Multiple domain-general assessments of cognitive functions in elite athletes: contrasting evidence for the influence of expertise, sport type and sex

Converging evidence has shown that domain-general cognitive abilities, especially executive functions (EF), tend to be superior in sport experts. However, recent studies have questioned this cognitive advantage and found inconsistent findings when comparing sport type and sex. This study aimed to compare the impact of sport expertise, sport type, and sex on various domains of cognitive functions. Two hundred and thirty elite athletes (nFemale=124, nMale=106) representing three sport categories (Team [n=91], Precision-skill dependent [n=63], and Speed-strength [n=76] sports) were assessed using a computerized neuropsychological test battery including tests of EF (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility and planning), as well as tests of selective and sustained attention. T-scores and raw values were used to analyse performance through t-tests and ANCOVA with age as covariate. Athletes demonstrated better performance than the normative mean on 5 out of 11 cognitive test variables (p<0.005). However, their performance fell within the average range when considering the results along a normative scale, except for sustained attention and working memory where they performed just above average (<1 SD). There was a significant main effect of sport category on only one EF variable (p=0.003). Males performed significantly faster than females on motor reaction time measures of attention and inhibition (all p<0.001). In this study, the 'expert advantage' on domain-general cognitive tests was less prominent when utilizing a normative scale and controlling for age or speed-accuracy trade-offs, except for sustained attention and working-memory. Cognitive functions did not appear to differ meaningfully based on athletes' sport type or sex.

Relationship between visual ability assessment and punch performance in competition in male amateur boxers

Sport visual ability plays an important role in the performance of elite athletes in competition. However, its relationship with boxers' performance has not been fully understood. This study investigated the relationship between sports visual abilities and in-competition punching performance in 26 highly trained male amateur boxers. Ten visual abilities of the boxers were tested using the Senaptec Sensory Station (Senaptec, Beaverton, OR, United States), including Visual Clarity (VC), Contrast Sensitivity (CS), Depth Perception (DP), Near Far Quickness (NFQ), Target Capture (TC), Perception Span (PS), Multiple Object Tracking (MOT), Eye-Hand Coordination (EHC), Go/No Go (GNG), and Reaction Time (RT). Performance analyses were conducted on national boxing championships conducted by the boxers to analyze their punching accuracy. Correlation and regression analyses showed that punch performance %Hit was very strong correlated with DP, EHC, GNG, and RT, and showed a strong correlation with VC, CS, and PS. %Hit was moderate correlated with MOT, while there was no correlation with NFQ and TC. In addition, RT, EHC, and DP are important visual ability variables for boxers. The results of this study indicate that there is an overall relationship between sports visual ability and boxing performance, but there is also a specific relationship between variables in visual ability and boxing performance, especially faster reaction times, better processing of visual information, and decision-making abilities, and the ability to accurately recognize the distance and position of an opponent and their punches are essential for enhancing boxing performance. Further studies are needed to investigate the relationship between sport visual ability and more comprehensive performance in boxers, and the possibility of enhancing performance through specific visual training.

Gaze Behavior and Cognitive Performance on Tasks of Multiple Object Tracking and Multiple Identity Tracking by Handball Players and Non-Athletes

Multiple object tracking (MOT) and multiple identity tracking (MIT) each measure the ability to track moving objects visually. While prior investigators have mainly compared athletes and non-athletes on MOT, MIT more closely resembles dynamic real-life environments. Here we compared the performance and gaze behavior of handball players with non-athletes on both MOT and MIT. Since previous researchers have shown that MOT and MIT engage different eye movement strategies, we had participants track 3-5 targets among 10 moving objects. In MOT, the objects were identical, while in MIT they differed in shape and color. Although we observed no group differences for tracking accuracy, the eye movements of athletes were more target-oriented than those of non-athletes. We concluded that tasks and stimuli intended by researchers to demonstrate that athletes' show better object tracking than non-athletes should be specific to the athletes' type of sport and should use more perception-action coupled measures. An implication of this conclusion is that the differences in object tracking skills between athletes and non-athletes is highly specific to the skills demanded by the athletes' sport.

About the Predictive Value of a 3D Multiple Object Tracking Device for Talent Identification in Elite Ice Hockey Players

Purpose: The aim of this study is to verify if a single session on the NeuroTracker has predictive value in talent identification in ice hockey. Methods: Thirty-five male ice hockey players (aged 16-20) from the highest Canadian competition level for that age group participated in the study. A battery of tests (attention, working memory, time reproduction, pattern recognition, temporal equivalence, technical ability, and decision-making) was administered to verify the relation between various cognitive abilities, on-ice performance, and the baseline score on the NeuroTracker, which is claimed to solicit multiple cognitive functions. On-ice performance indicators were game-related statistics: games played, points (mean per game), on-ice goals differential, and draft rank. Results: Results show that the baseline score on the NeuroTracker is not associated with draft ranking, nor is it able to predict which players will perform best based on game-related statistics. However, the NeuroTracker baseline score does correlate with various tests involving working memory and attention. Conclusion: Currently, NeuroTracker is not specific enough to allow talent identification among same-level elite athletes in ice hockey.

Study on the relationship between fixation characteristics and hit rate in psychological procedure training of free throw

BACKGROUND

Free throw is an important means of scoring in basketball games. With the improvement of basketball competition level and the enhancement of confrontation degree, the number of free throws in the game gradually increases, so the score of free throw will have an important impact on the result of the game. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between visual attention characteristics and hit rate of basketball players in free throw psychological procedure training, so as to provide scientific basis for basketball teaching and training.

METHODS

Forty players with similar free throw abilities were randomly assigned to the experimental group (10 males, 10 females) and control group (10 males, 10 females). The experimental group was free throw psychological procedure training, while the control group was trained with routine training, Eye movement indices (number of fixations, fixation duration, and pupil dilation) and the free throw hit rate and analyzed before and after the experiment. Group differences were examined using t-tests, while paired sample t-tests were conducted to compare pre- and post-test results within each group. The training time and training times of the two groups were the same.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in fixation duration, number of fixations, pupil diameter and free throw hit rate between pre-test and post-test in the experimental group (P < 0.05). Post-test, there were significant differences in number of fixations, fixation duration, pupil diameter and free throw hit rate between the two groups (P < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between number of fixations and free throw hit rate in top (P < 0.01), and there was a significant positive correlation between fixation duration and hit rate in front (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The psychological procedure training can improve the visual information search strategy and information processing ability of free throw, and significantly improve the free throw hit rate. There was a positive correlation between the front fixation time and the free throw hit rate, and there was a positive correlation between the top number of fixations and the free throw hit rate.

Association between sports expertise and visual attention in male and female soccer players

Background

Visual attention plays a crucial role in daily living and in sports, affecting an athlete's performance and thus, potentially, the outcome of a match. However, studies assessing the association between the level of sports expertise and visual attention have yielded mixed results. This study was conducted to examine whether visual attention could be developed with increased sports expertise, and whether visual attention differed between male athletes and female athletes.

