Performance Differences Between the Sexes in the Boston Marathon From 1972 to 2017

Themes and trends in marathon performance research: a comprehensive bibliometric analysis from 2009 to 2023

Background: When marathon runners break the 2-h barrier at the finishing line, it attracts global attention. This study is aimed to conduct a bibliometric analysis of publications in the field of marathon running, analyze relevant research contributors, and visualize the historical trends of marathon performance research over the past 15 years. Methods: On 8 December 2023, we extracted high-quality publication data from the Web of Science Core Collection spanning from 1 January 2009 to 30 November 2023. We conducted bibliometric analysis and research history visualization using the R language packages biblioshiny, VOSviewer, and CiteSpace. Results: A total of 1,057 studies were published by 3,947 authors from 1,566 institutions across 63 countries/regions. USA has the highest publication and citation volume, while, the University of Zurich being the most prolific research institution. Keywords analysis revealed several hotspots in marathon research over the past 3 years: (1) physiology of the elite marathon runners, (2) elite marathon training intensity and pacing strategies, (3) nutritional strategies for elite marathon runners, (4) age and sex differences in marathon performance, (5) recovery of inflammatory response and muscle damage. Conclusion: This study presents the first comprehensive bibliometric analysis of marathon performance research over the past 15 years. It unveils the key contributors to marathon performance research, visually represents the historical developments in the field, and highlights the recent topical frontiers. The findings of this study will guide future research by identifying potential hotspots and frontiers.

Quantitative Analysis of 92 12-Week Sub-elite Marathon Training Plans

BACKGROUND

A typical training plan is a mix of many training sessions with different intensities and durations to achieve a specific goal, like running a marathon in a certain time. Scientific publications provide little specific information to aid in writing a comprehensive training plan. This review aims to systematically and quantitatively analyse the last 12 weeks before a marathon as recommended in 92 sub-elite training plans.

METHODS

We retrieved 92 marathon training plans and linked their running training sessions to five intensity zones. Subsequently, each training plan was grouped based on the total running volume in peak week into high (> 90 km/week), middle (65-90 km/week), and low (< 65 km/week) training volume plan categories.

RESULTS

In the final 12 weeks before a race, recommended weekly running volume averaged 108 km, 59 km, and 43 km for high, middle, and low distance marathon training plans. The intensity distribution of these plans followed a pyramidal training structure with 15-67-10-5-3%, 14-63-18-2-3%, and 12-67-17-2-2% in zones 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, for high, middle, and low volume training plans, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

By quantitatively analysing 92 recommended marathon training plans, we can specify typical recommendations for the last 12 weeks before a marathon race. Whilst this approach has obvious limitations such as no evidence for the effectiveness of the training plans investigated, it is arguably a useful strategy to narrow the gap between science and practice.

Sedentarism in Recreational Marathon Runners

Aim

Although it has been previously observed that sedentary behavior (SB) was not related to training duration in marathon runners, little information existed about the relationship of SB with training, anthropometric and physiological characteristics in this population. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of SB and its correlation with performance parameters (such as body fat percentage, maximal oxygen uptake and weekly training volume) as well as its variation by sex and day (ie, weekdays versus weekend) in recreational marathon runners.

Methods

A total of 151 finishers (women, n = 29; men, n = 122; age 43.1 (8.7) years, mean (standard deviation)) in the Athens marathon 2017 performed a series of anthropometric and physiological tests, and completed the Multi-context sitting time questionnaire.

Results

SB did not correlate with anthropometric and physiological characteristics and no difference in these characteristics was shown between low and high sedentary participants (p > 0.05). SB did not differ between women and men (p > 0.05), but differed between working and non-working days (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

In contrast to previous findings on the general population indicating an association of a high SB with a low cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, our finding of no correlation between SB and physical fitness in marathon runners suggested that endurance exercise might offset the negative effects of SB.

