Performance in 100-km Ultramarathoners-At Which Age, It Reaches Its Peak?

Bone Turnover Alterations after Completing a Multistage Ultra-Trail: A Case Study

A series of case studies aimed to assess bone and stress fractures in a 768-km ultra-trail race for 11 days. Four nonprofessional male athletes completed the event without diagnosing any stress fracture. Bone turnover markers (osteocalcin (OC), serum C-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX), bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BALP), and serum turnover calcium (Ca2+)) were assessed before (pre) and after the race (post) and on days two and nine during the recovery period (rec2 and rec9), respectively. Results showed: post-pre-OC = -45.78%, BALP = -61.74%, CTX = +37.28% and Ca2+ = -3.60%. At rec2 and rec9, the four parameters did not return to their pre-run levels: OC, -48.31%; BALP, -61.66%; CTX, +11.93% and Ca2+, -3.38%; and OC = -25.12%, BALP = -54.65%, CTX = +93.41% and Ca2+ = +3.15%), respectively. Our results indicated that the ultra-trail race induced several changes in bone turnover markers, uncoupling of bone metabolism, increased bone resorption: OC and BALP and suppressed bone formation: CTX and Ca2+. Bone turnover markers can help determine the response of bone to extreme effort and might also help predict the risk of stress fractures.

Who Is Running in the D-A-CH Countries? An Epidemiological Approach of 2455 Omnivorous, Vegetarian, and Vegan Recreational Runners-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 1)

Accompanied by the growing popularity of distance running, the prevalence of vegan and vegetarian diets in endurance runners has increased across the globe and especially in German-speaking (D-A-CH: Germany, Austria, Switzerland) countries. The present study aimed to investigate and compare the epidemiological characteristics associated with diet types and running behaviors of recreational endurance runners. From a total number of 7422 runners who started to fill in the online survey, 3835 runners completed the questionnaire. After data clearance, 2455 distance runners (mean age: 37 years; 56% females, 44% males) were selected as the final sample and classified as 1162 omnivores (47.4%), 529 vegetarians (21.5%), and 764 vegans (31.1%). Sociodemographic information and general characteristics in training and competition were evaluated using a questionnaire-based approach. A significant association was found between diet type and race distance (p < 0.001). In females, vegan ultra-marathoners and omnivorous half-marathoners had better individual running records among dietary groups. Sex differences in running performance had a minimizing trend with increasing race distance. Most runners reported independent race preparation (90%) over less than four months (73%). From an epidemiological viewpoint, the present findings suggest a central role of plant-based diets in running performance and behaviors among active distance runners in D-A-CH countries and that vegetarian and vegan diets are compatible with competitive running.

Potential Long-Term Health Problems Associated with Ultra-Endurance Running: A Narrative Review

It is well established that physical activity reduces all-cause mortality and can prolong life. Ultra-endurance running (UER) is an extreme sport that is becoming increasingly popular, and comprises running races above marathon distance, exceeding 6 h, and/or running fixed distances on multiple days. Serious acute adverse events are rare, but there is mounting evidence that UER may lead to long-term health problems. The purpose of this review is to present the current state of knowledge regarding the potential long-term health problems derived from UER, specifically potential maladaptation in key organ systems, including cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, renal, immunological, gastrointestinal, neurological, and integumentary systems. Special consideration is given to youth, masters, and female athletes, all of whom may be more susceptible to certain long-term health issues. We present directions for future research into the pathophysiological mechanisms that underpin athlete susceptibility to long-term issues. Although all body systems can be affected by UER, one of the clearest effects of endurance exercise is on the cardiovascular system, including right ventricular dysfunction and potential increased risk of arrhythmias and hypertension. There is also evidence that rare cases of acute renal injury in UER could lead to progressive renal scarring and chronic kidney disease. There are limited data specific to female athletes, who may be at greater risk of certain UER-related health issues due to interactions between energy availability and sex-hormone concentrations. Indeed, failure to consider sex differences in the design of female-specific UER training programs may have a negative impact on athlete longevity. It is hoped that this review will inform risk stratification and stimulate further research about UER and the implications for long-term health.