Methods

A total of 128 participants were included in this study: 64 first-level national soccer athletes recruited from college soccer teams (considered elite athletes; 32 men and 32 women with similar soccer performance requirements and training experience), and 64 physical education college students with limited soccer experience (considered novice athletes; 32 men and 32 women with matched soccer experience). To assess visual attention, we used a multiple object tracking (MOT) task with four targets among a total of 10 objects moving at a fixed speed of 10°/s in random directions across a computer monitor screen. Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was calculated for each participant as the proportion of correctly selected targets. A univariate analysis of variance was performed, with group (expert, novice) and sex (male, female) as independent variables, and tracking accuracy on the MOT task as the dependent variable to assess whether sports expertise or sex influenced visual attention. Simple effects tests followed by comparisons with Bonferroni corrections were used, and effect size calculations were performed using Cohen's f statistic.

Results

Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was significantly affected by sports expertise (F(1,124) = 91.732, p < 0.001, ηP2 = 0.425), with accuracy among expert soccer athletes superior to that among novice soccer athletes. Moreover, a statistically significant interaction between sports expertise and sex was detected (F(1,124) = 7.046, p = 0.009, η P2= 0.054). Better tracking performance was observed for male soccer players (mean [SD], 0.39 [0.12]) than for female soccer players (mean [SD], 0.27 [0.08]); p < 0.01; d=1.17; r = 0.51) but only in the novice group. No significant sex difference was detected in tracking performance between elite male soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.51 [0.09]) and elite female soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.49 [0.11]).

Conclusion

These findings confirm previous results indicating that long-term extensive sports training develops visual attention as assessed by MOT performance and extend previous findings to include soccer athletes. The findings of a sex difference in visual attention among novice soccer players but not among elite soccer athletes who had similar performance requirements and training experience suggest that long-term extensive training may minimize the sex difference in visual attention.

Young Basketball Players' Multiple Object Tracking Skills Were Unaffected by Stroop-Induced Mental Fatigue

We aimed to examine the acute effect of mental fatigue on young basketball players' three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) skills. Our participants were 12 adolescent basketball players (M age = 16.66, SD = 1.87 years; M years of practice = 2.66, SD = 1.07 years). In nine lab visits, we used visits 1 to 7 to familiarize participants with 3D-MOT, a subjective scale of mental fatigue, and a Stroop task involving mental set shifting. In the last two visits, participants performed in both experimental (EXP) and control (CON) conditions that were presented in randomized order. In the EXP condition, participants performed 3D-MOT pre- and post-60 minutes of induced mental fatigue; in the CON condition, they watched a documentary. After each condition, B participants performed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). 3D-MOT performance measures were the "score" and "fastest trial score success." The response time on the Stroop tasks increased throughout the mental fatigue inducement in the experimental condition (p = .0037). The NASA-TLX responses were higher following the EXP condition than following the CON condition for mental demand, temporal demand, and performance (all ps < .05). Still, there were no significant EXP versus CON differences on the 3D-MOT performance indicators.

A Protocol for Remote Cognitive Training Developed for Use in Clinical Populations During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Many traumatic brain injury (TBI) survivors face scheduling and transportation challenges when seeking therapeutic interventions. The COVID-19 pandemic created a shift in the use of at-home spaces for work, play, and research, inspiring the development of online therapeutic options. In the current study, we determined the feasibility of an at-home cognitive training tool (NeuroTrackerX) that uses anaglyph three-dimensional (3D) glasses and three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) software. We recruited 20 adults (10 female; mean age = 68.3 years, standard deviation [SD] = 6.75) as the at-home training group. We assessed cognitive health status for participants using a self-report questionnaire and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and all participants were deemed cognitively healthy (MMSE >26). At-home participants loaned the necessary equipment (e.g., 3D glasses, computer equipment) from the research facilities and engaged in 10 training sessions over 5 weeks (two times per week). Participant recruitment, retention, adherence, and experience were used as markers of feasibility. For program validation, 20 participants (10 female; mean age = 63.39 years, SD = 12.22), who had previously completed at least eight sessions of the in-lab 3D-MOT program, were randomly selected as the control group. We assessed individual session scores, overall improvement, and learning rates between groups. Program feasibility is supported by high recruitment and retention, 90% participant adherence, and participants' ease of use of the program. Validation of the program is supported. Groups showed no differences in session scores (p > 0.05) and percentage improvement (p > 0.05) despite the differences in screen size and 3D technology. Participants in both groups showed significant improvements in task performance across the training sessions (p < 0.001). NeuroTrackerX provides a promising at-home option for cognitive training in cognitively healthy adults and may be a promising avenue as an at-home therapeutic for TBI survivors. This abstract was previously published on clinicaltrials.gov and can be found at: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05278273.

The cognitive benefits of basketball training compared to a combined endurance and resistance training regimen: a four-month intervention study

Neurocognitive function, especially executive functioning, is positively associated with better fitness or higher levels of physical activity (PA). Previous research suggests that combined endurance and resistance (AER+R) training leads to greater improvements than training in either modality separately. Dynamic team sports with cognitive dimensions, such as basketball (BAS), may be an excellent context for improving cognition. This study compared the effects of following a four-month PA training program in BAS versus AER+R on executive functions along with a control group with low PA. Fifty participants completed the training period and were randomly distributed into three groups: BAS (16 participants), AER+R (18), and control (16). Participants in the BAS group showed improved inhibition and working memory and those in the AER+R group showed improved inhibition and cognitive flexibility, while inhibition deteriorated in the control group. There were significant differences between groups only in inhibition. It appears that following a four-month PA training program is enough to enhance executive functioning, and improvements in inhibition are more evident when the program includes an open sport such as BAS.

The Influence of Acute Sprint Interval Training on the Cognitive Performance of Male Basketball Players: An Investigation of Expertise-Related Differences

Highly developed cognitive abilities are an important prerequisite for reaching elite athletic levels. This study aimed to investigate the effect of an acute sprint interval training (SIT) session on the cognitive performance of amateur and elite players. Eighteen amateur and ten elite male basketball players were included in this study. They were asked to perform an acute SIT consisting of the Wingate Test (i.e., four bouts of 30 s all-out sprints) on a cycle ergometer, interspersed with 4 min of active recovery. Before and after the acute SIT, three cognitive tests (i.e., Change Detection Test, Timewall Test, Mackworth Clock Test) were performed. Exercise-induced changes in cognitive performance and between-group differences were analyzed. We did not observe significant between-group differences in the performance of any cognitive test at the pretest, but elite basketball players outperformed the amateur players in specific measures of the Change Detection Test and Timewall Test after the acute SIT (p < 0.05). In addition, for the Clock Test, only the elite basketball players' performance improved from pre- to posttest. The current study's findings suggest that male elite basketball players, compared to amateur basketball players, can preserve their cognitive performance after an acute bout of SIT.

The relationship between sport types, sex and visual attention as assessed in a multiple object tracking task

This study was conducted to examine differences in visual attention according to sports type and sex. In total, 132 participants [open-skill sport athletes (basketball players), closed-skill sport athletes (swimmers), and non-athletes; n = 22 men and 22 women each] aged 19-24 years performed a multiple object tracking (MOT) task, which is a well-established paradigm for the assessment of visual attention. Visual tracking accuracy was affected by the sport type (p < 0.001), being superior among basketball players than among swimmers and non-athletes, with no significant difference between the latter groups. It also varied by sex (p < 0.001), being superior among males than among females. Significant interaction between the sport type and sex was observed (p < 0.001), with male and female basketball players showing similar tracking accuracy. Our results demonstrate that open-skill sport activities strongly related to visual attention, as estimated by MOT task performance, and that sex plays a role in this performance. They also indicate that females might gain a greater visual attention advantage from open than from closed-skill sports participation, as long-term open-skill sports training appeared to minimize the sex difference in visual attention.

