Mini-tablets: a contemporary system for oral drug delivery in targeted patient groups

Questionnaire Study to Investigate the Preferences of Children, Parents, and Healthcare Professionals for Different Formulations of Oral Medicinal Products

Since the acceptability of a medicine can significantly impact therapeutic outcomes, this study aimed to determine and compare the preferences of children, parents, and healthcare professionals for the most commonly used pediatric oral medicine formulations (syrup, mini-tablets, oblong tablets, round tablets) addressing all pediatric age groups, 0-<18 years (y). This survey study employed sex-, age-, and participant group-adapted questionnaires for eight cohorts of participants, i.e., children 6-<12 y, adolescents 12-<18 y, parents of children in four age groups (0-<2 y, 2-<6 y, 6-<12 y, and 12-<18 y), nurses, and pediatricians. Descriptive statistics were used for data analysis. In the age groups 0-<2 y and 2-<6 y, mini-tablets were preferred over syrup by all participants. In the age group 6-12 y, solid dosage forms were also preferred over syrup by all participants. In the age group 12-<18 y, healthcare professionals preferred solid dosage forms over syrup. Parents preferred higher amounts of mini-tablets and syrup compared to round and oblong tablets, while adolescents' preferences did not differentiate between these formulations. Based on the study results and in contrast to current practice, it is suggested to consider solid dosage forms for future age-appropriate medicinal products already for younger age groups.

Study of compaction tools and parameters on critical quality attributes of high drug load minitablets

Minitablets are prepared using multiple die openings and multi-tip punches for greater productivity. With multiple tips on the punch barrel, the overall compaction force to be applied is commonly estimated by multiplying the desired compaction force per tip by the number of punch tips. Few researchers have however examined this proportionality and the effects of the number of punch tips and punch face geometry on the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of high drug load minitablets. In this study, the minitablets prepared by multi-tip tools exhibited greater weight variation than those prepared by single-tip tools. Their compaction was accompanied by a longer dwell time that led to a higher minitablet tensile strength and consequently a longer disintegration time. The compaction forces required to achieve a consistent set of minitablet CQAs were not directly proportional to the number of punch tips used. In comparison, the effect of punch face geometry was negligible. Increasing concentration of magnesium stearate (as lubricant) from 0.75 to 1.25 %, w/w reduced weight variation, especially of minitablets prepared by the multi-tip tools. It also increased the disintegration time but had no significant effect on the tensile strength of the minitablets regardless of type of tools used. The adjustment of compaction speed was an effective compensatory method to mitigate the differences in dwell time and tensile strength between minitablets prepared by single-tip and multi-tip standard concave tools. A larger reduction in compaction speed of the single-tip tools was required at higher compaction pressures.

Study of Diminutive Granules as Feed Powders for Manufacturability of High Drug Load Minitablets

The maximal amount of drug contained in a minitablet is limited. To reduce the total number of minitablets in a single dose, high drug load minitablets can be prepared from high drug load feed powders by various pharmaceutical processing techniques. Few researchers have however examined the influence of pharmaceutical processing techniques on the properties of high drug load feed powders, and consequently the manufacturability of high drug load minitablets. In this study, silicification of the high drug load physical mix feed powders alone did not yield satisfactory quality attributes and compaction parameters to produce good quality minitablets. The abrasive nature of fumed silica increased ejection force and damage to the compaction tools. Granulation of fine paracetamol powder was crucial for the preparation of good quality high drug load minitablets. The diminutive granules had superior powder packing and flow properties for homogenous and consistent filling of the small die cavities when preparing minitablets. Compared to the physical mix feed powders for direct compression, the granules which possessed higher plasticity, lower rearrangement and elastic energies, yielded better quality minitablets with high tensile strength and rapid disintegration time. High shear granulation demonstrated greater process robustness than fluid bed granulation, with less discernment on the quality attributes of feed powder. It could proceed without fumed silica, with the high shear forces reducing interparticulate cohesivity. An in-depth understanding on the properties of high drug load feed powders with inherently poor compactability and poor flowability is important for the manufacturability of high drug load minitablets.

Meeting Challenges of Pediatric Drug Delivery: The Potential of Orally Fast Disintegrating Tablets for Infants and Children

A majority of therapeutics are not available as suitable dosage forms for administration to pediatric patients. The first part of this review provides an overview of clinical and technological challenges and opportunities in the development of child-friendly dosage forms such as taste masking, tablet size, flexibility of dose administration, excipient safety and acceptability. In this context, developmental pharmacology, rapid onset of action in pediatric emergency situations, regulatory and socioeconomic aspects are also reviewed and illustrated with clinical case studies. The second part of this work discusses the example of Orally Dispersible Tablets (ODTs) as a child-friendly drug delivery strategy. Inorganic particulate drug carriers can thereby be used as multifunctional excipients offering a potential solution to address unique medical needs in infants and children while maintaining a favorable excipient safety and acceptability profile in these vulnerable patient populations.

Advances in Oral Drug Delivery Systems: Challenges and Opportunities

The oral route is the most preferred route for systemic and local drug delivery. However, the oral drug delivery system faces the harsh physiological and physicochemical environment of the gastrointestinal tract, which limits the bioavailability and targeted design of oral drug delivery system. Innovative pharmaceutical approaches including nanoparticulate formulations, biomimetic drug formulations, and microfabricated devices have been explored to optimize drug targeting and bioavailability. In this review, the anatomical factors, biochemical factors, and physiology factors that influence delivering drug via oral route are discussed and recent advance in conventional and novel oral drug delivery approaches for improving drug bioavailability and targeting ability are highlighted. We also address the challenges and opportunities of oral drug delivery systems in future.