Blood serum denaturation profile examined by differential scanning calorimetry reflects the effort put into ultramarathon by amateur long-distance runners

The impact of participation in the ultramarathon on the health and mental and physical condition is very complex. Undoubtedly, exercise brings many benefits but also involves health risks. Especially such an extreme effort as the one associated with finishing the ultramarathon run, can be dangerous to the health of the runner. With the variety of possible biomarkers of excessive fatigue that threaten health and life, a question arises which of them are the best and which should be considered in amateur long-distance runners showing particularly high individual variability. In this study differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) has been applied to show the overall effect of the 12-h run on blood sera of participants. Serum samples were obtained from the blood of ten male amateur long-distance runners, collected before and immediately after the run. Distinct changes in the shape of DSC curves have been observed for serum after finishing the run relative to pre-race serum. Statistically significant differences between stages "before" and "after" ultramarathon running have been found for parameters of the endothermic transition associated with denaturation of serum proteins. An increase in the temperature (from 70.9 ± 0.9 to 75.8 ± 2.9 °C) and excess heat capacity (from 0.859 ± 0.201 to 1.102 ± 0.226 Jg-1 °C-1) at peak maximum, the enthalpy of serum denaturation (from 18.55 ± 6.52 to 22.08 ± 5.61 Jg^-1) and the first moment of the thermal transition with respect to the temperature (from the value of 67.0 ± 2.1 to 72.6 ± 2.1 °C) has been observed. These results show a clear impact of running an ultramarathon on the participant's blood serum.

From Athens to Sparta-37 Years of Spartathlon

(1) Background: Recent studies analyzed the participation and performance trends of historic races such as the oldest ultra-marathon (Comrades) or the oldest 100-km ultra-marathon (Biel). One of the toughest and historic ultra-marathons in the world is the ‘Spartathlon’ (246-km ultra-marathon from Athens to Sparta). The present study aimed to analyze the trends in participation and performance of this race. (2) Methods: Different general linear models were applied as follows: the first model was a two-way ANOVA (Decade × Sex), with separate models for all participants and for only the top five finishers in each race; the second model was a two-way ANOVA (Age Group × Sex); the third model was a two-way ANOVA (Nationality × Sex). (3) Results: Between 1982 and 2019, 3504 ultra-marathoners (3097 men and 407 women) officially finished the Spartathlon at least once. Athletes from Japan were the majority with 737 participants, followed by far by runners from Germany (n = 393), Greece (n = 326), and France (n = 274). The nations with the highest numbers of athletes amongst the top five performers were Japan (n = 71), followed by Germany (n = 59), and Great Britain (n = 31). Runners from the USA were the fastest in men, and runners from Great Britain were the fastest in women. Female and male runners improved performance across the decades. The annual five fastest women and men improved their performance over time. Runners achieved their best performance earlier in life (20–29 and 30–39 years) than female runners (30–39 and 40–49 years). Runners in age group 30–39 years were the fastest for all nationalities, except for Greece. (4) Conclusions: Successful finishers in the Spartathlon improved performance in the last four decades and male runners achieved their best performance ~10 years earlier in life than female runners.

Dual Careers of Athletes During COVID-19 Lockdown

This study aimed to investigate the student-athletes' capability to face the academic, sport, and social challenges during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown and to disclose novel aspects of dual careers. A 32-item online survey encompassing demographic characteristics, sport and university engagement, support and dual-career benefits, physical activity, sitting time, and the time deemed necessary to recover the previous level of performance was developed. Four hundred sixty-seven student-athletes (males: 57%, females: 43%) from 11 countries, competing in 49 different sports (individual: 63.4%, team: 36.6%) at regional (17.5%), national (43.3%), and international (39.2%) levels, and enrolled at high school (21.9%) and university (78.1%) levels completed the survey. During the lockdown, the respondents decreased the time dedicated to sport and academics, although they maintained an active lifestyle. Student-athletes from countries under severe contagion were more likely to train at home, dedicate to academics, and receive support from the coach but less likely receive support from their teachers. With respect to their team sport counterparts, athletes competing in individual sports trained more and were more likely to receive support from their coaches. International athletes showed the highest training time and support from their coaches and as student-athletes. High school students received more support from their coaches and teachers, whereas university students were more likely considering dual careers useful to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic. This study substantiates the relevant role of competitive sports participation in the maintenance of active lifestyles, with student-athletes considering home training and e-learning valuable resources during the lockdown. Furthermore, their sport and academic commitments helped student-athletes cope with the emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Participation and Performance Trends in the ITU Duathlon World Championship From 2003 to 2017

