Effects of aquatic exercise intervention on executive function and brain-derived neurotrophic factor of children with autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

Limited knowledge exists regarding the effectiveness of aquatic exercise intervention for improving executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Additionally, the impact of aquatic exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in children with ASD requires further investigation.

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the effects of a 12-week aquatic exercise intervention on core EF and BDNF levels in children with ASD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Thirty children with ASD were assigned to an experimental or control group. The experimental group underwent a 12-week aquatic exercise intervention, while the control group engaged in supervised free activities. Pre- and post-intervention assessments measured EF and BDNF levels.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The experimental group showed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in inhibition control, cognitive flexibility, and BDNF levels. However, working memory did not significantly improve. The control group exhibited no significant changes in EF or BDNF levels.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Aquatic exercise appears to be a beneficial intervention for cognitive development in children with ASD, as it enhances inhibition control, cognitive flexibility, and BDNF levels in children with ASD. Furthermore, the observed improvements in EF following aquatic exercise intervention in children with ASD may be associated with increased BDNF levels.

Long-Term Effects of Three Water-Based Training Programs on Resting Blood Pressure in Older Women

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of three water-based training on blood pressure (BP) in older women. A total of 57 participants were randomized into the following groups: (a) aerobic training (AT), (b) concurrent training in which resistance training progresses to the use of resistive equipment (CTRE), and (c) concurrent training in which resistance training progresses to multiple sets (CTMS). The participants trained twice a week for 16 weeks. Systolic BP decreased from pretraining to after 8 weeks of training and, subsequently, to after 16 weeks of training (AT: -6.53 mmHg, CTRE: -10.45 mmHg, and CTMS: -10.73 mmHg). Diastolic BP decreased from pretraining to after 8 and 16 weeks of training (AT: -6.23 mmHg, CTRE: -4.61 mmHg, and CTMS: -6.19 mmHg). Furthermore, 16% of the AT participants, 23% of the CTRE participants, and 28.5% of the CTMS participants were no longer classified as hypertensive. Water-based aerobic and concurrent training are efficient nonpharmacological measures to reduce BP in older women.

Acute Effects of Water-Based Concurrent Training Intrasession Exercise Sequences on Energy Expenditure in Young Women

BACKGROUND

To compare the acute effects of water-based aerobic-resistance and resistance-aerobic concurrent training (CT) sessions on energy expenditure (EE) during and postexercise in young women.

METHODS

Nine active women (24 [3] y; 60 [5] kg) completed 4 sessions: (1) familiarization, (2) aquatic maximal test to determine the heart rate corresponding to the anaerobic threshold, (3) CT protocol with aerobic-resistance sequence, and (4) CT protocol with resistance-aerobic sequence. Both protocols started and ended with the participants in the supine position for 30 minutes to perform resting and postexercise oxygen consumption measurements. The water-based resistance protocol comprised 4 sets of 15 seconds at maximal velocity, and the water-based aerobic protocol was performed at a continuous intensity (heart rate corresponding to the anaerobic threshold). EE measurements were calculated based on oxygen consumption and the corresponding caloric equivalent. Paired t test was used to compare the EE values between the water-based CT intrasession exercise sequences (α = .05).

RESULTS

There was no difference between the water-based aerobic-resistance and resistance-aerobic in total EE (330.78 vs 329.56 kcal; P = .96), EE per minute (7.35 vs 7.32 kcal·min-1; P = .96), and postexercise EE (63.65 vs 59.92 kcal; P = .50).

CONCLUSIONS

The intrasession exercise sequence during water-based CT had no influence on the EE in young women.