Differences in visio-spatial intelligence between non-athletes and netball players

There is conflicting evidence regarding whether athletes have better visio-spatial skills than non-athletes. This gap may result from athletes' superiority in only some visio-spatial abilities (VSS), rather than all areas of vision. The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a significant difference in the visio-spatial intelligence between female netball players (n = 40) and non-athletes (n = 40) when comparing six visual skills (accommodation facility, saccadic eye movement, speed of recognition, peripheral awareness, hand-eye coordination, and visual memory). Following an optometric evaluation, the participants were assessed in six distinct established tests, including the hart near far rock, saccadic eye movement, evasion, accumulator, ball wall toss tests, and flash memory, to evaluate the VSS components of non-athletes and premier league netball players. For five of the six tests, there was a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between netball players and non-athletes. Conversely, there is no concrete evidence that netball players have better visual memory than non-athletes (p = 0.277). When compared to non-athletes, netball players have significantly improved accommodation facility (p < .001), saccadic eye movements (p < .001), speed of recognition (p < .001), peripheral awareness (p < .001), and hand-eye coordination (p < .001), but not visual memory (p = 0.277). The findings that netball players perform better on a certain VSS have broad ramifications for theories of sport vision, the optimal way to choose tests, and the creation of VSS testing batteries for specific sports.

Team ball sport experience minimizes sex difference in visual attention

Simultaneous tracking of the position of the ball and player locations and activities places high demands on visual attention in team ball sport athletes. Owing to their extensive sports training, these athletes may be expected to exhibit visual attention skills superior to non-athletes; however, the results of studies examining this are inconsistent. Thus, the first aim of this study was to assess the impact of participating in a team ball sport on visual attention. There is limited empirical evidence indicating a sex difference in visual attention, and few studies have reported on visual attention in male and female athletes. Thus, the second aim of this study was to determine whether team ball sport experience affected any sex differences in visual attention. In total, 44 highly skilled basketball players—22 men (mean age: 21.86 ± 2.15 years) with a mean (SD) of 8.46 (2.92) years training experience and 22 women (mean age: 21.32 ± 1.58 years) with a mean (SD) of 8.22 (2.44) years of training experience—and 44 non-athletic undergraduate college students—22 men (mean age: 21.62 ± 1.88 years) and 22 women (mean age: 21.55 ± 1.72 years)—were recruited and completed this study. Visual attention was measured by using the multiple object tracking (MOT) task. Skilled basketball players showed superior tracking accuracy to non-athletic college students on the MOT task. A significant sex difference was found only among the non-athletic college students, with better tracking accuracy for men than for women on the MOT task. By contrast, no significant sex difference was observed among the skilled basketball players for tracking accuracy on the MOT task. These findings indicated that team ball sport training may enhance visual attention as assessed by tracking accuracy. Given that the male and female basketball players in this study had similar training experience and game performance demands, long-term team ball sport experience appeared to minimize the sex difference in visual attention found among non-athletic students.

Examining the ability to track multiple moving targets as a function of postural stability: a comparison between team sports players and sedentary individuals

Background

The ability to track multiple objects plays a key role in team ball sports actions. However, there is a lack of research focused on identifying multiple object tracking (MOT) performance under rapid, dynamic and ecologically valid conditions. Therefore, we aimed to assess the effects of manipulating postural stability on MOT performance.

Methods

Nineteen team sports players (soccer, basketball, handball) and sixteen sedentary individuals performed the MOT task under three levels of postural stability (high, medium, and low). For the MOT task, participants had to track three out of eight balls for 10 s, and the object speed was adjusted following a staircase procedure. For postural stability manipulation, participants performed three identical protocols (randomized order) of the MOT task while standing on an unstable platform, using the training module of the Biodex Balance System SD at levels 12 (high-stability), eight (medium-stability), and four (low-stability).

Results

We found that the ability to track moving targets is dependent on the balance stability conditions (F2,66 = 8.7, p < 0.001, η² = 0.09), with the disturbance of postural stability having a negative effect on MOT performance. Moreover, when compared to sedentary individuals, team sports players showed better MOT scores for the high-stability and the medium-stability conditions (corrected p-value = 0.008, Cohen's d = 0.96 and corrected p-value = 0.009, Cohen's d = 0.94; respectively) whereas no differences were observed for the more unstable conditions (low-stability) between-groups.

Conclusions

The ability to track moving targets is sensitive to the level of postural stability, with the disturbance of balance having a negative effect on MOT performance. Our results suggest that expertise in team sports training is transferred to non-specific sport domains, as shown by the better performance exhibited by team sports players in comparison to sedentary individuals. This study provides novel insights into the link between individual's ability to track multiple moving objects and postural control in team sports players and sedentary individuals.

Test-retest reliability of the neurotracker compared to the impact test for the management of mild traumatic brain injuries during two consecutive university sport seasons

INTRODUCTION

Neurocognitive assessment tools such as the Neurotracker and ImPACT have been proposed to optimize sports-related mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) management. Baseline testing is recommended with such assessments to individualize monitoring of athletes' remission. While the ideal timeframe between baseline updates has been studied for the ImPACT, these data are missing for the Neurotracker.

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to compare the test-retest reliability of the ImPACT and Neurotracker for two consecutive seasons in university athletes participating in sports at risk for mTBI.

METHODS

At the start of two consecutive seasons, 30 athletes with no recent history of mTBI completed a baseline assessment including the Neurotracker and the ImPACT. The test-retest reliability of the results was analyzed by considering intra-class correlation (ICC), Becker's standardized mean difference (d_B) and Bland-Altman' plot of each outcome.

RESULTS

The Neurotracker and the Visual Motor Speed composite score of the ImPAC were the only outcomes with significative ICCs and acceptable d_B between the two seasons. Neurotracker was the only outcome with a significative bias (+0.179).

CONCLUSION

Our research suggests that the Neurotracker has an acceptable level of test-retest reliability after one year in comparison to the ImPACT.

Three-dimensional multiple object tracking improves young adult cognitive abilities associated with driving: evidence for transfer to the useful field of view

OBJECTIVES

3-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) and the useful field of view (UFOV) both claim to measure and train cognitive abilities, such as selective and divided attention implicated in driving safety. 3D-MOT is claimed to improve even young adult cognitive ability. If true, one would expect to observe the transfer of 3D-MOT training to UFOV performance mediated by way of shared underlying cognitive mechanisms.

METHODS

We test this notion by assessing whether ten 30-min sessions of 3D-MOT training spread across 5 weeks improves UFOV performance relative to an active control group trained on a visual task and a challenging puzzle game (participants aged between 23 and 33 years old).

RESULTS

The 3D-MOT training group exhibited significantly improved UFOV performance whereas the active control group exhibited only a small, statistically nonsignificant improvement in the task.

CONCLUSIONS

This suggests that 3D-MOT and UFOV performance are likely dependent on overlapping cognitive abilities and helps support the assertion that these abilities can be trained and measured even in young adults. Such training could have implications for improving driver safety in both young and older adults.

