An investigation of motivational variables in CrossFit facilities

A Preliminary Investigation into the Frequency Dose Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training on Cardiometabolic Health

The objective of this study was to explore the effects of three weekly frequency doses of high-intensity functional training (HIFT) on an array of cardiometabolic markers in adults with metabolic syndrome (MetS). Twenty-one men and women, randomized into one (HIFT1), two (HIFT2), or three (HIFT3) days per week of HIFT, completed 3-weeks of familiarization plus a 12-week progressive training program. Pre- and post-intervention, several cardiometabolic, body composition, oxygen consumption, metabolic syndrome severity, and perceptions of fitness measurements were assessed. Additionally, an exercise enjoyment survey was administered post-intervention. A Cohen's d was used to demonstrate within-group change effect size. Although this study was not fully powered, a one-way and two-way ANOVA were used to compare the dose groups to provide provisional insights. No differences were found when frequency dose groups were compared. Many cardiometabolic, body composition, and fitness improvements were seen within each group, with clinically meaningful improvements in the metabolic syndrome severity score (MSSS) (HIFT1: -0.105, d = 0.28; HIFT2: -0.382, d = 1.20; HIFT3: -0.467, d = 1.07), waist circumference (HIFT1: -4.1cm, d = 3.33; HIFT2: -5.4cm, d = 0.89; HIFT3: -0.7cm, d = 0.20), and blood glucose (HIFT1: -9.5mg/dL, d = 0.98; HIFT2: -4.9mg/dL, d = 1.00; HIFT3: -1.7mg/dL, d = 0.23). All three groups similarly reported high exercise enjoyment and likeliness to continue after the intervention. In conclusion, HIFT performed once, twice, or thrice a week elicits improvements in MetS and is considered enjoyable. HIFT, even at a low weekly dose, therefore represents a potential strategy to reduce the global MetS burden.

How Leisure Involvement Affects Repurchase Intention in Fitness Clubs? The Mediating Role of Commercial Friendship

This study explores the relationships among leisure involvement, business or commercial friendship, satisfaction, and willingness to repurchase in customers' use of customized fitness services. This study randomly sampled and analyzed the customers of fitness clubs (N = 234) in China. The results showed that leisure involvement had a positive impact on repurchase intention and satisfaction. Moreover, the mediating effect of commercial friendship was found in the relationship between leisure involvement, repurchase intention, and satisfaction. Overall, the study contributes to the literature by exploring the interaction effects of different types of consumer leisure involvement and commercial friendships in customized fitness services models on satisfaction and repurchase intentions'.

Comparison of CrossFit Barbara and classic resistance trainings for the protection of strength performance during off-season in kickboxers

BACKGROUND: The inability of athletes to train or the decrease in the intensity and frequency of training may cause athletes to lose performance. Particularly in view of the current COVID-19 pandemic, maintaining strength outside the normal framework provides an advantage to athletes for the next competitions. OBJECTIVE: To compare the CrossFit Barbara which can be applied easily at home during the off-season or some situations such as the epidemic limitation to classic resistance training methods used to maintain the strength performance of national kickboxers. METHODS: Forty-three national kickboxers, CrossFit (CF, n= 22), and resistance training (RT, n= 21), participated in this study. While CF performed 20 pull-ups, 30 push-ups, 40 sit-ups, and 50 squat exercises, RT performed bench press, lat pull down, leg press, biceps curl, and triceps extension exercises twice per week for six weeks. Before and after the six weeks, the following variables were measured; body mass (BM) and body fat percentage (FP), VO2max, bench press (BP), squat (SQ), leg strength (LS), hand grip strength (HGS), pull-up, push-up and counter movement jump (CMJ). RESULTS: BP (p< 0.001, F= 41.125, ηp2= 0.501), SQ (p< 0.001, F= 26.604, ηp2= 0.394), LS (p< 0.001, F= 15.234, ηp2= 0.271), push-up (p< 0.001, F= 31.978, ηp2= 0.438) and pull-up (p< 0.001, F= 24.410, ηp2= 0.373) values changed significantly in group-time interaction between CF and RT groups, while there was no significant difference for the BM (p= 0.198, F= 1.715, ηp2= 0.040), Fat (p= 0.265, F= 1.279, ηp2= 0.030), HGS (p= 0.665, F= 0.190, ηp2= 0.005, CMJ (p= 0.054, F= 3.946, ηp2= 0.088) and VO2max (p=0.747, F= 0.106, ηp2= 0.003). Furthermore, according to the before and after study values, BP, SQ, LS, and CMJ decreased significantly (p< 0.05) while BM, FP, HGS, VO2max, pull-up and push-up variables did not in the CF (p> 0.05). In the RT, the pull-up and push-up variables decreased significantly (p< 0.05) while there was no significant difference for BP, SQ, LS, HGS, VO2max, body mass, body fat percentage and CMJ (p> 0.05). CONCLUSION: CF Barbara workout was more effective in maintaining strength endurance performances, and RT in maintaining maximum strength performances. According to the individual performance needs of athletes, reasonable training method can be used to prevent performance decrement in the strength domain.