ABSTRACT

Nikolaidis, PT, Villiger, E, and Knechtle, B. Participation and performance trends in the ITU Duathlon World Championship from 2003 to 2017. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1127-1133, 2021-Participation and performance across years have been studied extensively in various endurance and ultra-endurance sports; however, less information exists with regards to duathlon (i.e., Run 1, Bike, and Run 2). The aim of this study was to examine performance and participation trends of duathletes competing either to short (10-km Run 1, 50-km Bike, and 5-km Run 2) or to long distance (10-km Run 1, 150-km Bike, and 30-km Run 2) in the Powerman World Championship "Powerman Zofingen." We analyzed 7,951 finishers (women, n = 1,236, age 36.7 ± 9.1 years; men, n = 6,715, 40.1 ± 10.1 years) competing in "Powerman Zofingen" from 2003 to 2017. Men were faster than women by 8.2% (171 ± 21 minutes vs. 186 ± 21 minutes, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.068) and 7.5% (502 ± 57 minutes vs. 543 ± 64 minutes, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.068) in the short and long distances, respectively. Women were younger than men by 4.6 years (35.0 ± 9.0 years vs. 39.6 ± 10.5 years, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.026) and 1.8 years (38.8 ± 8.7 years vs. 40.6 ± 9.5 years, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.005) in the short and long distances, respectively. An increase of women finishers across years in the long distance was observed (e.g., n = 19 in 2003 and n = 58 in 2017; p < 0.001), whereas no change was shown in short distance and men finishers. The men-to-women ratio (MWR) decreased across years in the long, but not in the short distance. No change of race time across years was observed. The sex difference in race time increased in long distance (p = 0.014), whereas it did not change in the short. Age increased across years in both sexes and distances (p < 0.001). The sex difference in age decreased in the long (p = 0.007), but not in the short distance. In summary, the number of women finishers increased and the MWR decreased in the long distance. The age of the finishers increased across years, and their performance remained unchanged. The increase of the sex difference in race time in the long distance might be attributed to the increased number of women finishers.

Prediction of elite athletes' performance by analysis of peak-performance age and age-related performance progression

AbstractThe aim of this study was to analyse age-related performance progression and peak-performance age (PPA) in elite track and field athletes and to use a model to predict peak performance. Best performances of world-class athletes from ages 14 to 15 y up to and including the last Olympic year (n = 798), all-time top lists (n = 444), and world record-holders (n = 43) were considered in all 22 disciplines for men and 21 disciplines for women. A discipline/sex-specified model was used by applying dynamic panel data methods to analyze the performance trends. Profile analysis showed that PPA of all-time top list throwers was higher than middle-distance runners (P < 0.001), distance runners (P < 0.05), and jumpers (P < 0.05) in men and higher (P < 0.05) than middle-distance runners in women. Olympic year top list athletes showed that PPA of women throwers was higher than sprinters (P < 0.001) and middle-distance runners (P < 0.05), and PPA of women distance runners was higher (P < 0.05) than sprinters. In both all-time (P < 0.05) and Olympic year (P < 0.05) top lists, the PPA of men race walkers was higher than middle-distance runners. Performance over the preceding 1-2 years (in all disciplines), height (in Long Jump Men; Long Jump Women; Triple Jump Men) and weight (in Discus Throwing Men) indices, respectively, are important (P < 0.05) for predicting future records with different coefficients in different disciplines. The models provide a useful tool for coaches to predict peak performance records and PPA of their athletes which may be of benefit with goal-setting and evaluation of performance progression at different ages in track and field athletics.