Visual tracking assessment in a soccer-specific virtual environment: A web-based study

The ability to track teammates and opponents is an essential quality to achieve a high level of performance in soccer. The visual tracking ability is usually assessed in the laboratory with non-sport specific scenarios, leading in two major concerns. First, the methods used probably only partially reflects the actual ability to track players on the field. Second, it is unclear whether the situational features manipulated to stimulate visual tracking ability match those that make it difficult to track real players. In this study, participants had to track multiple players on a virtual soccer field. The virtual players moved according to either real or pseudo-random trajectories. The experiment was conducted online using a web application. Regarding the first concern, the visual tracking performance of players in soccer, other team sports, and non-team sports was compared to see if differences between groups varied with the use of soccer-specific or pseudo-random movements. Contrary to our assumption, the ANOVA did not reveal a greater tracking performance difference between soccer players and the two other groups when facing stimuli featuring movements from actual soccer games compared to stimuli featuring pseudo-random ones. Directing virtual players with real-world trajectories did not appear to be sufficient to allow soccer players to use soccer-specific knowledge in their visual tracking activity. Regarding the second concern, an original exploratory analysis based on Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components was conducted to compare the situational features associated with hard-to-track virtual players in soccer-specific or pseudo-random movements. It revealed differences in the situational feature sets associated with hard-to-track players based on movement type. Essentially with soccer-specific movements, how the virtual players were distributed in space appeared to have a significant influence on visual tracking performance. These results highlight the need to consider real-world scenarios to understand what makes tracking multiple players difficult.

Multiple Players Tracking in Virtual Reality: Influence of Soccer Specific Trajectories and Relationship With Gaze Activity

The perceptual-cognitive ability to track multiple moving objects and its contribution to team sports performance has traditionally been studied in the laboratory under non-sports specific conditions. It is thus questionable whether the measured visual tracking performance and the underlying gaze activity reflected the actual ability of team sports players to track teammates and opponents on a real field. Using a Virtual Reality-based visual tracking task, the ability of participants to track multiple moving virtual players as they would do on a soccer field was observed to pursue two objectives. (i) See the influence of different scenario types (soccer-specific trajectories versus pseudo-random trajectories) on the visual tracking performance of soccer (n = 15) compared to non-soccer players (n = 16). (ii) Observe the influence of spatial features of the simulated situations on gaze activity between soccer players and non-soccer players. (i) The linear mixed model regression revealed a significant main effect of the group but no interaction effect between group and the type of trajectories, suggesting that the visual tracking ability of soccer players did not benefit from their specific knowledge when they faced scenarios with real game trajectories. (ii) Virtual players’ spatial dispersion and crowding affected the participants’ gaze activity and their visual tracking performance. Furthermore, the gaze activity of soccer players differed in some aspects from the gaze activity of non-soccer players. Assumptions are formulated as to the implication of these results in the difference in visual tracking performance between soccer players and non-soccer players. Overall, using soccer-specific trajectories might not be enough to replicate the representativeness of the field conditions in the study of visual tracking performance. Multitasking constraints should be considered along with motor-cognitive dual-tasks in future research to develop the representativeness of visual exploration conditions.

Relationship between dynamic visual acuity and multiple object tracking performance

We assessed the association between measures of dynamic visual acuity and a multiple object tracking task in physically active young adults. Ninety-four young adults performed the dynamic visual acuity and multiple object tracking tasks. Dynamic visual acuity was measured for horizontal and random walk motion paths at four target speeds (5, 10, 20, and 30°/s). For the multiple object tracking task, participants had to track three out of eight balls for 10 s, and the object speed was adjusted by a staircase procedure. We found that multiple object tracking performance was associated with better identification of horizontally and randomly moving targets in the dynamic visual acuity test (p < .001, r = -.35 [-.52, -.16]; and p < .001, r = -.52 [-.65, -.35]; respectively). This effect was consistent across all target speeds (all p-values<0.05). However, static visual acuity did not correlate with any measure of dynamic visual acuity or multiple object tracking (p > 0.170 in all cases). This study provides novel insights into the association between the ability to identify horizontally and randomly moving targets and track multiple objects. Future studies are needed to determine the potential utility of dynamic visual acuity for talent identification and predicting sports performance in real-game situations.

Cognitive Factors in Elite Handball: Do Players’ Positions Determine their Cognitive Processes?

For an athlete to be successful at the professional level, he or she should be characterized by extraordinary preparation in four areas: physical, technical, cognitive (related to game strategy, perception, and decision-making), and emotional (coping, emotional control). This study aimed to determine the level of selected cognitive traits in handball players while considering their sports level and assigned position on the court. Fifty handball players participated in the study. Participants consisted of 35 national team players, six first-division players, and nine second-division players. There were no significant differences between players from the elite (national team) and the sub-elite (I and II divisions) group. The results identified major differences in selective attention and short-term memory between handball players assigned to different positions (goalkeepers, compared to players in other positions, had lower attention and short-term memory). Thus, it is possible to develop a more effective psychological training program. However, it must be remembered that the results showed great variability among handball players. With this in mind, individual differences should be taken into account when planning psychological interventions.

The underpinning factors of NBA game-play performance: a systematic review (2001-2020)

OBJECTIVE

Recognizing the high stakes associated with winning and losing in the National Basketball Association (NBA), a deep understanding of the underlying mechanisms of NBA game-play performance would provide substantial benefit to all stakeholders involved with preparing NBA players and teams for competitive success. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this systematic review presents the first attempt to systematically amalgamate and appraise the scientific literature published in the XXI Century, following a constraints-led approach (CLA). In particular, two underpinning factors of NBA game-play performance were investigated: (1) NBA player constraints (internal variables) and (2) NBA contextual constraints (external variables).

METHODS

Databases included PubMed (MEDLINE), Web of Science (WOS), ResearchGate, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and the World Association of Basketball Coaches' database (WABC). This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) model and the Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcomes (PICOS) guidelines.

RESULTS

Ultimately, 43 articles met the inclusion criteria (n = 43). Promisingly, the vast majority of studies were published in recent years (>2016; n = 28; 65.1%). Topics related to 'contextual constraints' (n = 25; 58.1%) received more attention than topics related to 'player constraints' (n = 18; 41.9%). Even though the importance of longitudinal-interventional approaches to applied sports science is well-documented, descriptive-observational research emerged as the most popular method of choice (n = 27; 62.8%); interventional studies were absent; and near all researchers merely utilized secondary data sources (n = 37; 86.0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Taking into account the total body of evidence (2001-2020), NBA practitioners may use this systematic review as a baseline reference to enrich their current knowledge about the nature, demands, and dynamics of the modern-day NBA ecosystem. Finally, adoption of an 'Applied Science Research Framework' is encouraged, fostering clearly outlined project incentives; standardizing taxonomies; sequencing follow-up studies; embracing holistic and cross-disciplinary viewpoints; and integrating longitudinal-interventional projects to increase the reproducibility of their findings.