Proposal for a Fitness Program in the School Setting during the COVID 19 Pandemic: Effects of an 8-Week CrossFit Program on Psychophysical Well-Being in Healthy Adolescents

BACKGROUND

The Italian government promoted social distancing, in which the suspension of any social event, suspension of all activities practiced in gyms, sports centers and their closure was ordered. The social distancing in the school environment and the use of strategies to limit viral infection are not very compatible with group motor activity and team sports. The aim of this study is to verify the effectiveness of a CrossFit program in order to mitigate the deficits in fitness caused by COVID-19 prevention measures and to evaluate the effects on self-efficacy in a group of young adolescents. Methodsː 30 healthy participants were randomly allocated into an intervention group (IG) that performed the 8 weeks CrossFit training program or control group (CG). Physical fitness tests (i.e., Squat, push-up, lunge, and 20 m run) and psychological measures Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy scale (RESE) were performed at baseline and after 8 weeks. Resultsː After 8 weeks, the intervention group showed significant improvements for all fitness tests (p < 0.0001). Additionally, higher scores for the RESE negative and positive (p < 0.0001) scales were found in the intervention group. No statistical differences were found in the control group except for the push up test. Conclusionsː the 8-week CrossFit intervention program could positively affect the general physical well-being and improve the emotional perceived self-efficacy in healthy adolescents.

Psychological variables of CrossFit participants: a systematic review

Objective

This study aimed to review the existing literature concerning the psychological variables of CrossFit participants.

Methodology

This review followed the PRISMA guidelines and was documented in the PROSPERO registry (CRD42018091177). Six electronic databases (SCOPUS, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Cochrane) were searched from their inception through July 2020. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed.

Results

Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria. We observed an increase in satisfaction, clinical addiction, and enjoyment among participants related to exercise, social improvement, and high intrinsic motivation to participate for the purpose of enjoyment, challenge, and affiliation. Perceptions of effort were high among CrossFit participants. Some studies found that the reaction time was impaired after the CrossFit session, whereas others found no changes in mental health, self-esteem, and well-being after training.

Conclusion

Adherence and maintenance of the practice of CrossFit are related to psychological variables such as motivation and satisfaction of basic psychological needs. CrossFit participants demonstrated high perception of effort, intrinsic motivation, and reasons for practice such as enjoyment, challenge, and affiliation. The quality assessment demonstrated the need for more detail in the methods section of future investigations. Additional high-quality studies are needed to investigate the effects of CrossFit training on the mental health of participants.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s11332-020-00685-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The 2 × 2 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts: A Meta-Analytic Test of Context, Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Analysis of Motivations, Regulations, Affect, Effort, and Physical Activity Correlates