An analysis of the São Silvestre race between 2007-2021: An increase in participation but a decrease in performance

This study aimed to investigate the trends of finishers in the São Silvestre race in Brazil, taking into account sex, age, and performance levels. A total of 31 ​775 runners (women, n ​= ​13 ​847; men, n ​= ​17 ​928), aged (45.2 ​± ​16.8) years, finishers in the São Silvestre race between 2007 and 2021, were considered in the present analysis. Data (event year, date of birth, sex, and race times) were downloaded from the official race website. The man-Whitney U test, Spearman correlation, and robust regression model were computed. Participation increased over time for both sexes. Regarding age groups, "31-40 years" (women) and "> 60 years" (men) were those with the highest number of finishers. We found a decrease in performance across the years (β ​= ​2.45; p ​< ​0.005), as well as significant differences in race times for both sexes (U ​= ​42.844; p ​< ​0.001), with men presenting better performances than women. Over time, it was observed an increase in the performance gap between the sexes, but in general, the performance decreased (β ​= ​1.76; p ​< ​0.001). Stakeholders should consider improving the strategies to improve women and young people's participation in running events.

Participation and performance trends in short-, medium, and long-distance duathlon

Participation and performance trends of male and female athletes have been thoroughly analyzed in various endurance sports. Knowing these trends can help coaches and athletes prepare for competitions and may influence their training strategy and career planning. However, duathlon events-consisted of two splits of running (Run1 and Run2) interspersed by a split of cycling (Bike)-have not been thoroughly studied, unlike other endurance sports. The present study aimed to compare participation and performance trends in duathletes who competed in duathlon races hosted by World Triathlon or affiliated National Federations between 1990 and 2021. A total of 25,130 results of age group finishers who competed in run-bike-run duathlon races of varying distances were analyzed with different general linear models. Races were divided into three distances: short-distance (up to 5.5 km run, 21 km bike, 5 km run), medium-distance (5-10 km run, 30-42 km bike, 7-11 km run) and long-distance (at least 14 km run, 60 km bike, 25 km run). On average, women represented 45.6% of all finishers in short-distance, 39.6% in medium-distance and 24.9% in long-distance duathlon races. Throughout the years, men were consistently faster than women in all three race legs (Run 1, Bike, and Run 2) in all three distances across all age groups, and women could not reduce the performance gap. Concerning the age of peak performance, duathletes of the age group 30-34 finished most often in the top three in short- and medium-distance duathlons, whereas male duathletes of the age group 25-29 and female duathletes of the age group 30-34 finished most often in the top three in long-distance duathlons. Women participated less, especially in longer distances, and were constantly slower than men. Duathletes of the age group 30-34 finished most often in the top three. Future studies should analyze participation and performance trends in further subgroups (e.g., elite athletes) and pacing behaviours.

Assessment Methods of Body Fat in Recreational Marathon Runners: Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis versus Skinfold Thickness

The aim of the present study was to examine (a) the relationship of body fat (BF) assessed by bioimpedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold thickness (SKF) and (b) the variation of BF by age depending on the assessment method. Participants were 32 women and 134 men recreational marathon runners, who were tested for BF using both assessment methods (BIA and SKF). Rc between BIA and SKF assessment methods was 0.803 (95% CI; 0.640, 0.897) in women and 0.568 (95% CI; 0.481, 0.644) in men. A large main effect of the assessment method on BF was observed (p < 0.001, η² = 0.156) with SKF presenting higher BF than BIA by 2.9%. The difference between SKF and BIA was 3.9 ± 2.7% (95% confidence intervals, CI; 3.4; 4.3, p < 0.001) in men, whereas no difference was found in women (−0.9 ± 2.9%; 95% CI; -1.9; -0.2, p = 0.101). BF correlated with age with small magnitude (BIA, r = 0.18, p = 0.036; SKF, r = 0.23, p = 0.007) in men, i.e., the older the age, the higher the BF. A similar trend of moderate magnitude was observed in women for BIA (r = 0.45, p = 0.011), but not for SKF (r = 0.33, p = 0.067). In conclusion, practitioners involved in the training of recreational runners would be advised to consider that BIA elicits a lower BF value than the SKF method in men.

