanomedicines.

Characterization of the specific interaction between the DNA aptamer sgc8c and protein tyrosine kinase-7 receptors at the surface of T-cells by biosensing AFM

We studied the interaction of the specific DNA aptamer sgc8c immobilized at the AFM tip with its corresponding receptor, the protein tyrosine kinase-7 (PTK7) embedded in the membrane of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells (Jurkat T-cells). Performing single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) experiments, we showed that the aptamer sgc8c bound with high probability (38.3 ± 7.48%) and high specificity to PTK7, as demonstrated by receptor blocking experiments and through comparison with the binding behavior of a nonspecific aptamer. The determined kinetic off-rate (k_off = 5.16 s⁻¹) indicates low dissociation of the sgc8c–PTK7 complex. In addition to the pulling force experiments, simultaneous topography and recognition imaging (TREC) experiments using AFM tips functionalized with sgc8c aptamers were realized on the outer regions surface of surface-immobilized Jurkat cells for the first time. This allowed determination of the distribution of PTK7 without any labeling and at near physiological conditions. As a result, we could show a homogeneous distribution of PTK7 molecules on the outer regions of ALL cells with a surface density of 325 ± 12 PTK7 receptors (or small receptor clusters) per μm².

Graphical Abstract

DLS and zeta potential - What they are and what they are not?

Adequate characterization of NPs (nanoparticles) is of paramount importance to develop well defined nanoformulations of therapeutic relevance. Determination of particle size and surface charge of NPs are indispensable for proper characterization of NPs. DLS (dynamic light scattering) and ZP (zeta potential) measurements have gained popularity as simple, easy and reproducible tools to ascertain particle size and surface charge. Unfortunately, on practical grounds plenty of challenges exist regarding these two techniques including inadequate understanding of the operating principles and dealing with critical issues like sample preparation and interpretation of the data. As both DLS and ZP have emerged from the realms of physical colloid chemistry - it is difficult for researchers engaged in nanomedicine research to master these two techniques. Additionally, there is little literature available in drug delivery research which offers a simple, concise account on these techniques. This review tries to address this issue while providing the fundamental principles of these techniques, summarizing the core mathematical principles and offering practical guidelines on tackling commonly encountered problems while running DLS and ZP measurements. Finally, the review tries to analyze the relevance of these two techniques from translatory perspective.

Recent Advances in Biosensor Technology for Potential Applications - An Overview

Imperative utilization of biosensors has acquired paramount importance in the field of drug discovery, biomedicine, food safety standards, defense, security, and environmental monitoring. This has led to the invention of precise and powerful analytical tools using biological sensing element as biosensor. Glucometers utilizing the strategy of electrochemical detection of oxygen or hydrogen peroxide using immobilized glucose oxidase electrode seeded the discovery of biosensors. Recent advances in biological techniques and instrumentation involving fluorescence tag to nanomaterials have increased the sensitive limit of biosensors. Use of aptamers or nucleotides, affibodies, peptide arrays, and molecule imprinted polymers provide tools to develop innovative biosensors over classical methods. Integrated approaches provided a better perspective for developing specific and sensitive biosensors with high regenerative potentials. Various biosensors ranging from nanomaterials, polymers to microbes have wider potential applications. It is quite important to integrate multifaceted approaches to design biosensors that have the potential for diverse usage. In light of this, this review provides an overview of different types of biosensors being used ranging from electrochemical, fluorescence tagged, nanomaterials, silica or quartz, and microbes for various biomedical and environmental applications with future outlook of biosensor technology.

The role of transporter ectodomains in drug recognition and binding: phlorizin and the sodium–glucose cotransporter

This article reviews the role of segments of SLCs located outside the plasma membrane bilayer (ectodomains) using the inhibition of SGLTs (SLC5 family) by the aromatic glucoside phlorizin as a model system.

Nanoscale monitoring of drug actions on cell membrane using atomic force microscopy

Knowledge of the nanoscale changes that take place in individual cells in response to a drug is useful for understanding the drug action. However, due to the lack of adequate techniques, such knowledge was scarce until the advent of atomic force microscopy (AFM), which is a multifunctional tool for investigating cellular behavior with nanometer resolution under near-physiological conditions. In the past decade, researchers have applied AFM to monitor the morphological and mechanical dynamics of individual cells following drug stimulation, yielding considerable novel insight into how the drug molecules affect an individual cell at the nanoscale. In this article we summarize the representative applications of AFM in characterization of drug actions on cell membrane, including topographic imaging, elasticity measurements, molecular interaction quantification, native membrane protein imaging and manipulation, etc. The challenges that are hampering the further development of AFM for studies of cellular activities are aslo discussed.