SeDeM expert system with I-optimal mixture design for oral multiparticulate drug delivery: An encapsulated floating minitablets of loxoprofen Na and its in silico physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling

Introduction: A SeDeM expert tool-driven I-optimal mixture design has been used to develop a directly compressible multiparticulate based extended release minitablets for gastro-retentive drug delivery systems using loxoprofen sodium as a model drug. Methods: Powder blends were subjected to stress drug-excipient compatibility studies using FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis, and DSC. SeDeM diagram expert tool was utilized to assess the suitability of the drug and excipients for direct compression. The formulations were designed using an I-optimal mixture design with proportions of methocel K100M, ethocel 10P and NaHCO₃ as variables. Powder was compressed into minitablets and encapsulated. After physicochemical evaluation lag-time, floating time, and drug release were studied. Heckel analysis for yield pressure and accelerated stability studies were performed as per ICH guidelines. The in silico PBPK Advanced Compartmental and Transit model of GastroPlus™ was used for predicting in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters. Results: Drug release follows first-order kinetics with fickian diffusion as the main mechanism for most of the formulations; however, a few formulations followed anomalous transport as the mechanism of drug release. The in-silico-based pharmacokinetic revealed relative bioavailability of 97.0%. Discussion: SeDeM expert system effectively used in QbD based development of encapsulated multiparticulates for once daily administration of loxoprofen sodium having predictable in-vivo bioavailability.

Improving the Manufacturability of Cohesive and Poorly Compactable API for Direct Compression of Mini-tablets at High Drug Loading via Particle Engineering

PURPOSE

To utilize a particle engineering strategy to improve the manufacturability of a cohesive and poorly compactable API at high drug loading for direct compression of mini-tablets.

METHODS

A high-shear mixer was used for wet milling during the API manufacturing process to obtain target particle size distributions. The targeted particles were characterized and formulated into blends by mixing with excipients. The formulated blends were compressed directly into mini-tablets using a compaction simulator. The tablet hardness, weight variation, and friability of the mini-tablets were characterized and compared with mini-tablets prepared with hammer milled APIs.

RESULTS

Compared to the hammer milled APIs, the wet milled APIs, had smoother surface, narrower particle size distributions and demonstrated a better flow properties. Moreover, the mini-tablets produced with the wet milled APIs exhibited better weight uniformity, robust tablet mechanical strength and ultimately better friability. In addition, unlike the hammer milled process, the wet milling process is controllable and easy to scale up.

CONCLUSIONS

This study successfully implemented API particle engineering through a high shear wet milling process to produce particles suitable for robust drug product manufacturing.

Oral drug delivery strategies for development of poorly water soluble drugs in paediatric patient population

Selecting the appropriate formulation and solubility-enabling technology for poorly water soluble drugs is an essential element in the development of formulations for paediatric patients. Different methodologies and structured strategies are available to select a suitable approach and guide formulation scientists for development of adult formulations. However, there is paucity of available literature for selection of technology and overcoming the challenges in paediatric formulation development. The need for flexible dosing, and the limited knowledge of the safety of many formulation excipients in paediatric subjects, impose significant constraints and in some instances require adaptation of the approaches taken to formulating these drugs for the adult population. Selection of the best drug delivery system for paediatrics requires an efficient, systematic approach that considers a drug's physical and chemical properties and the targeted patient population's requirements. This review is a step towards development of a strategy for the design of solubility enhancing paediatric formulations of highly insoluble drugs. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of different approaches and strategies to consider in order to assist development of paediatric formulation for poorly water-soluble drugs with the provision of examples of some marketed products. In addition, it provides recommendations to overcome the range of challenges posed by these strategies and adaptations of the adult approach/product presentation required to enable paediatric drug development and administration.

Dose Titration of Solid Dosage Forms via FDM 3D-Printed Mini-Tablets

The robustness of 3D-printed mini-tablets as a platform to administer milligram dosages, intended for age-specific therapy, without the need of tablet splitting while maintaining similar release profiles, was investigated. Griseofulvin, as a model poorly water-soluble drug, and hydroxypropyl cellulose along with Kollicoat Protect as polymers were used to prepare filaments at 1–20% drug concentrations via hot-melt extrusion (HME). Higher drug concentrations served for testing the feasibility of a reduced number of mini-tablets to be administered. A reliable dose titration in the range 0.19–3.91 mg at a high accuracy (R2 of 0.999) was achieved through composite unit (multi-unit) mini-tablets. All mini-tablets produced had excellent content uniformity and their label claim values were within the acceptable range, proving that HME processing followed by 3D printing promotes content uniformity even for mini-tablets containing low drug doses (0.19 mg). Remarkably, the proposed approach allowed achieving similar drug release profiles via composite unit mini-tablets as well as single mini-tablets at high drug concentrations. In contrast, split tablets demonstrated different release behaviors, attributed to their size and shape differences. Overall, the distinct advantages of mini-tablets to provide dose flexibility while maintaining similar release profiles was demonstrated.

Finite Element Modeling of Powder Compaction: Mini-Tablets in Comparison with Conventionally Sized Tablets

INTRODUCTION

Mini-tablets are considered a promising solid dosage form in the pharmaceutical industry due to advantages such as dosing accuracy, efficiency as a drug delivery system, and alleged improvement in mechanical properties. Nevertheless, only a few experimental studies are available in the literature regarding this topic and technical aspects, such as punch's shape and size effect on the stress and density distribution in the compact mini-tablets, are still not fully investigated.

OBJECTIVES

In this paper, the influence of powder properties and process parameters, such as punch shape and size, on the evolution of mechanical properties during the tableting process and the potential occurrence of tablet defects are investigated using the mechanistic modeling approach, Finite Element Method (FEM).

METHODS

The numerical simulation cases consist of four different die sizes, mini-tablets of 2 mm, and 3 mm, and conventionally sized tablets of 8 mm and 11.28 mm. Each tablet size is simulated using four distinctive excipients, Avicel^® PH-102, Kollidon^® VA64, Pearlitol^® 100SD, and Supertab^® 11SD, and two different punch geometries, a flat-face punch, and a bevel edge punch.

RESULTS

The model predictions in terms of stress and density distribution at different stages of the compaction process indicate similar behavior in terms of density and stress distribution profiles between the conventionally sized tablets and mini-tablets for a particular excipient.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on tablet size, small localized differences are noted (e.g., low-density regions, high shear bands, and heterogeneous density profiles), suggesting a possible risk of tableting defects for conventionally sized tablets compared to mini-tablets. Furthermore, it is observed that bevel-edged tablets could facilitate the formation of cracks, leading to possible capping failure.