Anthropometrics, Athletic Abilities and Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Associated With Baseball Pitching Velocity in Young Athletes Aged Between 10 and 22 Years Old

Objective assessments of players performance and individual characteristics are increasingly used in baseball. However, evidence linking individual characteristics to players' performance are scarce. The purpose of the study was to identify across ages, in younger males and females, and to compare, in younger males, the anthropometrics, athletic abilities and perceptual-cognitive skills associated with baseball pitcher's ball velocity. A cross-sectional design was used to conduct this study. Male and female athletes completed a sociodemographic questionnaire followed by anthropometric, athletic ability, perceptual-cognitive skill and pitching velocity assessments. Athletes were categorized by their age categories (11U, 13U, 15U, 18U, 21U). To evaluate the athletes' anthropometrics, height and weight, BMI, waist circumference, arms segmental length and girth were measured. Athletic abilities were assessed using athletes' grip strength, upper body power, vertical jump height, sprint, change of direction, and dynamic balance. Perceptual-cognitive skills performance was assessed with the Neurotracker platform. Pitching performance assessment was completed using the athletes' average fastball velocity. Kendall Tau's correlation coefficient was used to assess relationships between variables and pitching velocity in male athletes (p &lt; 0.05). A 1-way ANOVA was performed to identify differences between age categories for all variables in male athletes (p &lt; 0.05). In male athletes, without age categories discrimination, all anthropometric, athletic ability and perceptual-cognitive skill factors were associated with pitching velocity with associations ranging from τ = 0.185 for perceptual-cognitive skills to τ = 0.653 for left arm grip strength. The results showed that significant differences exist between age categories for anthropometric, athletic ability and perceptual-cognitive skill assessments. The study showed that associations between anthropometrics and pitching velocity, and athletic abilities and pitching velocity vary across age categories. Descriptive data of female athletes results regarding anthropometrics, athletic abilities, perceptual-cognitive skills and pitching velocity are also presented. Gender differences should be investigated in future studies exploring baseball pitching performance.

Topical Review: Optometric Considerations in Sports vs. E-Sports

Electronic sports (e-sports) have recently emerged to become a rapidly growing form of videogame competition, requiring gamers to spend many hours in front of a visual display. The nature of this new modality raises important considerations for ocular health, and visual and perceptual functioning, compared to traditional sports. In general, sports performance has been associated with open spaces, gross motor movement, and balance, while electronic sports require visual and attentional stamina at near distances with fine motor control. From an optometric viewpoint, visual perception is specific to both the sports modality and the environment where sports take place. In this topical review, we consider e-sport optometric factors such as screen time and digital eyestrain, visual skill demands, and perceptual cognitive skills such as visual attention. We compare training considerations for traditional sports and training in gaming platforms, with recommendations for future research in this growing modality. The goal of this review is to raise awareness of the various elements to consider when providing vision care to e-sport participants.

Different unilateral force control strategies between athletes and non-athletes

This study investigated continuous visuomotor tracking capabilities between athletes and non-athlete controls using isometric force control paradigm. Nine female athletes and nine female age-matched controls performed unilateral hand-grip force control tasks with their dominant and non-dominant hands at 10% and 40% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), respectively. Three conventional outcome measures on force control capabilities included mean force, force accuracy, and force variability, and we additionally calculated two nonlinear dynamics variables including force regularity using sample entropy and force stability using maximal Lyapunov exponent. Finally, we performed correlation analyses to determine the relationship between nonlinear dynamics variables and conventional measures for each group. The findings indicated that force control capabilities as indicated by three conventional measures were not significantly different between athlete and non-athlete control groups. However, the athletes revealed less force regularity and greater force stability across hand conditions and targeted force levels than those in non-athlete controls. The correlation analyses found that increased force regularity (i.e., less sample entropy values) at 10% of MVC and decreased force regularity (i.e., greater sample entropy values) at 40% of MVC were significantly related to improved force accuracy and variability for the athlete group, and these patterns were not observed in the non-athlete control group. These findings suggested that the athletes may use different adaptive force control strategies as indicated by nonlinear dynamics tools.

Review: Vision and On-field Performance: A Critical Review of Visual Assessment and Training Studies with Athletes

SIGNIFICANCE

Sports vision is an emerging field that seeks to establish the relationships between visual function and sports performance. Here we provide the first critical review of empirical studies that attempt to link visual assessments and vision training to competitive game performance.Vision is essential to producing controlled movement, and therefore, it is intuitive that better visual abilities should relate to better sporting performance. This notion has been central to the field of sports vision, an area of study that seeks to determine the visual skills that underlie optimal sports performance and investigate approaches to train these abilities to improve sports performance. Although this field now contains hundreds of published articles addressing visual assessment and training in athletes, relatively few have attempted to directly link these capabilities to on-field production statistics from competitive matches. The objectives of this article are both to describe the theoretical and experimental framework necessary for such research and to critically review the empirical literature that has attempted to directly link visual assessments and/or training to athletic performance. We begin by describing why such associations are important and then provide an evidence-based framework for evaluating the quality of research in this domain. This is followed by a summary and review of the qualified literature that has addressed either relationships between baseline assessments and game performance or the effects of visual training interventions on game performance. Based on this review, it is concluded that, despite promising evidence supporting the role of vision in sports performance and improvements due to training, the specialty is still in need of methodological improvements. It is recommended that studies aim for larger better-powered studies, consistent and precise outcome measures, and greater scientific rigor such as obtained through randomized placebo-controlled designs with pre-registration of hypotheses.

Topical Review: The Top Five Peripheral Vision Tools in Sport

SIGNIFICANCE

This study summarizes the empirical evidence on the use of peripheral vision for the most-researched peripheral vision tools in sports.

The objective of this review was to explain if and how the tools can be used to investigate peripheral vision usage and how empirical findings with these vision tools might be transferred to sports situations. The data sources used in this study were Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed. We additionally searched the manufacturers' Web pages and used Google Scholar to find full texts that were not available elsewhere. Studies were included if they were published in a peer-reviewed journal, were written in English language, and were conducted in a sports context. From the 10 searched tools, we included the 5 tools with most published studies. In our topical search, we identified 93 studies for the five most-used peripheral vision tools. Surprisingly, none of these studies used eye-tracking methods to control for the use of peripheral vision. Best "passive" control is achieved by tools using (foveal) secondary tasks (Dynavision D2 and Vienna Test System). Best transfer to sports tasks is expected for tools demanding action responses (FitLight, Dynavision D2). Tools are likely to train peripheral monitoring (NeuroTracker), peripheral reaction time (Dynavision D2, Vienna Test System), or peripheral preview (FitLight), whereas one tool did not show any link to peripheral vision processes (Nike SPARQ Vapor Strobe).

Topical Review: Visual Performance Assessments for Sport

SIGNIFICANCE

Eye care professionals seek to provide effective vision care for a variety of patient needs, including performance in sports and recreational pursuits. This review provides an analysis of common visual performance assessments, including summaries of recent clinical research from a diverse array of professional literature.Vision is recognized as an important element of sports performance. Elite athletes frequently demonstrate exceptional abilities to see and respond effectively in sports competition. Which visual factors are important and how to most effectively assess visual performance are the sources of much debate. This topical review presents an evidence-based review of the common visual performance factors assessed in athletes, beginning with guidance for conducting a visual task analysis for the variety of sports that athlete patients may compete in. An information processing model is used to provide a framework for understanding the contributions of the many visual performance factors used during sports.