Vertical Ground Reaction Force During a Water-Based Exercise Performed by Elderly Women: Equipment Use Effects

Purpose: The present study aimed to compare the vertical ground reaction force responses during the performance of the stationary running water-based exercise with and without equipment at different cadences by elderly women. Method: Nineteen elderly women (age: 68.6 ± 5.0 years; body mass: 69.0 ± 9.5 kg; height: 154.9 ± 5.6 cm) completed one session consisting of the performance of the water-based stationary running with elbow flexion and extension immersed to the xiphoid process depth. The exercise was performed in three conditions, without equipment, with water-floating and with water-resistance equipment, at three cadences (80 b·min^-1, 100 b·min^-1 and maximal) in a randomized order. Peak and impulse of vertical ground reaction force were collected during the exercise using an underwater force plate. Repeated measures two-way ANOVA was used (α = 0.05). Results: Peak vertical ground reaction force (p < .001) and impulse (p ≤ 0.002) resulted in lower values for the water-floating use (0.42-0.48 BW and 0.07-0.13 N.s/BW) in comparison to the water-resistance equipment use (0.46-0.60 BW and 0.09-0.16 N.s/BW) and to the non-use of equipment (0.45-0.60 BW and 0.07-0.17 N.s/BW), except for the impulse at the maximal cadence. In addition, peak vertical ground reaction force at 80 b·min^-1 (p = .002) and impulse at the maximal cadence (p < .001) showed lower values compared to the other cadences. Conclusion: The use of water-floating equipment minimizes the vertical ground reaction force during the stationary running water-based exercise performed by elderly women regardless of the cadence.

Cardiovascular and Perceived Effort in Different Head-Out Water Exercises: Effect of Limbs' Action and Resistance Equipment

The aim of this study was to compare the cardiovascular and perceived effort of head‐out water exercises selecting different limb strategies and using resistance equipment. Ten young women were randomly assigned to perform at 132 bpm during five minutes different head‐out aquatic exercises: (i) horizontal arms abduction (Ab); (ii) horizontal arms abduction with dumbbells (AbD); (iii) frontal kick (Fk); (iv) frontal kick with leggings (FkLeg), and; (v) aquatic skiing (Ski). Cardiovascular effort was measured by monitoring the heart rate, blood pressure and double product. Perceived effort was assessed by the Borg’s scale. Within‐routines comparison was computed using repeated‐ measures ANOVA followed‐up by the Bonferroni post‐hoc test. Considering the percentage of the maximal heart rate, participants reached 72.88 ± 12.90% in the FkLeg, 65.99 ± 10.91% in the Fk, 62.62 ± 7.20% in Ski, 57.27 ± 11.58% in AbD and 57.12 ± 12.09% in Ab. Comparing exercises, higher heart rates were observed in the FkLeg (140.40 bpm) than Ab (110.30 bpm) or AbD (110.00 bpm). Significant differences were found in the systolic blood pressure when compared to the Fk (120.60 mmHg) and Ab (104.50 mmHg). Double product was higher in the FkLeg (16990) showing a meaningful difference when compared to Ab (11608) or AbD (12001). The highest perceived effort was found in the FkLeg (15.80) with meaningful variations compared to Ab (11.70), the Fk (13.70) and Ski (10.40). Thus, different head‐ out water exercises result in different intensities. The actions by lower limbs promote a higher cardiovascular response, whereas the upper limbs actions trigger a lower exertion. Moreover, exercising the four limbs concurrently seems to be less intense than using only two limbs with an aid.

Energy expenditure and EPOC between water-based high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous training sessions in healthy women

The present study compared the energy expenditure (EE) during and after two water aerobics protocols, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate continuous training (CONT). A crossover randomized design was employed comprising 11 healthy young women. HIIT consisted of eight 20s bouts at 130% of the cadence associated with the maximal oxygen consumption (measured in the aquatic environment) with 10s passive rest. CONT corresponded to 30 min at a heart rate equivalent to 90-95% of the second ventilatory threshold. EE was measured during and 30 min before and after the protocols and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) was calculated. Total EE during session was higher in CONT (227.62 ± 31.69 kcal) compared to HIIT (39.91 ± 4.24 kcal), while EE per minute was greater in HIIT (9.98 ± 1.06 kcal) than in CONT (7.58 ± 1.07 kcal). Post-exercise EE (64.48 ± 3.50 vs. 63.65 ± 10.39 kcal) and EPOC (22.53 ± 4.98 vs.22.10 ± 8.00 kcal) were not different between HIIT and CONT, respectively. Additionally, oxygen uptake had already returned to baseline fifteen minutes post-exercise. These suggest that a water aerobics CONT session results in post-exercise EE and EPOC comparable to HIIT despite the latter supramaximal nature. Still, CONT results in higher total EE.