Predictors of Athlete's Performance in Ultra-Endurance Mountain Races

Background: In previous studies, ultra-endurance performance has been associated with training and psychological variables. However, performance under extreme conditions is understudied, mainly due to difficulties in making field measures. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze the role of training, hydration, nutrition, oral health status, and stress-related psychological factors in athletes’ performance in ultra-endurance mountain events. Methods: We analyzed the variables of race time and training, hydration state, nutrition, oral health status, and stress-related psychological factors in 448 ultra-endurance mountain race finishers divided into three groups according to race length (less than 45 km, 45–90 km, and greater than 90 km), using a questionnaire. Results: Higher performance in ultra-endurance mountain races was associated with better oral health status and higher accumulative altitude covered per week as well as higher positive accumulative change of altitude per week during training. In longer distance races, experience, a larger volume of training, and better hydration/nutrition prior to the competition were associated with better performance. Conclusions: Ultra-endurance mountain athletes competing in longer races (>90 km) have more experience and follow harder training schedules compared with athletes competing in shorter distances. In longer races, a larger fluid intake before the competition was the single best predictor of performance. For races between 45 and 90 km, training intensity and volume were key predictors of performance, and for races below 45 km, oral health status was a key predictor of performance. Psychological factors previously reported as ultra-endurance mountain race performance predictors were inconsistent or failed to predict the performance of athletes in the present research.

Elite 100-km road ultramarathon runners: characteristics and musculoskeletal injuries

BACKGROUND

Currently known data about ultramarathon medical issues has been collected from all combinations of ultramarathon race types (road, trail, etc.) and the population in those studies consists of mixed elite and recreational athletes. There are few studies concerning injuries related to musculoskeletal system injuries in ultramarathon runners.

METHODS

The study was conducted on total of 77 elite ultramarathoners based on a questionnaire-based survey. We studied the elite male and female athletes who participated in the 30^th IAU 100-km World Championships held in Croatia, in 2018.

RESULTS

Ultramarathon runners have higher percentage of lower-leg injuries and rehabilitation of those injuries tend to last longer as ultramarathon runners show specific training habits with less days off and hold a permanent, full-time job and often with a higher academic degree. Furthermore, also the mean age is higher.

CONCLUSIONS

Ultramarathoners have a higher percentage of lower-leg injuries than runners who do not run distances beyond a marathon. In addition, rehabilitation tends to last longer. This may well be correlated also to their specific training loads with fewer days off and training whilst holding a permanent full-time job. Often, they also hold a higher academic degree with years spent in the education system which might influence their mindsets on the medical issues they encounter. Also, being older may also have a bearing on injury occurrence and rehabilitation time.

Participation and Performance Analysis in Children and Adolescents Competing in Time-Limited Ultra-Endurance Running Events

Ultra-endurance running is of increasing popularity in the adult population, mainly due to master runners older than 35 years of age. However, youth runners younger than 19 years of age are also competing in ultra-endurance events, and an increase has been observed in distance-limited events, but no data is available on time-limited ultra-endurance events in this age group. This study investigated participation and performance trends in time-limited ultra-endurance races, including multi-day events, in runners younger than 19 years of age. Between the period 1990 and 2018, the most popular events recorded a total of 214 finishes (from 166 unique finishers (UF)) for 6-h events, 247 (212 UF) for 12-h events, and 805 (582 UF) for 24-h events, respectively. The majority of athletes originated from Europe and North America. Only a minority participated in multi-day events. Overall, speed increased with age, but the overall performance speed decreased across calendar years for 6- and 24-h events as participation numbers grew. In summary, in youth ultra-endurance runners, differences were observed regarding participation and performance across the different time-limited events, the age of the athletes and their country of origin

The Temporal and Spatial Evolution of Marathons in China from 2010 to 2018

The purpose of this study is to explore the spatial distribution pattern and influencing factors of the Chinese marathon. Geographic Information System (GIS) related spatial analysis tools were used to calculate the following-averaged nearest neighbor index, nuclear density analysis and hot spot analysis among others. The spatial distribution evolution characteristics and the influencing factors of eighteen Chinese marathon events in 2010, 129 in 2015 and 342 in 2018 were analyzed. The results show that (a) in 2010 the nearest neighbor ratio was 1.164714, Moran's I was -0.010165 (type: Random), in 2015 it was 0.502146, Moran's I was 0.066267 (type: Clustered) and in 2018 it was 0.531149 and Moran's I was 0.083485 (type: Clustered); (b) in 2010 there was a 333.6 km search radius; the core circle of the Yangtze River Delta was adopted. In 2015 and 2018, a search radius of 556 km was adopted, which was respectively obtained from the core circle of the Yangtze River Delta, the core circle of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and the core circle of East China; (c) according to the Z-value data, East China and North China in 2015 passed 95% confidence in five provinces and municipal hot spots, passed 90% confidence in three hot spots and passed 95% confidence in Chongqing Cold Point. In 2018, East China, North China, Central Region and eight other provinces and cities' hot spots passed 95% confidence, four hot spots passed 90% confidence, the Tibet Autonomous Region cold spot passed 90% confidence. Conclusion: The overall distribution of marathon events is greater in the eastern region than the western region, greater in the southern region than the northern region and greater in coastal regions than the inland regions; the nuclear density distribution has spread from the Yangtze River Delta mononuclear circle in 2010 to the core circle of the entire East China region. Moreover, it spread to North China, Central China and South China; the distribution of hot spots spread from Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the entire North China and East China regions. During the past thirty-eight years of development of the Chinese marathon, it has been divided into three stages due to different political, economic and social environments.