Approach-avoidance achievement goals are studied extensively in the context of competitive sports and physical activity, including leisure and physical education. Building upon past meta-analyses, the purpose of this quantitative review was to provide basic descriptive data, estimated means for testing of several research questions (i.e., context, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status), and meta-analyzing outcome correlates (i.e., self-determination constructs, affect, effort, and physical activity). A total of 116 studies up to 1 December 2018, met inclusion criteria. These 116 studies, totaling a sample size of 43,133 participants (M sample size = 347.85 + 359.36), from 22 countries with 92.7% of samples, are drawn from participants less than 30 years of mean age. From the 116 unique studies, nearly half (49.6%) were from a sport context and the rest from leisure-time physical activity (PA) (19.4%) and physical education (PE) (31.0%) contexts. A number of different analyses were conducted to examine our research questions. Support was found for several of our research questions: The mastery-approach goal was endorsed more than all the other goals, while sport participants endorsed the performance-approach goal more than PA and PE groups; females endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal more than males; more culturally individualistic countries endorsed the mastery-approach goal; and countries from lower socioeconomic and interdependent countries endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal than higher socioeconomic and independent countries. Concerning, the meta-analyzed correlates, most relationships were hypothesized through the performance-approach goal, and both avoidance goals appeared to be too similar in relationships with the correlates raising theoretical concerns. Overall, the mastery-approach goals had the most meaningful biased corrected effect size values (rc) with the outcome correlates, such as relative autonomy (0.47), intrinsic motivation (0.52), effort (0.40), positive affect (0.42), physical activity intent (0.38). Based on the present and past meta-analytic results, the 2 × 2 achievement goals as currently measured was questioned. Future research suggestions included fundamental questionnaire issues, the need for latent profile analysis or other more advanced statistics, and whether the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework is the most appropriate framework in physical activity contexts.

Verbal Encouragement and Between-Day Reliability During High-Intensity Functional Strength and Endurance Performance Testing

As verbal encouragement (VE) is used in high intensity functional exercise testing, this randomized controlled crossover study aimed at investigating whether VE affects high intensity functional strength and endurance performance testing. We further examined between-day variability of high intensity functional strength and endurance performance testing with and without VE. Nineteen experienced athletes (seven females and 12 males, age: 23.7 ± 4.3 years) performed a standardized one repetition maximum (1 RM) squat test and a 12-min high-intensity functional training (HIFT) workout [as many repetitions as possible (AMRAP)] on four different days over a 2-week period. Athletes randomly performed each test twice, either with VE or without (CON), with a minimum of 72 h rest between tests. Very good to excellent relative between-day reliability with slightly better values for strength testing (ICC: 0.99; CV: 3.5–4.1%) compared to endurance testing (ICC 0.87–0.95; CV: 3.9–7.3%) were observed. Interestingly, VE led to higher reliability during endurance testing. Mean squat strength depicted higher strength values with VE (107 ± 33 kg) compared to CON (105 ± 33 kg; p = 0.009, Cohen’s d: 0.06). AMRAP in the endurance test showed negligible differences between VE (182 ± 33 AMRAP) and CON (181 ± 35 AMRAP; p = 0.71, Cohen’s d: 0.03). In conclusion, the effects of VE do not notably exceed day-to-day variability during high intensity functional strength (CV: 3.5–4.1%) and endurance (CV: 3.9–7.3%) testing. However, high intensity functional strength and endurance testing with VE seems to be slightly more reliable, particularly during endurance testing.

High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) and competitions: How motives differ by length of participation

High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) is a unique fitness method that promotes an active lifestyle and has seen exponential and continual growth over the last two decades. Motivation to exercise is likely to change over time as individuals' motives to initiate exercise may be different than those which motivate them to maintain an exercise program. The purpose of this study was to examine the motivational factors reported by individuals who actively engage in HIFT with varying length of participation and competition levels. 737 adults (32.4 ± 8.2 years) with more than three-months of HIFT experience completed an online version of the Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI-2) survey. Those who had greater length of participation reported more motives associated with relatedness (i.e., affiliation, competition) and enjoyment, while those with less HIFT participation were more motivated by body-related variables (i.e., weight management). Further, motivational variables (e.g., social recognition, affiliation, challenge) varied depending on whether or not individuals had competed in an online qualifier. Understanding these differences in motivation may aid in exercise promotion, initiation, and adherence, and moreover promote long-term physical and mental health benefits.

High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT): Definition and Research Implications for Improved Fitness

High-intensity functional training (HIFT) is an exercise modality that emphasizes functional, multi-joint movements that can be modified to any fitness level and elicit greater muscle recruitment than more traditional exercise. As a relatively new training modality, HIFT is often compared to high-intensity interval training (HIIT), yet the two are distinct. HIIT exercise is characterized by relatively short bursts of repeated vigorous activity, interspersed by periods of rest or low-intensity exercise for recovery, while HIFT utilizes constantly varied functional exercises and various activity durations that may or may not incorporate rest. Over the last decade, studies evaluating the effectiveness of HIIT programs have documented improvements in metabolic and cardiorespiratory adaptations; however, less is known about the effects of HIFT. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide a working definition of HIFT and review the available literature regarding its use to improve metabolic and cardiorespiratory adaptations in strength and conditioning programs among various populations. Additionally, we aim to create a definition that is used in future publications to evaluate more effectively the future impact of this type of training on health and fitness outcomes.