Relationship between individual alpha peak frequency and attentional performance in a multiple object tracking task among ice-hockey players

Individual alpha peak frequency (IAPF), the discrete frequency with the highest power value in the alpha oscillation range of the electroencephalogram, is a stable neurophysiological marker and is closely associated with various cognitive functions, including aspects of attention and working memory. However, the relationship between IAPF and attentional performance as well as the effects of engaging attention on IAPF are unknow. Here, we examined whether IAPF values were associated with attentional performance by evaluating accuracy during the performance of a multiple object tracking (MOT) task, a well-established paradigm for investigating goal-driven attention in dynamic environments, and whether engagement in the task affected IAPF values. In total, 18 elite players and 20 intermediate players completed the study. Resting electroencephalogram recordings were obtained for 120 s while players kept their eyes open and an additional 120 s while players’ eyes were closed, before and again after performing the MOT task. Tracking accuracy in the MOT task and IAPF values before and after the MOT task were analyzed. As expected, tracking accuracies were higher in elite players than in intermediate-level players. Baseline IAPF values were significantly and positively correlated with the accuracy of target tracking in the MOT task. IAPF values were higher in elite than intermediate players in both the eyes open and closed conditions and both before and after MOT task performance. Interindividual IAPF values did not differ before and after the MOT task. These findings indicate that IAPF is a stable marker, without intraindividual changes associated with engagement in the MOT task. Elite players had higher IAPF values and exhibited more accurate MOT performance than intermediate-level players; thus, baseline IAPF values may be useful to predict attentional performance in the MOT task among athletes.

The Effects of the Combination of High-Intensity Interval Training with 3D-Multiple Object Tracking Task on Perceptual-Cognitive Performance: A Randomized Controlled Intervention Trial

The ability to process goal-related visual information while ignoring goal-irrelevant information is essential for the human attention system. The study aimed to investigate how perceptual–cognitive performance was affected during high-intensity interval training (HIIT) using a 3D-multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) task called Neurotracker (NT). In an experimental design, 42 healthy adults (age M = 23.3 SD = 2.94, VO₂max 52.8 ± 5.66 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) were randomly assigned to an intervention (HIIT + NT, NT, HIIT) or control group. NT performance (20 trials per session) was measured pre-and post-test (at 5, 15, and 25 min while running on the treadmill). The participants trained twice a week for a 4-week intervention period. There was a significant interaction effect between pre/post-test and groups regarding perceptual-cognitive performance, indicating similar enhancements in the HIIT + NT and the NT group during exercise. HIIT influences physical fitness but did not show any impact on perceptual–cognitive performance. Due to the specific NT task characteristics, improved physical abilities may not directly impact sport-specific perceptual-cognitive performance. Our findings suggest that training resulted in substantial task-specific gains. Therefore, combination training may be proposed as a training program to improve perceptual–cognitive, and physical performance in a time-efficient way.

A critical systematic review of the Neurotracker perceptual-cognitive training tool

In this systematic review, we evaluate the scientific evidence behind “Neurotracker,” one of the most popular perceptual-cognitive training tools in sports. The tool, which is also used in rehabilitation and aging research to examine cognitive abilities, uses a 3D multiple object-tracking (MOT) task. In this review, we examine Neurotracker from both a sport science and a basic science perspective. We first summarize the sport science debate regarding the value of general cognitive skill training, based on tools such as Neurotracker, versus sport-specific skill training. We then consider the several hundred MOT publications in cognitive and vision science from the last 30 years that have investigated cognitive functions and object tracking processes. This literature suggests that the abilities underlying object tracking are not those advertised by the Neurotracker manufacturers. With a systematic literature search, we scrutinize the evidence for whether general cognitive skills can be tested and trained with Neurotracker and whether these trained skills transfer to other domains. The literature has major limitations, for example a total absence of preregistered studies, which makes the evidence for improvements for working memory and sustained attention very weak. For other skills as well, the effects are mixed. Only three studies investigated far transfer to ecologically valid tasks, two of which did not find any effect. We provide recommendations for future Neurotracker research to improve the evidence base and for making better use of sport and basic science findings.

Decision-Making Skills in Youth Basketball Players: Diagnostic and External Validation of a Video-Based Assessment

Decision-making is a central skill of basketball players intending to excel individually and contribute to their teams’ success. The assessment of such skills is particularly challenging in complex team sports. To address this challenge, this study aimed to conceptualize a reliable and valid video-based decision-making assessment in youth basketball. The study sample comprised youth basketball players of the German U16 national team (n = 17; M_Age = 16.01 ± 0.25 years) and students of a sports class (n = 17; M_Age = 15.73 ± 0.35 years). Diagnostic validity was tested by determination of the performance levels according to response accuracy as well as response time in the assessment. External validity was examined by investigation of the correlation between the diagnostic results of the elite athletes and their real game performance data associated with passing skills. Logistic regression analysis revealed that the diagnostic results discriminate between performance levels (χ²(2) = 20.39, p < 0.001, Nagelkerke’s R² = 0.60). Multiple regression analysis demonstrated a positive relationship between the diagnostic results and assists (F(2,10) = 4.82, p < 0.05; R² = 0.49) as well as turnovers per game (F(2,10) = 5.23, p < 0.05; R² = 0.51). However, no relationship was detected regarding the assist-turnover ratio. Further, response time discriminated within the elite athletes’ performance data but not between performance levels while for response accuracy the opposite is the case. The results confirm the diagnostic and external validity of the assessment and indicate its applicability to investigate decision-making skills in youth basketball.

A Multi-Block Multivariate Analysis to Explore the Influence of the Somatic Maturation in Youth Basketball

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of somatic maturation in anthropometric, physical, and game-related variables in youth basketball age groups under-13 (U-13) and under-15 (U-15). One-hundred and eighty-five basketball players performed anthropometrical and physical tests during a non-official youth basketball tournament. Predicted maturity offset (MO) and game-related variables were also analyzed. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the between-maturation status differences in all parameters in each age group. Also, regularized generalized canonical correlation analysis (RGCCA) was used to assess relative contributions of maturational, physical, and game-related variables within each age group. Based on MO, two different clusters were identified within each age category. Greater differences in MO were identified among U-13 clusters than among U-15 clusters. No significant differences were observed between clusters in terms of physical and game-related variables. High correlations between maturational, physical, and game-related variables (i.e., points scored, field goals attempted, and rebounds) were found for boys. In girls, different trends in terms of correlations were observed. The strongest association between blocks was observed between physical tests and game-related variables in all age categories, except for U-15 girls. Knowing and identifying performance profiles according to biological age is of upmost importance since it allows the coach to create challenging situations adjusted to the individual's needs.

Cognitive training in elite soccer players: evidence of narrow, but not broad transfer to visual and executive function

Visual and executive functions have been suggested to be crucial in high-demanding team sports. Consequently, the interest in evaluating training possibilities of these functions is relatively high. However, easily applicable training tools, as well as evidence of their efficacy, especially in the present group of age (i.e. 17–21 years) and performance level, are scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and transfer of an essential cognitive training tool (i.e. NeuroTracker [NT] three dimensional [3D] multiple-object tracking [MOT]) in youth elite soccer players. Visual and executive functions were analyzed in a pre–post test design with an intervention and a control group after 10 weeks of training twice a week. Physical activity was included as a possible covariate. Results show meaningful benefits in the trained ability (i.e. MOT) besides small but negligible improvements in visual clarity and inhibition for the intervention group. Consequently, strict single-task NT 3D-MOT seems to have little transfer to other visual or executive functions. However, future studies should investigate the effects of sport-specific dual-task NT 3D-MOT to analyze possible multitasking adaptations further.