Changes in Sex Difference in Time-Limited Ultra-Cycling Races from 6 Hours to 24 Hours

Background and objective: Existing research shows that the sex differences in distance-limited ultra-cycling races decreased with both increasing race distance and increasing age. It is unknown, however, whether the sex differences in time-limited ultra-cycling races will equally decrease with increasing race distance and age. This study aimed to examine the sex differences regarding performance for time-limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h). Methods: Data were obtained from the online database of the Ultra-Cycling Marathon Association (UMCA) of time-limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h) from the years 1983–2019. A total of 18,241 race results were analyzed to compare cycling speed between men and women by calendar year, age group (<29; 30–39; 40–49; 50–59; 60–69; >70 years), and race duration. Results: The participation of both men (85.1%) and women (14.9%) increased between 1983 and 2019. The age of peak performance was between 40 and 59 years for men and between 30 and 59 years for women. Between 2000 and 2019, more men (63.1% of male participants and 52.2% of female participants) competed in 24 h races. In the 24 h races, the sex difference decreased significantly in all age groups. Men cycled 9.6% faster than women in the 12 h races and 4% faster in the 24 h races. Both women and men improved their performance significantly across the decades. Between 2000 and 2019, the improvement in the 24 h races were 15.6% for men and 21.9% for women. Conclusion: The sex differences in cycling speed decreased between men and women with increasing duration of ultra-cycling races and with increasing age. Women showed a greater performance improvement than men in the last 20 years. The average cycling speed of men and women started to converge in the 24 h races.

Development and Validation of Prediction Equation of "Athens Authentic Marathon" Men's Race Speed

Aim

Despite the increasing popularity of outdoor endurance running races of different distances, little information exists about the role of training and physiological characteristics of recreational runners. The aim of the present study was (a) to examine the role of training and physiological characteristics on the performance of recreational marathon runners and (b) to develop a prediction equation of men’s race time in the “Athens Authentic Marathon.”

Methods

Recreational male marathon runners (n = 130, age 44.1 ± 8.6 years)—who finished the “Athens Authentic Marathon” 2017—performed a series of anthropometry and physical fitness tests including body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage (BF), maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), anaerobic power, squat, and countermovement jump. The variation of these characteristics was examined by quintiles (i.e., five groups consisting of 26 participants in each) of the race speed. An experimental group (EXP, n = 65) was used to develop a prediction equation of the race time, which was verified in a control group (CON, n = 65).

Results

In the overall sample, a one-way ANOVA showed a main effect of quintiles on race speed on weekly training days and distance, age, body weight, BMI, BF, and VO₂max (p ≤ 0.003, η² ≥ 0.121), where the faster groups outscored the slower groups. Running speed during the race correlated moderately with age (r = −0.36, p < 0.001) and largely with the number of weekly training days (r = 0.52, p < 0.001) and weekly running distance (r = 0.58, p < 0.001), but not with the number of previously finished marathons (r = 0.08, p = 0.369). With regard to physiological characteristics, running speed correlated largely with body mass (r = −0.52, p < 0.001), BMI (r = −0.60, p < 0.001), BF (r = −0.65, p < 0.001), VO₂max (r = 0.67, p < 0.001), moderately with isometric muscle strength (r = 0.42, p < 0.001), and small with anaerobic muscle power (r = 0.20, p = 0.021). In EXP, race speed could be predicted (R² = 0.61, standard error of the estimate = 1.19) using the formula “8.804 + 0.111 × VO₂max + 0.029 × weekly training distance in km −0.218 × BMI.” Applying this equation in CON, no bias was observed (difference between observed and predicted value 0.12 ± 1.09 km/h, 95% confidence intervals −0.15, 0.40, p = 0.122).

Conclusion

These findings highlighted the role of aerobic capacity, training, and body mass status for the performance of recreational male runners in a marathon race. The findings would be of great practical importance for coaches and trainers to predict the average marathon race time in a specific group of runners.