Sharing a Personal Trainer: Personal and Social Benefits of Individualized, Small-Group Training

Wayment, HA and McDonald, RL. Sharing a personal trainer: personal and social benefits of individualized, small-group training. J Strength Cond Res 31(11): 3137-3145, 2017-We examined a novel personal fitness training program that combines personal training principles in a small-group training environment. In a typical training session, exercisers warm-up together but receive individualized training for 50 minutes with 1-5 other adults who range in age, exercise experience, and goals for participation. Study participants were 98 regularly exercising adult members of a fitness studio in the southwestern United States (64 women and 32 men), aged 19-78 years (mean, 46.52 years; SD = 14.15). Average membership time was 2 years (range, 1-75 months; mean, 23.54 months; SD = 20.10). In collaboration with the program directors, we developed a scale to assess satisfaction with key features of this unique training program. Participants completed an online survey in Fall 2015. Hypotheses were tested with a serial mediator model (model 6) using the SPSS PROCESS module. In support of the basic tenets of self-determination theory, satisfaction with small-group, individualized training supported basic psychological needs, which in turn were associated with greater autonomous exercise motivation and life satisfaction. Satisfaction with this unique training method was also associated with greater exercise self-efficacy. Autonomous exercise motivation was associated with both exercise self-efficacy and greater self-reported health and energy. Discussion focuses on why exercise programs that foster a sense of social belonging (in addition to motivation and efficacy) may be helpful for successful adherence to an exercise program.

CrossFit Overview: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

CrossFit is recognized as one of the fastest growing high-intensity functional training modes in the world. However, scientific data regarding the practice of CrossFit is sparse. Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze the findings of scientific literature related to CrossFit via systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

Systematic searches of the PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Bireme/MedLine, and SciELO online databases were conducted for articles reporting the effects of CrossFit training. The systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines. The Oxford Levels of Evidence was used for all included articles, and only studies that investigated the effects of CrossFit as a training program were included in the meta-analysis. For the meta-analysis, effect sizes (ESs) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated and heterogeneity was assessed using a random-effects model.

RESULTS

Thirty-one articles were included in the systematic review and four were included in the meta-analysis. However, only two studies had a high level of evidence at low risk of bias. Scientific literature related to CrossFit has reported on body composition, psycho-physiological parameters, musculoskeletal injury risk, life and health aspects, and psycho-social behavior. In the meta-analysis, significant results were not found for any variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The current scientific literature related to CrossFit has few studies with high level of evidence at low risk of bias. However, preliminary data has suggested that CrossFit practice is associated with higher levels of sense of community, satisfaction, and motivation.

A meta-analytic review of Elliot's (1999) Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation in the sport, physical activity, and physical education literature

PURPOSE

The purpose of this quantitative review was to summarize the state of Elliot's Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation, specifically the antecedents of the 2 × 2 achievement goals in the sport, physical activity, and physical education literature. In addition, the intercorrelations amongst the 2 × 2 goals were also examined.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted. Meta-analytic procedures were used with the mean weighted sample correlation (r w) as the effect size metric. The antecedents were coded by Elliot's (1999) antecedent categories. A number of moderators were coded a priori.

RESULTS

Based on a fixed effects model from 47 published studies (total unique n = 15,413) that met inclusion criteria, the 2 × 2 achievement goals were significantly correlated amongst each other ranging from small to medium to large in meaningfulness. Concerning the antecedents, overall they were theoretically correct in associations, but only a few of the relationships were medium in meaningfulness. Most relationships were small in meaningfulness. Heterogeneity was present for the interrcorrelation and antecedent analyses.

CONCLUSION

Future research is encouraged to grow and enrich the understanding of achievement goals within Elliot's complete Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation to include both antecedents and outcomes simultaneously to improve upon the understanding of achievement motivation in sport, exercise, and physical activity settings.