Design of Experiments as a Tool to Optimize the Process of Coating Minitablets with Commercial Gastro-Resistant Coating Mixtures

According to the Quality by Design (QbD) concept, Design of Experiment (DoE) was used to indicate critical process parameters and optimize the fluid bed coating of minitablets in a laboratory size batch. Full factorial design was employed to increase knowledge of the process for three kinds of minitablet (MT) cores using two commercial gastro-resistant coating mixtures. The statistical analysis showed that different critical process parameters were indicated for the tested minitablets: X3: the coating mixture flow rate for MTs with pantoprazole sodium and Eudragit L; X2: the product temperature; X3 and X4: the spraying pressure for MTs with pantoprazole sodium and Acryl Eze II; and X1 and X2: MTs with diclofenac sodium. Such differences were the result of features, such as the sub-coat, size, and mass of the cores and the core and coating mixture composition. No optimal parameters were found for any of the tested MT types. Therefore, DoE should be considered as a statistical tool to individually optimize the process for the product, equipment, and tested parameters. However, optimization of the fluid bed coating allowed us to predict the values of the process parameters necessary to obtain good-quality products. Therefore, fluid bed coating may be successfully used to obtain modified-release MTs of high quality after applying the statistical tool DoE.

Charge Reduction Assisted Production of Diminutive Fluid Bed Granules for High Drug Load Minitablets

Micronized drug powders are generally unsuitable as tableting feed to produce minitablets due to their cohesivity and poor flow. The silicification of fine paracetamol powder (PCM_F) with an optimal concentration range of fumed silica (fSi) [0.7 - 0.9 %, w/w] reduced the net negative charge of PCM_F and improved powder flow. The optimal fSi concentration range suitable was established through the measurement of charge and flowability of the silicified powders. Silicification of PCM_F by physical mix did not satisfactorily overcome the cohesive forces between the PCM_F crystals and improve powder flow sufficiently such that it will feed consistently into the smaller die orifices during tableting. Using a specialized fluid bed system with swirling air and side spray, controlled granulation of silicified PCM_F packed and agglomerated the interlocking-prone needle shaped PCM_F crystals into diminutive granules that are more spherical and free flowing. With optimized fSi concentration (≈ 0.8 %, w/w) and granulation process parameters, high drug load diminutive granules (D₅₀≃ 90 μm) were successfully prepared from PCM_F as starter seeds (D₅₀≃ 30 μm). Minitablets prepared from the diminutive granules had low weight variation, and were mechanically strong with disintegration time of less than 30 s. This study demonstrated the feasibility of producing high drug load minitablets from a cohesive, electrostatic-prone fine drug powder.

Pharmaceutical Product Modularization as a Mass Customization Strategy to Increase Patient Benefit Cost-Efficiently

Customized pharmaceutical products aim to comply with the individual needs of a patient to enhance the treatment outcome. The current pharmaceutical production paradigm is, however, dominated by mass production, where the pharmaceutical products embrace a one-size-fits-all design with a low possibility of treatment optimization to patient needs. This production paradigm is not designed or intended for customized pharmaceutical products and operating this production context for customized pharmaceutical products is argued to be cost-inefficient. To address this challenge of inefficient production of customized pharmaceutical products, this study proposes an approach to modular pharmaceutical product design. As a mass customization strategy, product modularization enables serving customers with customized products cost-efficiently. The proposed modular pharmaceutical products integrate three product design requirements originating from patient needs: a scalable dose strength, a flexible target release profile, and a scalable treatment size. An approach to assess the value of these product designs is presented, by means of proposing three benefit metrics complying with respective design requirements and a cost metric assessing the cost of producing these modular pharmaceutical product designs. Results suggest that pharmaceutical product modularization can, by keeping the number of produced components low, substantially increase the external product variety and, hence, enhance the treatment outcome of patients. Furthermore, results indicate that the achieved benefit for the patient through product modularization increases beyond additional costs arising during production. However, a careful modularization must be performed to optimize the tradeoff between the increased benefit and cost.

A Comprehensive Review on Pellets as a Dosage Form in Pharmaceuticals

Oral route of administration is widely accepted and desired because of its versatility, convenience, and, most importantly, patient compliance. Multiparticulate systems like granules and pellets are more advantageous when compared to single-unit dosage forms, as they are capable of distributing the drug more evenly in the gastrointestinal tract. The current paper focuses on pellets, the merits and demerits associated, various pelletization techniques, and their characterization. It also focuses on how pellets can be employed for drug delivery is controlled and sustained release formulations. It gives a complete emphasis on the drug and excipients that can be used in pellet formation, the marketed formulations, and the research pertaining to pellets.

A Novel Use of Nanocrystalline Suspensions to Develop Sub-Microgram Dose Micro-Tablets

Developing solid oral drug products with good content uniformity (CU) at low doses is challenging; this challenge further aggravates when the tablet size decreases from a conventional tablet to a micro/mini-tablet (1.2-3 mm diameter). To alleviate the CU issues, we present a novel use of nanocrystalline suspension combined with high shear wet granulation for the first time. In this approach, nanomilled drug in the form of nanocrystalline suspension is sprayed onto the powder bed to ensure uniform distribution. The resulting granules had adequate particle size distribution and flow characteristics to enable manufacturing of micro-tablets with good weight uniformity and tensile strength. Nanomilled drug resulted in excellent content uniformity among individual micro-tablets even at a dose strength as low as 0.16 mcg, whereas micronized drug resulted in unacceptable CU even at 5x higher dose strength (0.8 mcg). Besides, the use of nanomilled drug has enhanced the dosing flexibility of micro-tablets and showed superior dissolution performance in comparison with micronized drug with no impact of storage conditions (40 °C/75%RH for six months) on their dissolution performance. The proposed approach is simple and can be easily incorporated into traditional high shear wet granulation process to develop sub-microgram dose solid oral drug products.