Increased Participation and Decreased Performance in Recreational Master Athletes in "Berlin Marathon" 1974-2019

The aspect of participation and performance trends in marathon running has been investigated mainly in marathons held in the United States of America (e.g., “New York City Marathon,” “Boston Marathon”), but not for the fastest course in the world, the “Berlin Marathon” held in Berlin, Germany. This study aimed to examine trends in participation and performance in the “Berlin Marathon” on all its previous 46 editions from 1974 to 2019, the largest dataset ever studied in this event with 696,225 finishers (after data cleaning). Athletes in all age groups increased their participation, except for male athletes aged 20–49 years and athletes of both sexes above 79 years of age. This overall increase in participation was more pronounced in women, but still, there are more men than women participating in “Berlin Marathon” nowadays. All age group athletes decreased their performance across years overall, whereas the top ten recreational athletes improved their performance over the years. Our findings improved the knowledge about the evolution of male and female marathoners across calendar years, especially for the fastest marathon race in the world, the “Berlin Marathon.”

Training and Racing Behavior of Recreational Runners by Race Distance-Results From the NURMI Study (Step 1)

The present study investigated pre-race preparation of a large sample of recreational runners competing in different race distances (e.g., shorter than half-marathon, half-marathon, marathon and ultra-marathon). An online questionnaire was used and a total of 3,835 participants completed the survey. Of those participants, 2,864 (75%) met the inclusion criteria and 1,628 (57%) women and 1,236 (43%) men remained after data clearance. Participants were categorized according to race distance in half-marathon (HM), and marathon/ultra-marathon (M/UM). Marathon and ultra-marathon data were pooled since the marathon distance is included in an ultra-marathon. The most important findings were (i) marathon and ultra-marathon runners were more likely to seek advice from a professional trainer, and (ii) spring was most commonly reported across all subgroups as the planned season for racing, (iii) training volume increased with increasing race distance, and (iv) male runners invested more time in training compared to female runners. In summary, runners competing in different race distances prepare differently for their planned race.

Clinical Trial Registration:www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier ISRCTN73074080. Retrospectively registered 12th June 2015.

Do Sex Differences in Physiology Confer a Female Advantage in Ultra-Endurance Sport?

Ultra-endurance has been defined as any exercise bout that exceeds 6 h. A number of exceptional, record-breaking performances by female athletes in ultra-endurance sport have roused speculation that they might be predisposed to success in such events. Indeed, while the male-to-female performance gap in traditional endurance sport (e.g., marathon) remains at ~ 10%, the disparity in ultra-endurance competition has been reported as low as 4% despite the markedly lower number of female participants. Moreover, females generally outperform males in extreme-distance swimming. The issue is complex, however, with many sports-specific considerations and caveats. This review summarizes the sex-based differences in physiological functions and draws attention to those which likely determine success in extreme exercise endeavors. The aim is to provide a balanced discussion of the female versus male predisposition to ultra-endurance sport. Herein, we discuss sex-based differences in muscle morphology and fatigability, respiratory-neuromechanical function, substrate utilization, oxygen utilization, gastrointestinal structure and function, and hormonal control. The literature indicates that while females exhibit numerous phenotypes that would be expected to confer an advantage in ultra-endurance competition (e.g., greater fatigue resistance, greater substrate efficiency, and lower energetic demands), they also exhibit several characteristics that unequivocally impinge on performance (e.g., lower O₂-carrying capacity, increased prevalence of GI distress, and sex-hormone effects on cellular function/injury risk). Crucially, the advantageous traits may only manifest as ergogenic in the extreme endurance events which, paradoxically, are those that females less often contest. The title question should be revisited in the coming years, when/if the number of female participants increases.

Effect of Ischemic Preconditioning on Marathon-Induced Changes in Serum Exerkine Levels and Inflammation