The cadence and water temperature effect on physiological responses during water cycling

The aim of the study was to compare the maximal physiological responses during three protocols: maximal test on land cycle ergometer, maximal test on water cycling in an indoor pool at 27 °C (WC27) and at 31 °C (WC31). Moreover, the submaximal physiological responses were compared according cycling cadences and water temperatures during the water protocols. Ten young men were included and performed the protocols in separate days. Blood lactate (BL) concentration, heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (VO2), ventilation (VE) and thermal comfort (TC) were collected during the exercise. The maximal HR and VO2 showed no significant differences between the protocols: HRmax: 189 ± 7 (Land), 188 ± 14 (WC27), 185 ± 9 bpm (WC31) and VO2max: 4.2 ± 0.4 (Land), 4.1 ± 0.5 (WC27) and 4.3 ± 0.5 l min(-1) (WC31). However, the maximal BL demonstrated significant lower values during the water protocols compared to the land protocol (p=0.018). All the submaximal physiological responses showed significant differences between the cadences (60, 70, 80 and 90 rpm). The effect of water temperature was significant for TC response (p=0.001) showing higher values at 31 °C than 27 °C (TCW27: 7 ± 1 and TCW31:9 ± 1). In conclusion, higher physiological responses were showed by increasing the cadence by 10 rpm and the subjects were more comfortable when cycling in the lower water temperature.

Energy expenditure, cardiorespiratory, and perceptual responses to shallow-water aquatic exercise in young adult women

INTRODUCTION

Aquatic exercise (AE) is a popular form of physical activity, yet few studies have assessed the individual's energy expenditure (EE) associated with a continuous bout of AE. Studies using indirect calorimetry to measure EE have reported limitations associated with test methodology and the ability to control individual's exercise intensity or tempo.

PURPOSE

To evaluate EE and cardiorespiratory (CR) responses during a 40-minute shallow-water AE session in young adult women.

METHODS

Twenty-one healthy women (aged 21.7 ± 3.4 years) completed an orientation practice session and a 40-minute shallow-water AE session using a traditional exercise class format and the SWEAT video-based instructional cuing program. The high-intensity interval format included the following segments: 1) warm-up (3 minutes); 2) CR segment ( 22 minutes); 3) muscular endurance segment (ME; 10 minutes); and 4) cool-down (5 minutes). Subject oxygen consumption (VO2; mL/kg/min), heart rate (HR) and OMNI overall ratings of perceived exertion (RPE-O) were assessed each minute. Average kcal/min1, metabolic equivalents (METs; 1 MET = 3.5 mL/kg/min), and total kcals per segment and for the overall session were calculated.

RESULTS

The total subject EE throughout the 40-minute trial (including warm-up and cool-down segments) was 264 kcals, with an overall average of 6.3 kcals/min (5.6 METs).The average kcals/min expended throughout CR segments 2 through 6 was 8.05 (7.1 METs), with the Hoverjog segment producing the greatest average kcals/min at 8.3 (7.3 METs). The CR portion (22 min) contributed 65% of the total EE (171 kcals) of the 40-minute AE trial. For the overall AE trial, the highest and average subject VO2 achieved were 33.3 and 19.7 mL/kg/min, respectively. The average highest subject heart rate achieved was 177 beats per minute (bpm), equivalent to 90% of the participant's age-predicted HRmax.

CONCLUSION

Energy expenditure during a 40-minute AE session met national recommendations for a daily moderate-to-vigorous bout of physical activity offering a viable alternative to land-based exercise. Because AE serves as a partial-weight bearing modality, future studies are needed to clarify the EE of shallow-water AE in apparently healthy and clinical populations.