Women Reduce the Performance Difference to Men with Increasing Age in Ultra-Marathon Running

Age and sex are well-known factors influencing ultra-marathon race performance. The fact that women in older age groups are able to achieve a similar performance as men has been documented in swimming. In ultra-marathon running, knowledge is still limited. The aim of this study was to analyze sex-specific performance in ultra-marathon running according to age and distance. All ultra-marathon races documented in the online database of the German Society for Ultra-Marathon from 1964 to 2017 for 50-mile races (i.e., 231,980 records from 91,665 finishers) and from 1953 to 2017 for 100-mile races (i.e., 107,445 records from 39,870 finishers) were analyzed. In 50-mile races, race times were 11.74 ± 1.95 h for men and 12.31 ± 1.69 h for women. In 100-mile races, race times were 26.6 ± 3.49 h for men and 27.47 ± 3.6 h for women. The sex differences decreased with older age and were smaller in 100-mile (4.41%) than in 50-mile races (9.13%). The overall age of peak performance was 33 years for both distances. In summary, women reduced the performance difference to men with advancing age, the relative difference being smaller in 100-mile compared to 50-mile races. These findings might aid coaches and ultra-marathon runners set long-term training goals considering their sex and age.

The Age-Related Performance Decline in Marathon Running: The Paradigm of the Berlin Marathon

The variation of marathon race time by age group has been used recently to model the decline of endurance with aging; however, paradigms of races (i.e., marathon running) examined so far have mostly been from the United States. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the age of peak performance (APP) in a European race, the “Berlin Marathon”. Race times of 387,222 finishers (women, n = 93,022; men, n = 294,200) in this marathon race from 2008 to 2018 were examined. Men were faster by +1.10 km.h⁻¹ (10.74 ± 1.84 km.h⁻¹versus 9.64 ± 1.46 km.h⁻¹, p <0.001, η² = 0.065, medium effect size) and older by +2.1 years (43.1 ± 10.0 years versus 41.0 ± 9.8 years, p < 0.001, η² = 0.008, trivial effect size) than women. APP was 32 years in women and 34 years in men using 1-year age groups, and 30–34 years in women and 35–39 years in men using 5-year age groups. Women’s and men’s performance at 60–64 and 55–59 age groups, respectively, corresponded to ~90% of the running speed at APP. Based on these findings, it was concluded that although APP occurred earlier in women than men, the observed age-related differences indicated that the decline of endurance with aging might differ by sex.

Different Predictor Variables for Women and Men in Ultra-Marathon Running-The Wellington Urban Ultramarathon 2018

Ultra-marathon races are increasing in popularity. Women are now 20% of all finishers, and this number is growing. Predictors of performance have been examined rarely for women in ultra-marathon running. This study aimed to examine the predictors of performance for women and men in the 62 km Wellington Urban Ultramarathon 2018 (WUU2K) and create an equation to predict ultra-marathon race time. For women, volume of running during training per week (km) and personal best time (PBT) in 5 km, 10 km, and half-marathon (min) were all associated with race time. For men, age, body mass index (BMI), years running, running speed during training (min/km), marathon PBT, and 5 km PBT (min) were all associated with race time. For men, ultra-marathon race time might be predicted by the following equation: (r² = 0.44, adjusted r² = 0.35, SE = 78.15, degrees of freedom (df) = 18) ultra-marathon race time (min) = −30.85 ± 0.2352 × marathon PBT + 25.37 × 5 km PBT + 17.20 × running speed of training (min/km). For women, ultra-marathon race time might be predicted by the following equation: (r² = 0.83, adjusted r² = 0.75, SE = 42.53, df = 6) ultra-marathon race time (min) = −148.83 + 3.824 × (half-marathon PBT) + 9.76 × (10 km PBT) − 6.899 × (5 km PBT). This study should help women in their preparation for performance in ultra-marathon and adds to the bulk of knowledge for ultra-marathon preparation available to men.