Participation in a long-distance run, e.g., marathon or ultramarathon, continues to increase. One side effect of long-distance running is excessive inflammation manifested by the rise in inflammatory cytokine levels. We here aimed to elucidate the effects of 10-day ischemic preconditioning (IPC) training on marathon-induced inflammation and to evaluate the role of serum-stored iron in this process. The study involved 19 recreational runners taking part in a marathon. IPC training was performed in the course of four cycles, by inflating and deflating a blood pressure cuff at 5-min intervals (IPC group, n = 10); the control group underwent sham training (n = 9). The levels of inflammatory and others markers (FSTL-1, IL-6, IL-15, leptin, resistin, TIMP-1, OSM, and LIF) were measured before and 24 h after training; and before, immediately after, and 24 h and 7 day after the marathon. The 10-day IPC training increased serum leptin levels. IL-6, IL-10, FLST-1, and resistin levels were increased, while TIMP-1 levels were decreased in all runners after the marathon. The changes were significantly blunted in runners from the IPC group compared with the control group. Baseline serum iron levels correlated with IL-6 and FSTL-1 levels; serum ferritin correlated with IL-6, FSTL-1, and resistin levels after the marathon. Conversely, serum TIMP-1 levels inversely correlated with serum iron levels. Although not evident at baseline, IPC training significantly reduced marathon-induced inflammation. In addition, the reduced responsiveness and attenuation of running-induced inflammation were inversely related to baseline serum iron and ferritin levels.

Sex Differences in Human Thermoregulation: Relevance for 2020 and Beyond

The participation of women in physically strenuous athletic and occupational tasks has increased substantially in the past decade. Female sex steroids have influences on thermoregulatory processes that could impact physical performance in the heat. Here, we summarize and evaluate the current literature regarding sex differences in thermoregulation and provide recommendations for heat-illness risk-mitigation strategies.

Skinfold Thickness Distribution in Recreational Marathon Runners

The relationship of body fat (BF) percentage with performance of elite marathon runners has been well studied; however, less information is available about the variation of skinfold thickness by sex and performance in non-elite marathon runners. The aim of the present study was to examine the variation of skinfold thickness by sex and performance in recreational marathon runners. Participants included 32 female (age 40.1 ± 9.0 years, BF 19.6 ± 4.7%, and training volume 47.7 ± 22.6 km) and 134 male marathon runners (44.3 ± 8.8 years, 17.6 ± 4.0%, and 53.0 ± 21.2 km, respectively). The largest skinfold thickness was the abdomen in both sexes, whereas the smallest was biceps in men, and chins in women (p < 0.001). The largest sex difference in skinfold thickness was observed in triceps being the fattest in women (p < 0.001). The largest difference in skinfold thickness among men’s performance groups was observed in the iliac crest, and the smallest in the patella and proximal calf (p < 0.001). In summary, skinfold measurements indicated that women had more fat in both their upper and lower limbs, while men had more fat in their trunk. With regards to the role of performance level, the slowest runners presented relatively more fat in the upper limbs and trunk anatomical sites, i.e., away from the active muscles of legs.

Participation and Performance Trends in the Oldest 100-km Ultramarathon in the World

Participation and performance trends in ultramarathon running have been investigated for large datasets and long period of times with an increase in participants and an improvement in performance. However, the analysis of ultramarathons across many decades is missing. We analyzed these trends for 96,036 athletes (88,286 men and 7750 women) from 67 countries competing between 1956 and 2019 in ‘100 km Lauf Biel’ in Switzerland, the oldest 100-km ultramarathon in the world. More men than women participated in all years. The number of male participants reached a peak at around 1985 and a decline in participation occurred thereafter. Women started competing in 1962. Men were always faster than women and both women and men reduced their race times over years. After about 1985, both overall women and men and both female and male winners were not able to improve race times. For men, athletes from all age groups below the age of 49 years old reached a peak of participation in the 1980s, and showed a decrease since then. Regarding age groups, the decrease first started in age group 20–29 years, followed by 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60–69 years. For athletes in age groups 70–79 and 80–89 years, no decrease occurred. For women, age group athletes in age groups 40–49, 50–59, and 60–69 years increased their participation, whereas age groups 20–29 and 30–39 peaked in the late 1980s and started to decrease or stabilize, respectively. Switzerland, Germany, and France were the countries with the highest numbers of participants throughout the history of the race. In men, race times increased after about 1990 for most nationalities; only runners from Germany seemed to stabilize their performance. In women, runners from Italy, France, and Austria improved their performance over the years. In summary, the analysis of the oldest 100-km ultramarathon in the world showed a decrease in participation and an impairment in performance in the last 60 years. These changes were due to a decrease in the number of male ultramarathoners in around the 1980s, where mainly the number of age group runners younger than 70 years decreased.