Assessment of Mini-Tablets Coating Uniformity as a Function of Fluid Bed Coater Inlet Conditions

This study concerned the quality of mini-tablets’ coating uniformity obtained by either the bottom spray chamber with a classical Wurster distributor (CW) or a swirl distributor (SW). Mini-tablets with a diameter of 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 mm were coated with hypromellose using two different inlet air distributors as well as inlet airflow rates (130 and 156 m³/h). Tartrazine was used as a colorant in the coating layer and the coating uniformity was assessed by spectrophotometric analysis of solutions obtained after disintegration of the mini-tablets (n = 100). Higher uniformity of coating material distribution among the mini-tablets was observed in the case of SW distributor, even for the biggest mini-tablets (d = 3.0 mm), with an RSD no larger than 5.0%. Additionally, coating thickness was evaluated by colorimetric analysis (n = 1000), using a scanner method, and expressed as a hue value. A high correlation (R = 0.993) between inter-tablet variability of hue and UV-Vis results was obtained. Mini-tablets were successfully coated in a fluid bed system using both a classical Wurster distributor as well as a swirl generator. However, regardless of the mini-tablets’ diameter, better film uniformity was achieved in the case of a distributor with a swirl generator.

3D Printing of Mini Tablets for Pediatric Use

In the treatment of pediatric diseases, suitable dosages and dosage forms are often not available for an adequate therapy. The use of innovative additive manufacturing techniques offers the possibility of producing pediatric dosage forms. In this study, the production of mini tablets using fused deposition modeling (FDM)-based 3D printing was investigated. Two pediatric drugs, caffeine and propranolol hydrochloride, were successfully processed into filaments using hyprolose and hypromellose as polymers. Subsequently, mini tablets with diameters between 1.5 and 4.0 mm were printed and characterized using optical and thermal analysis methods. By varying the number of mini tablets applied and by varying the diameter, we were able to achieve different release behaviors. This work highlights the potential value of FDM 3D printing for the on-demand production of patient individualized, small-scale batches of pediatric dosage forms.

Gastro-retentive drug delivery systems: a recent update on clinical pertinence and drug delivery

Gastro-retentive drug delivery systems are some of the best technologies delivered through oral route. These mainly came into picture for their effective local action in the GI region, specifically for the drugs with narrow absorption window. In the recent decades, several technologies have evolved showing different mechanisms for retaining the drug in GI region for longer duration with increased bioavailability. Floatable, mucoadhesive, swelable, magnetic, nanofibrous, high-density, and expandable systems have been investigated extensively as the potential gastro-retentive strategies. The advances in the technologies studied, their clinical pertinence, and methods of drug delivery are described in this review with their immense future utilities. Their entry into the pharmaceutical market is a huge matter to look into as most of the studied strategies are facing problems and hence are underrated to overcome the clinical trials. Their success in the clinical trials are enormously required for gaining their access into the pharmaceutical market. Selection of the right technology for the right purpose through the right mechanism of action is to be done for obtaining the system with desired activity.

Better Medicines for Older Patients: Considerations between Patient Characteristics and Solid Oral Dosage Form Designs to Improve Swallowing Experience

Oral drug administration provided as solid oral dosage forms (SODF) remains the major route of drug therapy in primary and secondary care. There is clear evidence for a growing number of clinically relevant swallowing issues (e.g., dysphagia) in the older patient population, especially when considering the multimorbid, frail, and polymedicated patients. Swallowing impairments have a negative impact on SODF administration, which leads to poor adherence and inappropriate alterations (e.g., crushing, splitting). Different strategies have been proposed over the years in order to enhance the swallowing experience with SODF, by using conventional administration techniques or applying swallowing aids and devices. Nevertheless, new formulation designs must be considered by implementing a patient centric approach in order to efficiently improve SODF administration by older patient populations. Together with appropriate SODF size reductions, innovative film coating materials that can be applied to SODF and provide swallowing safety and efficacy with little effort being required by the patients are still needed. With that in mind, a literature review was conducted in order to identify the availability of patient centric coating materials claiming to shorten esophageal transit times and improve the overall SODF swallowing experience for older patients. The majority of coating technologies were identified in patent applications, and they mainly included well-known water soluble polymers that are commonly applied into pharmaceutical coatings. Nevertheless, scientific evidence demonstrating the benefits of given SODF coating materials in the concerned patient populations are still very limited. Consequently, the availability for safe, effective, and clinically proven solutions to address the increasing prevalence of swallowing issues in the older patient population is still limited.

Bioavailability of the Common Cold Medicines in Jellies for Oral Administration

Jellies for oral administration have been suggested as alternative dosage forms to conventional tablets for improved palatability and compliances for pediatric and geriatric patients. To evaluate the effect of jelly formulation on the bioavailability of cold medicines, two types of jellies were prepared for a fixed-dose combination of acetaminophen (AAP), chlorpheniramine maleate (CPM), dextromethorphan hydrobromide (DMH), and dl-methylephedrine hydrochloride (MEH). Jelly-S and Jelly-H were fabricated using carrageenan and locust bean gum in the absence and presence of xanthan gum, respectively. In vitro dissolution and in vivo absorption of the four drugs in the jellies were compared with other conventional formulations, a syrup and two types of immediate-release (IR) tablets with different hardness, Tablet-S (15 kPa) and Tablet-H (20 kPa). All the formulations exhibited more than 80% dissolution rate within 2 h even though the syrup, Jelly-S, and Tablet-S showed higher 30-min dissolution compared to Jelly-H and Tablet-H. The dissolution rates from the jellies decreased with increasing pH, which resulted in the slowest dissolution in pH 6.8 compared to the syrup and IR tablets. When administered orally to beagle dogs, all five formulations were determined not to be bioequivalent. However, Jelly-S and Jelly-H showed 0.82-1.05 of the geometric mean ratios (GMRs) of AUC_0-t for all four drugs compared to the syrup suggesting comparable absorption. In two IR tablets, GMRs of AUC_0-t were in a range of 0.55-0.95 indicating a tendency of lower absorption than the syrup and jellies. In conclusion, jelly can be a patient-centered formulation with comparable bioavailability to syrup.