Acute Responses of Novel Cardiac Biomarkers to a 24-h Ultra-Marathon

The aim of the present study was to examine the acute effect of an ultra-endurance performance on N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), cardiac specific troponin T (cTnT), creatinine kinase-myocardial band (CK-MB), high sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP), ischemia modified albumin (IMA), heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) and cardiovascular function. Cardiac biomarkers were evaluated in 14 male ultra-marathoners (age 40 ± 12 years) during a 24 h ultra-marathon at five points (i.e., Pre-race; Marathon, 12-h run, 24-h run, and 48-h post-race). All subjects underwent baseline echocardiography assessment at least 10 days prior to the ultra-marathon and 48 h post-race. The average distance covered during the race was 149.4 ± 33.0 km. Running the ultra-marathon led to a progressive increase in hsCRP and H-FABP concentrations (p < 0.001). CK-MB and cTnT levels were higher after a 24-h run compared to pre-race (p < 0.05). Diastolic function was altered post-race characterized by a reduction in peak early to late diastolic filling (p < 0.01). Running an ultra-marathon significantly stimulates specific cardiac biomarkers; however, the dynamic of secretion of biomarkers linked to myocardium ischemia were differentially regulated during the ultra-marathon race. It is suggested that both exercise duration and intensity play a crucial role in cardiovascular adaptive mechanisms and cause risk of cardiac stress in ultra-marathoners.

Pacing During and Physiological Response After a 12-Hour Ultra-Marathon in a 95-Year-Old Male Runner

In recent years, outstanding performances of elderly people up to 100 years have been reported. In this case study, pacing during and recovery after a 12-h ultra-marathon were described for a 95-year old runner. The athlete achieved a total distance of 52.987 km. Pacing followed a parabolic pattern (U-shaped), where the speed decreased till the middle of the race and then increased. However, no end spurt was observed. A large main effect of lap quartile on speed was observed, where the second quartile was slower than the first quartile and forth. The smallest variability was shown in the first quartile and the largest in the second quartile. During recovery, erythrocytes, hemoglobin and hematocrit increased whereas thrombocytes and leucocytes decreased. CRP, GOT, GPT, y-GT, CK, and LDH were increased post-race and decreased to reference range during recovery. Also, creatinine and urea decreased during recovery. Creatinine clearance increased during recovery. Sodium increased during recovery and remained constantly within the reference range. During recovery body fat and visceral fat mass decreased, whereas body water and lean body mass increased. In summary, a 95-year-old man was able to run during 12 h using a U-shaped pacing and achieving a total distance of nearly 53 km. Increased selected hematological and biochemical parameters returned to pre-race values within a recovery phase of 5 days.

Motivation in ultra-marathon runners

Background

In ultra-marathon running the proper motivation of the athlete is one of the milestones, not only during the races, but also during the practice sessions, which are long and very exhausting.

Purpose

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship of sport experience (expressed as number of finishes in ultra-marathons) with motivation characteristics of ultra-marathon runners.

Subjects and methods

The Motivation of Marathoners Scale examined the motivation of ultra-marathon runners compared to endurance runners of shorter distances (control group). Participants were 1,539 Polish runners, 382 women (24.7%) and 1,157 men (75.3%). Ultra-marathoners (N=425; 26.7%) finished at least one ultra-marathon, whereas the control group consisted of runners of shorter distances (N=1,114, 72.3%).

Results

Ultra-marathoners had higher scores in affiliation (3.55±1.60 vs 3.34±1.62, P<0.05), life meaning (4.20±1.40 vs 4.03±1.44, P<0.05) and lower in the areas of weight concern (4.33±1.68 vs 4.64±1.65, P<0.01), personal goal achievement (5.09±1.25 vs 4.64±1.65, P<0.001) and self-esteem (4.44±1.36 vs 4.68±1.38, P<0.01), than runners in the control group. The number of completed ultra-marathons was negatively related to the personal goal achievement, competition and recognition scale. The level of training experience was negatively correlated with the personal goal achievement scale in all participants, and with the self-esteem scale in the control group. In summary, ultra-marathoners had different motivations compared to runners of shorter race distance.