The Age-Related Performance Decline in Marathon Running: The Paradigm of the Berlin Marathon

The variation of marathon race time by age group has been used recently to model the decline of endurance with aging; however, paradigms of races (i.e., marathon running) examined so far have mostly been from the United States. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the age of peak performance (APP) in a European race, the “Berlin Marathon”. Race times of 387,222 finishers (women, n = 93,022; men, n = 294,200) in this marathon race from 2008 to 2018 were examined. Men were faster by +1.10 km.h⁻¹ (10.74 ± 1.84 km.h⁻¹versus 9.64 ± 1.46 km.h⁻¹, p <0.001, η² = 0.065, medium effect size) and older by +2.1 years (43.1 ± 10.0 years versus 41.0 ± 9.8 years, p < 0.001, η² = 0.008, trivial effect size) than women. APP was 32 years in women and 34 years in men using 1-year age groups, and 30–34 years in women and 35–39 years in men using 5-year age groups. Women’s and men’s performance at 60–64 and 55–59 age groups, respectively, corresponded to ~90% of the running speed at APP. Based on these findings, it was concluded that although APP occurred earlier in women than men, the observed age-related differences indicated that the decline of endurance with aging might differ by sex.

The role of weather conditions on running performance in the Boston Marathon from 1972 to 2018

This study examined the relationship of weather conditions, together with sex and country of origin, with running performance in the Boston Marathon from 1972 to 2018. A total of 580,990 observations from 382,209 different finishers were analyzed using Generalized Additive Mixed Models. Different groups and subgroups were considered such as all runners, near elite 101:200 finishers, near elite 21:100, annual top ten finishers and annual winners. Weather conditions, over the hours of the event, were average air temperature (°C), total precipitations (mm), wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) (°C), wind speed (km/h), wind direction (head wind, side wind, tail wind) and barometric pressure (hPa). These effects were examined in a multi-variable model, together with: sex, country of origin, calendar year, an interaction term country:sex and a spline smooth term in function of calendar year and sex. The average temperature, when increasing by 1°C, was related to worsened performance (by 00:01:47 h:min:sec for all finishers and by 00:00:20 h:min:sec for annual winners). Also, the pressure and wet-bulb globe temperature, when increasing, were related to worsened performances. Tail wind improved performances of all groups. Increasing precipitation was significantly (p<0.05) related to worsened performances in all groups except annual winners. Increasing wind speed was also related to worsened performances in all finishers and near elite groups. Kenyans and Ethiopians were the fastest nationalities. The sex differences (men faster than women in all groups) were the largest in near elite groups. Our findings contributed to the knowledge of the performance in Boston Marathon across calendar years, considering as main effects weather conditions, country of origin and sex.

The Role of Environmental Conditions on Marathon Running Performance in Men Competing in Boston Marathon from 1897 to 2018

This study investigated the effects of weather conditions on male performance during the Boston Marathon from 1897 to 2018. A total of 383,982 observations from 244,642 different finishers were analysed using Generalized Additive Mixed Models. All runners, annual top 100 finishers and annual top ten finishers were considered. Weather conditions, on race day, were: average air temperature (°C), precipitations (mm), wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) (°C), wind speed (km/h), wind direction (N, S, W, E) and pressure (hPa). These effects were examined in multi-variable models with spline smooth terms in function of calendar year. Temperature, when increasing by 1 °C, was related to worsened performance for all groups (i.e., by 00:01:53 h:min:sec for all finishers, p < 0.001). Wind coming from the West, compared to wind coming from other directions, was the most favourable for performance of all groups of finishers. Increasing precipitations worsened performances of top 100 (estimate 00:00:04 h:min:sec, p < 0.001) and top 10 finishers (estimate 00:00:05 h:min:sec, p < 0.001). Wind speed, when increasing by 1 km/h, was related to worsened performance for all finishers (estimate 00:00:19 h:min:sec, p < 0.001), but not for top 100 group, where performances were 00:00:09 h:min:sec faster, p < 0.001. Pressure and WBGT were examined in uni-variable models: overall, performances worsened as pressure and WBGT increased. Our findings contributed to the knowledge about the effect of weather conditions on performance level in male marathon runners.