CrossFit® Instructor Demographics and Practice Trends

CrossFit^® is an increasingly popular exercise modality that uses high intensity power training. The literature to date regarding CrossFit^® has focused on its benefits to VO2 Max, body composition and the motivational variables of participants of CrossFit^®. A computerized survey was distributed to CrossFit^® instructors using Survey Monkey^® (Palo Alto, CA, USA). One hundred and ninety-three CrossFit^® instructors responded to the survey. Of these 86.6% (155/179) reported being a certified CrossFit^® instructor with 26.7% (48/180) having a bachelor’s degree in an exercise-related field. Instructors with a CrossFit^® certification have less bachelor’s (P=0.04) or master’s (P=0.0001) degrees compared to those without a CrossFit^® certification, more utilization of Olympic weightlifting (P=0.03), one-on-one teaching (P=0.0001), 1-RM max on snatch (P=0.004), 1-RM on clean and jerk or hang clean (P=0.0003), kettlebell use (P=0.0001) and one-on-one training (P=0.0001). Instructors report differences in their education and differences in use of weightlifting platforms and various types of footwear. Non-certified instructors differ from CrossFit^® certified instructors in regards to teaching of Olympic weightlifting and exercise programming.

Personal Trainer Demographics, Current Practice Trends and Common Trainee Injuries

Increasing emphasis on maintaining a healthy lifestyle has led many individuals to seek advice on exercise from personal trainers. There are few studies to date that evaluate personal trainer education, practice trends, and injuries they have seen while training clients. A survey was distributed to personal trainers using Survey Monkey® (Palo Alto, CA, USA) with 605 personal trainers accessing the survey. An exercise related bachelor’s degree was held by 64.2% of survey participants and a certification in personal training by 89.0%. The most common personal trainer certifications were from American College of Sports Medicine (59.2%) and National Strength and Conditioning Association (28.9%). Only 2.9% of all personal trainers surveyed had no exercise-related bachelor’s degree and no personal trainer certification. The most common injuries seen by personal trainers during sessions were lumbar muscle strain (10.7%), rotator cuff tear/tendonitis (8.9%), shin splints (8.1%), ankle sprain (7.5%), and cervical muscle strain (7.4%). There is variability in the practices between different personal trainers when analyzing differences in collegiate education, personal trainer certifications, and strength and conditioning certifications. The clinical implication of the differences in practices is unknown as to the impact on injuries or exercise prescription effectiveness.

The role of social capital and community belongingness for exercise adherence: An exploratory study of the CrossFit gym model

This is the first study to measure the 'sense of community' reportedly offered by the CrossFit gym model. A cross-sectional study adapted Social Capital and General Belongingness scales to compare perceptions of a CrossFit gym and a traditional gym. CrossFit gym members reported significantly higher levels of social capital (both bridging and bonding) and community belongingness compared with traditional gym members. However, regression analysis showed neither social capital, community belongingness, nor gym type was an independent predictor of gym attendance. Exercise and health professionals may benefit from evaluating further the 'sense of community' offered by gym-based exercise programmes.

The relationship of aerobic capacity, anaerobic peak power and experience to performance in CrossFit exercise

CrossFit is becoming increasingly popular as a method to increase fitness and as a competitive sport in both the Unites States and Europe. However, little research on this mode of exercise has been performed to date. The purpose of the present investigation involving experienced CrossFit athletes and naïve healthy young men was to investigate the relationship of aerobic capacity and anaerobic power to performance in two representative CrossFit workouts: the first workout was 12 minutes in duration, and the second was based on the total time to complete the prescribed exercise. The participants were 32 healthy adult males, who were either naïve to CrossFit exercise or had competed in CrossFit competitions. Linear regression was undertaken to predict performance on the first workout (time) with age, group (naïve or CrossFit athlete), VO₂max and anaerobic power, which were all significant predictors (p < 0.05) in the model. The second workout (repetitions), when examined similarly using regression, only resulted in CrossFit experience as a significant predictor (p < 0.05). The results of the study suggest that a history of participation in CrossFit competition is a key component of performance in CrossFit workouts which are representative of those performed in CrossFit, and that, in at least one these workouts, aerobic capacity and anaerobic power are associated with success.