Conclusions

These findings should be considered by sport psychologists and other professionals to develop performance-tailored interventions for ultra-marathoners.

World Single Age Records in Running From 5 km to Marathon

This study investigated the relationship between race times and age, in 1-year intervals, by using the world single age records, from 5 km to marathon running (i. e., 5 km, 4 miles, 8, 10, 12, 15 km, 10 miles, 20 km, half-marathon, 25 km, 30 km, and marathon). For each race, a regression model was fitted. Effects of sex, alone and in interaction with age, and the effect of country of origin on performance were examined in a multi-variable model. The relationship between age and race time was modeled through a 4th order-polynomial function. Women achieved their best half-marathon and marathon race time, respectively, 1 year and 3 years earlier in life than men. On the contrary, in the other races, the best women performances were achieved later in life than men (i.e., 4 miles and 30 km: 2 years later, 8 km: 3 years later, 15–20–25 km: 1 year later, 10 miles: 4 years) or at the same age (i.e., 5, 10, 12 km). Moreover, age of peak performance did not change monotonically with the distance of race. For all races, except 12 km, sex differences had an absolute maximum at old ages and a relative maximum near the age of peak performance. From 8 km onward, estimated sex differences were increasing with increasing race distance. Regarding country, runners from Canada were slower than runners from the United States of America in 5 km by 00:10:05 h:min:s (p < 0.001) and in half-marathon by 00:18:43 h:min:s (p < 0.01). On the contrary, in marathon, they were 00:18:43 h:min faster (p < 0.05). Moreover, in 10 miles, runners from Great Britain were 00:02:53 h:min:s faster (p < 0.05) than runners from the United States of America. In summary, differences seem to exist in the age of peak performance between women and men and for nearly all distances sex differences showed an absolute maximum at old ages and relative maximum near the age of peak performance. Thus, these findings highlight the need for sex-specific training programs, especially near the age of peak performance and for elder runners.

Pacing and Changes in Body Composition in 48 h Ultra-Endurance Running-A Case Study

Pacing has been investigated in elite and master runners competing in marathon and ultra-marathon races up to 100 km and 100 miles, but not in longer ultra-marathons. In this case study, a 54-year-old master ultra-marathoner—intending to achieve as many kilometers as possible in a 48 h run—was examined. The changes in running speed during the race and selected anthropometric characteristics using bioelectrical impedance analysis (i.e., body mass and body water), during and after the race, were analyzed. The runner achieved a total distance of 230 km and running speed decreased non-linearly during the race. Body mass decreased, while percent body water increased, non-linearly, across the race. There was no statistically significant relationship between the decrease in body mass and the increase in percent body water. Considering the popularity of ultra-endurance running races, the findings of the present study offered valuable insight in the pacing and changes of body mass and body water during a 48 h run, and this information can be used by ultra-endurance runners and practitioners working with them.

Differences in pacing of cross-country skiers by nationality - The example of Vasaloppet 2004-2017

It has been previously observed that athletes of certain origin nationality dominate particular sports; however, this phenomenon has been less studied in cross-country (XC) skiing, especially with regards to performance-related aspects, such as pacing. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of nationality on pacing strategies of XC skiers who finished the "Vasaloppet" from 2004 to 2017. We studied 183,919 finishers (19,465 women and 164,454 men), classified into 15 nationalities, i.e. nationalities with number of finishers larger than 0.25% of the total number of finishers. In women, athletes from Russia (7:47:46 h:min:s) were the fastest and athletes from Denmark (10:01:03 h:min:s) the slowest (p < 0.001, η² = 0.057). In men, athletes from Russia (6:33:03 h:min:s) were the fastest and athletes from Denmark (9:03:27 h:min:s) the slowest (p < 0.001, η² = 0.069). In women and men, a small nationality× split interaction on speed was observed (p < 0.001, η² = 0.016-0.019) with Russians presenting a more even pacing compared to their slower counterparts. It was concluded that fast nationalities present a more even pacing, which should be attributed to the general trend of fast athletes for a more even pacing.