Train Smarter, Play More: Insights About Preparation and Game Participation in Youth National Team

Purpose: The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between physical preparation, training sessions (TS) and friendly matches' (FM) demands, and playing status during European Championship (EC). Method: Twelve under-16 (U-16) basketball players performed physical (jumping, agility, aerobic fitness, and lower limb asymmetry index [ASI]) tests prior to attending the national team training camp. External training load was assessed using the WIMU PRO System put in place during TS (n = 19) and FM (n = 3), integrating the national team preparation. Perceptual response (RPE), muscle soreness (DOMS), and game-related statistics were also collected. Playing status during the U-16 EC (starters vs nonstarters) were taken into consideration to analyze the between-subjects differences across all variables. A stepwise discriminant analysis was computed to identify the construct that best differentiated the players' playing status (starters vs nonstarters) during the EC. Results: The starters were characterized by lower movement demands in both TS (ES: -0.02 to -1.26) and FM (ES: -0.03 to -1.94), however, outscored nonstarters in most FM-related statistics (ES: 0.10 to 3.62), with exception to blocks and rebounds. The number of high-intensity decelerations during FM (p ≤ .05), but also training DOMS, number of steals, efficiency, minutes during FM, and countermovement jump (CMJ) (p ≤ .01) substantially discriminated the playing status over the course of the EC. Conclusion: Game-related statistics obtained in FM seem to be a determinant aspect that increases the probability to be the starter during the EC.

Visual function, performance, and processing of basketball players vs. sedentary individuals

BACKGROUND

Athletes tend to have better visuo-motor performance than do sedentary individuals. However, several basic visual-function and perceptual parameters remain unexplored to date. In this study, we investigated whether differences exist in visual function, performance, and processing between basketball players and individuals without a sport-involvement background.

METHODS

A total of 33 healthy men with no visual impairment or pathology were divided into 2 groups, depending on the involvement in sport (semi-professional basketball players and sedentary individuals). We tested their baseline heart-rate variability in the resting position apart from subjective questionnaires to determine their physical fitness level, and we checked their visual function, performance, and processing through an extended battery of optometric tests.

RESULTS

The 2 groups differed in resting heart-rate variability parameters (p < 0.001), confirming their dissimilarities in regular time practising sports per week. The basketball players showed a closer breakpoint and recovery nearpoint of convergence, a higher fusional-vergence rate, better discriminability halos, and better eye-hand coordination (all p values < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results show evidence that athletes, basketball players in this case, exhibit better performance in several visual abilities in comparison to a group of individuals without sporting backgrounds, suggesting an improvement due to the systematic involvement of those skills during basketball practice.

Perceptual Cognitive Training Does Not Improve Clinical Outcomes at 4 and 12 Weeks Following Concussion in Children and Adolescents: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether a perceptual-cognitive training program using 3D-multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) can improve symptoms following acute pediatric concussion.

SETTING

Research laboratory within a pediatric trauma center.

PARTICIPANTS

Children and adolescents (n = 62, age= 13.27 ± 2.50) with diagnosed concussion.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial. Children were randomized into either 3D-MOT, 2048 game, or standard care-only groups. Participants and parents completed the Post-Concussion Symptom Inventory (PCSI) at baseline, 4, 8, and 12 weeks postinjury. Intervention participants completed either the 3D-MOT protocol or the 2048 game at 6 sessions between the baseline and 4-week assessment.

MAIN MEASURES

A 3 (group) × 10 (time) mixed-model analysis of variance evaluated PCSI total scores. The rate of persistent postconcussive symptom (PPCS) was evaluated at 4 weeks using χ2 analysis.

RESULTS

Symptoms decreased throughout the study using both child-reported (F(9,374) = 22.03, P < .001) and parent-reported scores (F(9,370) = 28.06, P < .001). Twenty-four (44.4%) children met the study definition for PPCS using the child-reported PCSI, while 20 (37.7%) children had PPCS using parent reports. The intervention did not significantly affect symptom resolution or PPCS rates.

CONCLUSION

There is no benefit to prescribing 3D-MOT training for acute rehabilitation in pediatric patients with concussion and clinicians should instead focus on more effective programs.

Future Portrait of the Athletic Brain: Mechanistic Understanding of Human Sport Performance Via Animal Neurophysiology of Motor Behavior

Sport performances are often showcases of skilled motor control. Efforts to understand the neural processes subserving such movements may teach us about general principles of behavior, similarly to how studies on neurological patients have guided early work in cognitive neuroscience. While investigations on non-human animal models offer valuable information on the neural dynamics of skilled motor control that is still difficult to obtain from humans, sport sciences have paid relatively little attention to these mechanisms. Similarly, knowledge emerging from the study of sport performance could inspire innovative experiments in animal neurophysiology, but the latter has been only partially applied. Here, we advocate that fostering interactions between these two seemingly distant fields, i.e., animal neurophysiology and sport sciences, may lead to mutual benefits. For instance, recording and manipulating the activity from neurons of behaving animals offer a unique viewpoint on the computations for motor control, with potentially untapped relevance for motor skills development in athletes. To stimulate such transdisciplinary dialog, in the present article, we also discuss steps for the reverse translation of sport sciences findings to animal models and the evaluation of comparability between animal models of a given sport and athletes. In the final section of the article, we envision that some approaches developed for animal neurophysiology could translate to sport sciences anytime soon (e.g., advanced tracking methods) or in the future (e.g., novel brain stimulation techniques) and could be used to monitor and manipulate motor skills, with implications for human performance extending well beyond sport.

Evaluation of a Reactive Agility Assessment Device in Youth Football Players

Hoffman, JR. Evaluation of a reactive agility assessment device in youth football players. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3311-3315, 2020-The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of the Blazepod reactive agility device on sport-specific movements in competitive youth football players. Thirty-one male athletes (16.7 ± 1.5 years; 179.4 ± 7.0 cm; 75.0 ± 21.0 kg), all members of a youth tackle football team, volunteered to participate in this study. Subjects performed 3 reactive agility drills (side shuffle reactive agility, 1-m reactive agility, and 3-m reactive agility) at least 72 hours apart. In addition, all subjects also performed 3 traditional agility exercises: proagility, T drill, and L drill. These sessions were part of the offseason conditioning program for the football team that involved sport-specific drills. All assessments occurred following a warm-up and conducted in the same order on each occasion. To assess the validity of the reactive agility drills, the head coach was asked to rank the football playing and agility ability of the players participating in the study. The intraclass correlation coefficient values indicated that all 3 reactive agility drills displayed excellent reliability (r's ranging from 0.833 to 0.884). The measurement error was smaller than the individual variability, indicating that measurement error had a very limited effect on the results. Subjective rankings for agility significantly correlated with each of the agility and reactive agility measurements. Results of this study indicate that the Blazepod reactive agility device is a reliable measure of reactive agility performance and are consistent with the coach's perception of the athlete's agility performance, thus demonstrating construct validity.

Memory training combined with 3D visuospatial stimulus improves cognitive performance in the elderly: pilot study

Studies suggest that the engagement of aged participants in cognitive stimulation programs can reduce expected cognitive decline associated with age.

Objective

To evaluate the effects of memory training (MT) associated with three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) NeuroTracker (NT) in the elderly.