Evaluation of Weight Variation in Mini-Tablets Manufactured by a Multiple-Tip Tool

Recently, owing to their pharmaceutical and clinical utility, mini-tablets have been well studied by researchers. Mini-tablets are usually manufactured by compression molding using a multiple-tip tool in a rotary tableting machine. Owing to their special structure, ensuring uniformity is a very important challenge in the manufacturability of mini-tablets using the multiple-tip tool. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the weight variation in mini-tablets produced by a multiple-tip tool, which is considered to be the root cause affecting the uniformity, and to investigate the physical properties of drug granules and tableting conditions in a rotary tableting machine that could reduce this weight variation. In addition, the relationship between these factors and response was visualized using response surface analysis. It was shown that the weight variation in mini-tablets produced by a multiple-tip tool was reduced when using a forced feeder compared with an open feeder. Furthermore, in the case of an open feeder, the optimal range of the average particle size diameter of drug granules and the rotational speed of the rotating disc in the rotary tableting machine were determined from response surface analysis. It was suggested that it is possible to reduce the weight variation in the mini-tablets by selecting drug granules with an average particle size diameter of 100-150 µm and using tableting conditions with a rotational speed of 40-60 rpm. This study elucidated the factors that affect uniformity and determined their optimal range for the manufacture of mini-tablets.

Enhancing the Furosemide Permeability by Papain Minitablets Through a Triple Co-culture In Vitro Intestinal Cell Model

The administration of medicines by the oral route is the most used approach for being very convenient. Although it is the most popular, this route also has absorption, and consequently, bioavailability limitations. In this sense, several pharmacotechnical strategies have been used to improve drug absorption, one of which is the use of permeation promoters. Papain is a very versatile plant enzyme that can be used as a permeation promoter of various active compounds. This study aimed to evaluate the safety of papain and the formulation of native papain minitablets to promote in vitro permeation of furosemide through an innovative biomimetic triple co-culture model of Caco-2, HT29-MTX, and Raji cells. Regarding permeation, furosemide and metaprolol concentrations are determined with HPLC; those are used to calculate P_app. Monolayer integrity was evaluated using TEER and Lucifer Yellow. In the presence of papain, TEER decreased two-fold and the P_app of furosemide increased six-fold. The results suggest that native papain minitablets can be used as therapeutic adjuvants to enhance the permeation of drugs significantly improving bioavailability.

Electrospun nanofibers: A nanotechnological approach for drug delivery and dissolution optimization in poorly water-soluble drugs

Electrospinning is a novel and sophisticated technique for the production of nanofibers with high surface area, extreme porous structure, small pore size, and surface morphologies that make them suitable for biomedical and bioengineering applications, which can provide solutions to current drug delivery issues of poorly water-soluble drugs. Electrospun nanofibers can be obtained through different methods asides from the conventional one, such as coaxial, multi-jet, side by side, emulsion, and melt electrospinning. In general, the application of an electric potential to a polymer solution causes a charged liquid jet that moves downfield to an oppositely charged collector, where the nanofibers are deposited. Plenty of polymers that differ in their origin, degradation character and water affinity are used during the process. Physicochemical properties of the drug, polymer(s), and solvent systems need to be addressed to guarantee successful manufacturing. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent progress in electrospun nanofibers for their use as a nanotechnological tool for dissolution optimization and drug delivery systems for poorly water-soluble drugs.

Utilization of Ethylcellulose Microparticles with Rupatadine Fumarate in Designing Orodispersible Minitablets with Taste Masking Effect

Minitablets in orodispersible form constitute a flexible drug delivery tool for paediatric and geriatric population as they eliminate the risk of chocking and do not require drinking water in the application. Due to their direct contact with taste buds, taste sensation is an important factor. Preparing microparticles with taste masking polymers utilizing spray drying is an efficient technique for reducing the bitterness of drugs. Ethylcellulose is a hydrophobic polymer widely used as a taste masking material. Rupatadine fumarate, one of the newest antihistamines, features an intensive bitter taste, hence in designing orodispersible formulations, achieving an acceptable taste is a crucial issue. The main objective of this work was to formulate orodispersible minitablets containing taste masked ethylcellulose-based microparticles with rupatadine fumarate and evaluation of their quality, especially in terms of taste masking efficacy. The accessed data indicated that all obtained minitablets were characterized by beneficial pharmaceutical properties. Three independent methods: in vivo with healthy volunteers, in vitro drug dissolution, and “electronic tongue” confirmed that all designed formulations provided satisfactory taste masking rate and that formulation F15 (prepared with Pearlitol^® Flash and Surelease^® microparticles with rupatadine fumarate) was characterized by the lowest bitterness score.

Static and dynamic structural features of single pellets determine the release behaviors of metoprolol succinate sustained-release tablets

The multiple-unit sustained-release (MUSR) dosage forms containing numerous sustained-release subunits present a reliable choice for oral formulation of controlled release systems. As a typical MUSR, the metoprolol succinate sustained-release tablet is an advanced system with limited researches devoted to relating its structure to the drug release phase other than the preparation process and modulation to the release behaviors. This research details a three-dimension method to image the internal structure and detail drug release features of commercial metoprolol succinate sustained-release tablets and component individual single pellets. As such, a new perspective for MUSR dosage form is provided. Using high energy synchrotron radiation X-ray microcomputed tomography (SR-μCT), the in-situ structure parameters were obtained nondestructively. It was demonstrated that the average number of spherical pellets in a tablet was 853 ± 12 (n = 3). The average volume of the pellets was 0.09 ± 0.01 mm3, the diameter was 0.55 ± 0.03 mm, and the sphericity was 0.87 ± 0.06. These data reflected the numerical features of pellets in MUSR tablets, which were helpful for reverse engineering to MUSR. Based on the three dimensional model generated by image processing and analysis software, the pellet structures were divided into three layers of typical depot sustained release system: pellet core, drug-containing layer and outer film. The dynamic structural features determined refer to the changes of structures in pellets during in vitro drug release, with evidence that the coating layer on the pellets maintained a spherical morphology whilst numerous valleys appeared on the surface. The material constitution and distribution in coating layer were evaluated by synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared mapping and results indicated a composition of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose dispersed in ethyl cellulose. Knowledge of these structural characteristics confirmed that the mechanism of sustained drug release was membrane controlled and consistent with the drug release profiles. In conclusion, the structural investigation provided knowledge of the intrinsic quality of metoprolol succinate sustained-release tablets and offers guidance for reverse engineering of MUSR.