The age of peak performance in women and men duathletes - The paradigm of short and long versions in "Powerman Zofingen"

Purpose

The age of peak performance (APP) has been studied extensively in various endurance and ultra-endurance sports; however, less information exists in regard to duathlon (ie, Run1, Bike, and Run2). The aim of the present study was to assess the APP of duathletes competing either in a short (ie, 10 km Run1, 50 km Bike, and 5 km Run2) or a long distance (ie, 10 km Run1, 150 km Bike, and 30 km Run2) race.

Participants and methods

We analyzed 6,671 participants (women, n=1,037, age 36.6±9.1 years; men, n=5,634, 40.0±10.0 years) in “Powerman Zofingen” from 2003 to 2017.

Results

Considering the finishers in 5-year age groups, in the short distance, a small main effect of sex on race time was observed (p<0.001, η² =0.052) with men (171.7±20.9 min) being faster than women (186.0±21.5 min) by −7.7%. A small main effect of age group on race was shown (p<0.001, η² =0.049) with 20–24 years being the fastest and 70–74 years the slowest. No sex × age group interaction was found (p=0.314, η² =0.003). In the long distance, a small main effect of sex on race time was observed (p<0.001, η² =0.021) with men (502.8±56.8 min) being faster than women (544.3±62.8 min) by −7.6%. A large main effect of age group on race time was shown (p<0.001, η² =0.138) with age group 25–29 years the fastest and age group 70–74 years the slowest. A small sex × age group interaction on race time was found (p<0.001, η² =0.013) with sex difference ranging from −22.4% (15–19 age group) to −6.6% (30–34 age group).

Conclusion

Based on these findings, it was concluded an older APP in the long than in the short distance was seen in “Powerman Zofingen.” This indicates that APP in duathlon follows a similar trend as in endurance and ultra-endurance running and triathlon, ie, the longer the distance, the older the APP.

Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running

In this overview, we summarize the findings of the literature with regards to physiology and pathophysiology of ultra-marathon running. The number of ultra-marathon races and the number of official finishers considerably increased in the last decades especially due to the increased number of female and age-group runners. A typical ultra-marathoner is male, married, well-educated, and ~45 years old. Female ultra-marathoners account for ~20% of the total number of finishers. Ultra-marathoners are older and have a larger weekly training volume, but run more slowly during training compared to marathoners. Previous experience (e.g., number of finishes in ultra-marathon races and personal best marathon time) is the most important predictor variable for a successful ultra-marathon performance followed by specific anthropometric (e.g., low body mass index, BMI, and low body fat) and training (e.g., high volume and running speed during training) characteristics. Women are slower than men, but the sex difference in performance decreased in recent years to ~10–20% depending upon the length of the ultra-marathon. The fastest ultra-marathon race times are generally achieved at the age of 35–45 years or older for both women and men, and the age of peak performance increases with increasing race distance or duration. An ultra-marathon leads to an energy deficit resulting in a reduction of both body fat and skeletal muscle mass. An ultra-marathon in combination with other risk factors, such as extreme weather conditions (either heat or cold) or the country where the race is held, can lead to exercise-associated hyponatremia. An ultra-marathon can also lead to changes in biomarkers indicating a pathological process in specific organs or organ systems such as skeletal muscles, heart, liver, kidney, immune and endocrine system. These changes are usually temporary, depending on intensity and duration of the performance, and usually normalize after the race. In longer ultra-marathons, ~50–60% of the participants experience musculoskeletal problems. The most common injuries in ultra-marathoners involve the lower limb, such as the ankle and the knee. An ultra-marathon can lead to an increase in creatine-kinase to values of 100,000–200,000 U/l depending upon the fitness level of the athlete and the length of the race. Furthermore, an ultra-marathon can lead to changes in the heart as shown by changes in cardiac biomarkers, electro- and echocardiography. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from digestive problems and gastrointestinal bleeding after an ultra-marathon is not uncommon. Liver enzymes can also considerably increase during an ultra-marathon. An ultra-marathon often leads to a temporary reduction in renal function. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from upper respiratory infections after an ultra-marathon. Considering the increased number of participants in ultra-marathons, the findings of the present review would have practical applications for a large number of sports scientists and sports medicine practitioners working in this field.