Methods

Forty-four participants (>60 years of age) were recruited and randomly distributed into two groups: experimental (EG; n=22) and comparative (CG; n=22). Both groups performed 12 one-hour MT sessions, twice a week, consisting of specific computerized stimuli associated with teaching of mnemonic strategies; 10 minutes of NT was part only of the EG's sessions. In pre- and post-training periods, both groups were evaluated using a sociodemographic questionnaire, neuropsychological assessment, as well as a specific measure offered by NT.

Results

Both groups benefited from the MT and reported more positive feelings regarding their memory and quality of life. However, the EG obtained better results in tests consistent with the strategies trained and which involved attentional resources, reaction time, visual processing speed, episodic, semantic, subjective and working memory as well as aspects of social cognition.

Conclusions

This study showed that the combination of MT and 3D-MOT contributed for a better cognitive performance in the EG. Thus, the results of the present study encourage further research and the development of combined cognitive interventions for the elderly population with and without cognitive deficits.

Effect of bilingualism on visual tracking attention and resistance to distraction

Speaking more than one language has been associated with enhanced cognitive capacities. Here we evaluated whether bilingual individuals have advantages in visual tracking attention. Adult bilingual (n = 35) and monolingual (n = 35) participants were tested in the Multiple Object Tracking task (MOT). In one condition, the MOT was performed by itself establishing the baseline performance of each group, and in the other condition, it was performed while participants counted backward out loud in their mother tongue. At baseline, the average speed tracking threshold of bilinguals was not better than that of the monolinguals. Importantly, for bilinguals, counting backward decreased their threshold by only 15%, but, for monolinguals, it decreased it three times as much. This result suggests that bilingualism confers advantages to visual tracking attention when dual tasking is required, extending the evidence that bilingualism affords cognitive benefits beyond verbal communication.

Dynamic visual attention characteristics and their relationship to match performance in skilled basketball players

Background

Dynamic visual attention is important in basketball because it may affect the performance of players and thus the match outcome. The goals of this study were to investigate the difference in dynamic visual attention characteristics between highly skilled basketball players and nonathletic college students and to explore the relationship between visual attention and game-related performance among the basketball players.

Methods

In total, 24 highly skilled basketball players and 24 nonathletic college students participated in a multiple object tracking task. The task was conducted so that either the number of targets that were visually tracked or the speed at which a given number of tracked targets moved was altered to examine the difference in dynamic visual attention characteristics between the basketball players and nonathletic college students. The relationship between visual tracking speed (VTS) and game-related statistics, including assists, steals, mistakes, fouls and points scored recorded for every match during the season, was assessed among the basketball players by using Pearson correlations.

Results

A significant main effect of target tracking load was observed (P < 0.001), with visual tracking performance significantly decreased as target number increased. In addition, the speed at which the targets moved had a significant effect on visual tracking performance (P < 0.001), with tracking performance significantly decreased as target speed increased. However, no significant difference was observed in the abilities of basketball players and nonathletic college students to simultaneously track up to six targets. By contrast, a significant interaction between group and target speed was found (P < 0.001), with the visual tracking accuracy of basketball players significantly greater than that of college students at the higher target speeds examined (P < 0.001). Among basketball players, there were positive, large, and statistically significant correlations in the accuracy in VTS trials and the number of assists (P < 0.001) and between the accuracy in VTS trials and the number of steals (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The advantage of skilled basketball players to handle dynamic visual information in a multiple object tracking task was not attributable to the target number but to the target speed. Those athletes with greater dynamic visual attention were more likely to successfully assist or to steal the ball, enhancing performance of the athlete as well as contributing to a more successful team match. These findings may inform basketball training programs to improve player and team performances during matches.

The Regional Differences in Game-Play Styles Considering Playing Position in the FIBA Female Continental Basketball Competitions

The aim of this study was to identify regional differences based on playing position in terms of the technical performances among FIBA Female Continental Basketball Championships by controlling the influence of situational variables including the game outcome, game type, teams and opponent quality. The samples comprised of 9208 performance records from 471 games in the America, Africa, Asia and Europe Championships during 2013-2017 and were collected and analyzed by generalized mixed linear modeling. Our study highlighted that, although positional differences were clear among different continental championships, it is worth noting that African guards, forwards, and centers made more turnovers (TOV) compared with the corresponding positional players from other continental championships. In addition, European guards presented the lowest number of steals (STL) compared with African (ES = 0.28), Asian (ES = 0.21), and American guards (ES = 0.24). The results provide coaches to have a better understanding of game-play styles among FIBA Female Continental Basketball Competitions, which could optimize the development of female basketball and the selection and recruitment of female players at the international level.

Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise

When tracking multiple moving targets among visually similar distractors, human observers are capable of distributing attention over several spatial locations. It is unclear, however, whether capacity limitations or perceptual-cognitive abilities are responsible for the development of expertise in multiple object tracking. Across two experiments, we examined the role of working memory and visual attention in tracking expertise. In Experiment 1, individuals who regularly engaged in object tracking sports (soccer and rugby) displayed improved tracking performance, relative to non-tracking sports (swimming, rowing, running) (p = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.163), but no differences in gaze strategy (ps > 0.31). In Experiment 2, participants trained on an adaptive object tracking task showed improved tracking performance (p = 0.005, d = 0.817), but no changes in gaze strategy (ps > 0.07). They did, however, show significant improvement in a working memory transfer task (p < 0.001, d = 0.970). These findings indicate that the development of tracking expertise is more closely linked to processing capacity limits than perceptual-cognitive strategies.

Physiological differences between advanced CrossFit athletes, recreational CrossFit participants, and physically-active adults

This investigation examined anthropometric, hormonal, and physiological differences between advanced (ADV; n = 8, 27.8 ± 4.2 years, 170 ± 11 cm, 79.8 ± 13.3 kg) and recreational (REC; n = 8, 33.5 ± 8.1 years, 172 ± 14 cm, 76.3 ± 19.5 kg) CrossFit (CF) trained participants in comparison to physically-active controls (CON; n = 7, 27.5 ± 6.7 years, 171 ± 14 cm, 74.5 ± 14.3 kg). ADV and REC were distinguished by their past competitive success. REC and CON were resistance-trained (>2 years) and exercised on 3-5 days·wk-1 for the past year, but CON utilized traditional resistance and cardiovascular exercise. All participants provided a fasted, resting blood sample and completed assessments of resting metabolic rate, body composition, muscle morphology, isometric mid-thigh pull strength, peak aerobic capacity, and a 3-minute maximal cycle ergometer sprint across two separate occasions (separated by 3-7 days). Blood samples were analyzed for testosterone, cortisol, and insulin-like growth factor-1. Compared to both REC and CON, one-way analysis of variance revealed ADV to possess lower body fat percentage (6.7-8.3%, p = 0.007), greater bone and non-bone lean mass (12.5-26.8%, p ≤ 0.028), muscle morphology characteristics (14.2-59.9%, p < 0.05), isometric strength characteristics (15.4-41.8%, p < 0.05), peak aerobic capacity (18.8-19.1%, p = 0.002), and 3-minute cycling performance (15.4-51.1%, p ≤ 0.023). No differences were seen between REC and CON, or between all groups for resting metabolic rate or hormone concentrations. These data suggest ADV possess several physiological advantages over REC and CON, whereas similar physiological characteristics were present in individuals who have been regularly participating in either CF or resistance and cardiovascular training for the past year.