Optimization of the coating process of minitablets in two different lab-scale fluid bed systems

The optimization of the coating process for minitablets is extremely important in fluidized bed systems, and allows knowledge acquisition about the process for modern multiparticulate forms. The coating of minitablets allows the development of modified-release pediatric drugs. In our study, 3-mm minitablets with pantoprazole were coated to obtain an enteric product. The experiments were designed to evaluate the quality of the enteric product by efficiency and quality of film coating. Four process parameters at two levels were examined, and 16 experiments for two different fluid bed systems in laboratory-scale batches were performed. During analysis, the critical parameters of inlet airflow rate (X1) and coating mixture flow rate (X3) in different fluid bed coaters were examined. The findings indicate that apparatus construction has a significant effect on the different process parameters. Despite the fact that statistical analysis is directly related to the tested conditions, it creates opportunity to anticipate certain problems while scaling up, and a possibility to minimize them.

Natural and synthetic polymer-based smart biomaterials for management of ulcerative colitis: a review of recent developments and future prospects

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory disease of the colon that severely affects the quality of life of patients and usually responds well to anti-inflammatory agents for symptomatic relief; however, many patients need colectomy, a surgical procedure to remove whole or part of the colon. Though various types of pharmacological agents have been employed for the management of UC, the lack of effectiveness is usually predisposed to various reasons including lack of target-specific delivery of drugs and insufficient drug accumulation at the target site. To overcome these glitches, many researchers have designed and characterized various types of versatile polymeric biomaterials to achieve target-specific delivery of drugs via oral route to optimize their targeting efficiency to the colon, to improve drug accumulation at the target site, as well as to ameliorate off-target effects of chemotherapy. Therefore, the aim of this review was to summarize and critically discuss the pharmaceutical significance and therapeutic feasibility of a wide range of natural and synthetic biomaterials for efficient drug targeting to colon and rationalized treatment of UC. Among various types of biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymer-based hydrogels have shown promising targeting potential due to their innate pH responsiveness, sustained and controlled release characteristics, and microbial degradation in the colon to release the encapsulated drug moieties. These characteristic features make natural and synthetic polymer-based hydrogels superior to conventional pharmacological strategies for the management of UC.

Investigation on the impact of powder arching in small die filling

The flow of particulate materials is critical during processes such as mixing, compression and packing. Non-cohesive arching, a feature characteristic of coarse and free-flowing particles, has been studied extensively for silos and hoppers. However, the arching of powders during die fill has received much less attention. In this study, die fill performance of coarse and free-flowing nonpareils was evaluated using a specially designed die filling device in order to investigate the impact of non-cohesive arching during die fill under gravity flow. Through evaluating die fill performance, the arching phenomenon during dynamic conditions of die fill could be captured. Nonpareils with large particle size increased the likelihood of arching and caused poorer die fill performance for narrow orifices. In contrast, die fill in large orifices was generally better with larger particles due to reduced inter-particulate friction. Both particle size and size distribution influenced non-cohesive arching during die fill. Forced feeding did not appear to affect die fill performance and non-cohesive arching. A critical particle size range beyond which die fill performance would decrease, particularly for the narrow orifices, was identified. Findings from this study provided a better insight into non-cohesive arching during die fill.

In-Line Film Coating Thickness Estimation of Minitablets in a Fluid-Bed Coating Equipment

Film coating thickness of minitablets was estimated in-line during coating in a fluid-bed equipment by means of visual imaging. An existing, commercially available image acquisition system was used for image acquisition, while dedicated image analysis and data analysis methods were developed for this purpose. The methods were first tested against simulated minitablet's images and after that examined on a laboratory-scale fluid-bed Wurster coating process. An observation window cleaning mechanism was developed for this purpose. Six batches of minitablets were coated in total, using two different dispersions, where for the second dispersion coating endpoint was determined based on the in-line measurement. Coating thickness estimates were calculated from the increasing size distributions of the minitablet's major and minor lengths, assessed from the acquired images. Information on both the minitablet's average band and average cap coating thicknesses was obtained. The in-line coating thickness estimates were compared to the coating thickness weight gain calculations and the optical microscope measurements as a reference method. Average band coating thickness estimate was found the most accurate in comparison to microscope measurements, with root mean square error of 1.30 μm. The window cleaning mechanism was crucial for the accuracy of the in-line measurements as was evident from the corresponding decrease of the root mean square error (9.52 μm, band coating thickness). The presented visual imaging approach exhibits accuracy of at least 2 μm and is not susceptible to coating formulation or color variations. It presents a promising alternative to other existing techniques for the in-line coating thickness estimation.

Challenges and innovations of drug delivery in older age

Both drug delivery performance and various age-related physical, mental and physiological changes can affect drug effectiveness and safety in elderly patients. The many drug delivery systems developed over the years include recent novel transdermal, nasal, pulmonary and orally disintegrating tablets that provide consistent, precise, timely and more targeted drug delivery. Certain drug delivery systems may be associated with suboptimal outcomes in the elderly because of the nature of drug present, a lack of appreciation of the impact of age-related changes in drug absorption, distribution and clearance, the limited availability of pharmacokinetic, safety and clinical data. Polypharmacy, patient morbidity and poor adherence can also contribute to sub-optimal drug delivery systems outcomes in the elderly. The development of drug delivery systems for the elderly is a poorly realised opportunity, with each system having specific advantages and limitations. A key challenge is to provide the innovation that best meets the specific physiological, psychological and multiple drug requirements of individual elderly patients.

Dosage form modification and oral drug delivery in older people

Many people cannot swallow whole tablets and capsules. The cause ranges from difficulties overriding the natural instinct to chew solids/foodstuff before swallowing, to a complex disorder of swallowing function affecting the ability to manage all food and fluid intake. Older people can experience swallowing difficulties because of co-morbidities, age-related physiological changes, and polypharmacy. To make medicines easier to swallow, many people will modify the medication dosage form e.g. split or crush tablets, and open capsules. Some of the challenges associated with administering medicines to older people, and issues with dosage form modification will be reviewed. Novel dosage forms in development are promising and may help overcome some of the issues. However, until these are more readily available, effective interdisciplinary teams, and improving patient health literacy will help reduce the risk of medication misadventures in older people.

The Effects of Feed Frame Parameters and Turret Speed on Mini-Tablet Compression

Die filling is a critical process step during tablet production as it defines the tablet weight. Achieving die fill consistency during production of mini-tablets, tablets with diameters ≤6 mm, is considerably more challenging. Although die filling in rotary presses had been studied in relation to the feed paddle design, paddle speed, and turret speed, it is unclear how these process variables could impact mini-tablet production and product properties. In this study, 1.8 and 3 mm mini-tablets were prepared using a rotary press with multiple-tip tooling using different process configurations. Mini-tablet weight variation within and across compaction cycles were determined using data from compression roller displacement and mini-tablet weight. Higher die fill densities were achieved with a flat feed wheel paddle and high paddle speed. This was attributed to better granule fluidization in the feed frame, which also increased the intercycle weight variation and reduced tensile strength. The turret speed did not impact mini-tablet properties significantly. Granule overlubrication in the feed frame potentially reduced mini-tablet tensile strength during compaction. The number of paddle passes in the die fill region was correlated to mini-tablet die fill performance. Findings from this study could provide better insights into the relationship between process variables and mini-tablet product quality.

Design and optimization of gastric floating sustained-release mini-tablets of alfuzosin hydrochloride based on a factorial design: in vitro/in vivo evaluation

The purpose of this research was to develop multiple-unit gastric floating mini-tablets and to evaluate the possibility of using these mini-tablets as a delivery system to improve the drug absorption for drugs with a narrow absorption window. Mini-tablets were prepared using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC K100M) and carbopol 971P as release retarding agents and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) as gas-forming agent. The properties of the prepared mini-tablets in terms of floating characteristic parameters and in vitro release were evaluated. Furthermore, in vivo gastric retention study in rats and in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rabbits of the optimized formulation were performed. The optimized mini-tablets containing 45% HPMC K100M, 15% stearyl alcohol, 13% carbopol 971P, and 12% NaHCO₃ were found to float immediately within 1 min and duration more than 9 h. The in vivo gastric retention study results indicated that the mini-tablets could retain in the stomach for more than 6.67 h. Furthermore, the AUC_0-t of the floating mini-tablets (6849.83 ± 753.80 h ng·mL^-1) was significantly higher than that of marketed sustained-release tablets XATRAL®XL (4970.16 ± 924.60 h ng·mL^-1). All these results illustrated that the gastric floating mini-tablets might be a promising drug delivery system for drugs with a narrow absorption window.

Comparison of multi-linear regression, particle swarm optimization artificial neural networks and genetic programming in the development of mini-tablets

In the present study, the preparation of pharmaceutical mini-tablets was attempted in the framework of Quality by Design (QbD) context, by comparing traditionally used multi-linear regression (MLR), with artificially-intelligence based regression techniques (such as standard artificial neural networks (ANNs), particle swarm optimization (PSO) ANNs and genetic programming (GP)) during Design of Experiment (DoE) implementation. Specifically, the effect of diluent type and particle size fraction for three commonly used direct compression diluents (lactose, pregelatinized starch and dibasic calcium phosphate dihydrate, DCPD) blended with either hydrophilic or hydrophobic flowing aids was evaluated in terms of: a) powder blend properties (such as bulk (Y1) and tapped (Y₂) density, Carr's compressibility index (Y₃, CCI), Kawakita's compaction fitting parameters a (Y₄) and 1/b (Y₅)), and b) mini-tablet's properties (such as relative density (Y₆), average weight (Y₇) and weight variation (Y₈)). Results showed better flowing properties for pregelatinized starch and improved packing properties for lactose and DPCD. MLR analysis showed high goodness of fit for the Y₁, Y₂, Y₄, Y₆ and Y₈ with RMSE values of Y₁ = 0.028, Y₂ = 0.032, Y₄ = 0.019, Y₆ = 0.015 and Y₈ = 0.130; while for rest responses, high correlation was observed from both standard ANNs and GP. PSO-ANNs fitting was the only regression technique that was able to adequately fit all responses simultaneously (RMSE values of Y₁ = 0.026, Y₂ = 0.022, Y₃ = 0.025, Y₄ = 0.010, Y₅ = 0.063, Y₆ = 0.013, Y₇ = 0.064 and Y₈ = 0.104).

Self-nanomicellizing solid dispersion of edaravone: part I - oral bioavailability improvement

Background

Edaravone (EDR) is known for its free radical scavenging, antiapoptotic, antinecrotic, and anticytokine effects in neurological and non-neurological diseases. It is currently available clinically as Radicava^® and Radicut^®, intravenous medications, recently approved for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and cerebral infarction. However, the oral use of EDR is still restricted by its poor oral bioavailability (BA) due to poor aqueous solubility, stability, rapid metabolism, and low permeability. The present study reports the development of novel EDR formulation (NEF) using self-nanomicellizing solid dispersion (SNMSD) strategy with the aim to enable its oral use.

Materials and methods

The selection of a suitable carrier for the development of NEF was performed based on the miscibility study. The optimization of EDR-to-carrier ratio was conducted via kinetic solubility study after preparing SNMSDs using solvent evaporation technique. The drug–polymer carrier interaction and self-nanomicellizing properties of NEF were investigated with advanced characterization studies. In vitro permeation, metabolism, and dissolution study was carried out to examine the effect of the presence of a carrier on physico-chemical properties of EDR. Additionally, the dose-dependent pharmacokinetic study of NEF was conducted and compared with the EDR suspension.

Results

Soluplus^® (SOL) as a carrier was selected based on the potential for improving aqueous solubility. The NEF containing EDR and SOL (1:5) resulted in the highest enhancement in aqueous solubility (17.53-fold) due to amorphization, hydrogen bonding interaction, and micellization. Moreover, the NEF demonstrated significant improvement in metabolism, permeability, and dissolution profile of EDR. Furthermore, the oral BA of NEF showed 10.2-, 16.1-, and 14.8-fold enhancement compared to EDR suspension at 46, 138, and 414 µmol/kg doses.

Conclusion

The results demonstrated that SNMSD strategy could serve as a promising way to enhance EDR oral BA and NEF could be a potential candidate for the treatment of diseases in which oxidative stress plays a key role in their pathogenesis.

pH-Responsive carriers for oral drug delivery: challenges and opportunities of current platforms

Oral administration is a desirable alternative of parenteral administration due to the convenience and increased compliance to patients, especially for chronic diseases that require frequent administration. The oral drug delivery is a dynamic research field despite the numerous challenges limiting their effective delivery, such as enzyme degradation, hydrolysis and low permeability of intestinal epithelium in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. pH-Responsive carriers offer excellent potential as oral therapeutic systems due to enhancing the stability of drug delivery in stomach and achieving controlled release in intestines. This review provides a wide perspective on current status of pH-responsive oral drug delivery systems prepared mainly with organic polymers or inorganic materials, including the strategies used to overcome GI barriers, the challenges in their development and future prospects, with focus on technology trends to improve the bioavailability of orally delivered drugs, the mechanisms of drug release from pH-responsive oral formulations, and their application for drug delivery, such as protein and peptide therapeutics, vaccination, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and bacterial infections.

Tablets of multi-unit pellet system for controlled drug delivery

The tablet of multi-unit pellet system (TMUPS), using coated pellets, for controlled release of drugs is an effective therapeutic alternative to conventional immediate-release dosage forms. The main advantages of TMUPS include a) ease of swallowing and b) divisible without compromising the drug release characteristics of the individual units. TMUPS can be prepared more economically than pellet-filled capsules because of the much higher production rate of tableting process. In spite of the superiorities of TMUPS, its adoption has been challenged by manufacturing problems, such as compromised integrity of coated pellets and poor content uniformity. Herein, we provide an updated review on research, from both scientific literatures and patents, related to the compaction of TMUPS. Factors important for the successful production of TMUPS are summarized, including model drug property, potential cushioning agents, and novel techniques to protect pellets from damage. This review is intended to facilitate the future development of manufacturable TMUPS with drug release behavior similar to that of the original coated pellets.

Reflection on the Pharmaceutical Formulation Challenges Associated with a Paediatric Investigation Plan for an Off-Patent Drug

In Europe, the development of pediatric medicines for new patent protected products is mandatory and applicants are required to submit a Paediatric Investigation Plan (PIP) to the regulatory authorities. The process is voluntary for off-patent medicines and despite the availability of incentives, there is still a huge unmet need for the development of off-patent pediatric medicines. The aim of the EU grant funded "Labeling of Enalapril from Neonates to Adolescents" (LENA) project is to develop a new pediatric dosage form of the off-patent drug enalapril, for the treatment of heart failure in patients aged from birth to 18 years. This article provides an overview of some of the key formulation challenges that were faced during the product development programme and PIP process, including selection of dosage form and excipients, methodology for administration of the product and evaluation of patient acceptability.

Formulating a poorly water soluble drug into an oral solution suitable for paediatric patients; lorazepam as a model drug

INTRODUCTION

Many drugs are unavailable in suitable oral paediatric dosage forms, and pharmacists often have to compound drugs to provide paediatric patients with an acceptable formulation in the right dose. Liquid formulations offer the advantage of dosing flexibility and ease of administration to young patients, but drug substances often show poor aqueous solubility. The objective of this work was to study different solvents and matrices to design a liquid formulation for poorly water soluble drugs, using lorazepam as model drug.

METHODS

Three different formulation strategies were explored to improve the solubility. Firstly, water-soluble organic solvents were used to improve the aqueous solubility directly, secondly, ionic surfactants were used to solubilise the model drug, and thirdly, complexation of lorazepam with cyclodextrin was studied. Specific attention was paid to excipients, adequate taste correction and palatability. For the final formulation, physical and chemical stability and microbiological quality were assessed for 12months.

RESULTS

An organic solvent based formulation, containing a mixture of polyethylene glycol and glycerol 85%, with a minimum amount of propylene glycol, proved to be physically and chemically stable. Development of the non-ionic surfactants formulation was discontinued due to taste problems. The cyclodextrin formulations were physically stable, but lorazepam content declined to 90% within five months. The final formulation contained in volume concentration (%v/v) 87% glycerol, 10% polyethylene glycol 400 and 3% propylene glycol. Orange essence was the preferred taste corrector. The formulation remained stable for 12months at 4°C, with lorazepam content remaining >95%. Related substances increased during the study period but remained below 2%. In-use stability was proven up to 4weeks.

CONCLUSION

An organic solvent based oral formulation was shown to be superior to a non-ionic surfactant based formulation or a cyclodextrin formulation. These results may help to formulate paediatric formulations of other poorly water soluble drugs, to aid pharmacy compounding.

Prolonged-release minitablets with carbamazepine – preliminary observations in vitro

Objective

The aim was to develop prolonged-release minitablets (MT) with carbamazepine (CBZ).

Methods

Matrix-type 3-mm MT (5 mg CBZ) were prepared by direct compression using hydrophilic (hypromellose) or hydrophobic polymers (ethylcellulose, Kollidon SR, glyceryl behenate). Coated prolonged-release MT (2.5 mm/3 mg of CBZ) were produced using ethylcellulose or Eudragit RL/RS. The release tests were performed in a basket apparatus with water or 1% sodium lauryl sulphate solution as dissolution media.

Key findings

High-viscosity hypromellose used as a matrix polymer resulted in slow release of CBZ (80% released during 12 h). Dissolution was slower from hydrophobic matrices. Non-swelling MT cores were successfully coated with Eudragit RL/RS, which resulted in the prolonged release of CBZ (80%/14 h), depending on the film thickness and Eudragit composition. Careful choice of pore formers in the coating film allowed to reduce lag time. Ethylcellulose was unsuitable as coating polymer due to low permeability to CBZ and unsatisfying mechanical resistance of the films modified with hypromellose.

Conclusion

Prolonged release of CBZ was obtained from both matrix-type and coated MT. Further development of MT as a single unit or multicompartment prolonged-release new dosage form especially suitable for children has been justified.