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Fabian B, Sachse S. Experience-dependent plasticity in the olfactory system of Drosophila melanogaster and other insects. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1130091. [PMID: 36923450 PMCID: PMC10010147 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1130091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
It is long known that the nervous system of vertebrates can be shaped by internal and external factors. On the other hand, the nervous system of insects was long assumed to be stereotypic, although evidence for plasticity effects accumulated for several decades. To cover the topic comprehensively, this review recapitulates the establishment of the term "plasticity" in neuroscience and introduces its original meaning. We describe the basic composition of the insect olfactory system using Drosophila melanogaster as a representative example and outline experience-dependent plasticity effects observed in this part of the brain in a variety of insects, including hymenopterans, lepidopterans, locusts, and flies. In particular, we highlight recent advances in the study of experience-dependent plasticity effects in the olfactory system of D. melanogaster, as it is the most accessible olfactory system of all insect species due to the genetic tools available. The partly contradictory results demonstrate that morphological, physiological and behavioral changes in response to long-term olfactory stimulation are more complex than previously thought. Different molecular mechanisms leading to these changes were unveiled in the past and are likely responsible for this complexity. We discuss common problems in the study of experience-dependent plasticity, ways to overcome them, and future directions in this area of research. In addition, we critically examine the transferability of laboratory data to natural systems to address the topic as holistically as possible. As a mechanism that allows organisms to adapt to new environmental conditions, experience-dependent plasticity contributes to an animal's resilience and is therefore a crucial topic for future research, especially in an era of rapid environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silke Sachse
- Research Group Olfactory Coding, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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2
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Nagai MH, Matsunami H. Activity-Dependent Labeling of Olfactory Sensory Neurons Using RNA Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization Followed by Phospho-S6 Immunofluorescence. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2710:83-97. [PMID: 37688726 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3425-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
This microscope-based method allows demonstrating that an odorant receptor responded to an odorant in vivo. In sections of olfactory epithelium from odorant-exposed mice, the subpopulation of olfactory sensory neurons expressing a particular odorant receptor type is labeled using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization. Sequential immunofluorescence against the phosphorylated S6 ribosomal subunit reveals the activated olfactory sensory neurons. The presence of double-labeled cells confirms that the particular odorant receptor type was activated by the odorant stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maira Harume Nagai
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Hiroaki Matsunami
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Durham, NC, USA.
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3
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Zhu P, Liu S, Tian Y, Chen Y, Chen W, Wang P, Du L, Wu C. In Vivo Bioelectronic Nose Based on a Bioengineered Rat Realizes the Detection and Classification of Multiodorants. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:1727-1737. [PMID: 35642309 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Inspired by the powerful capability of the biological olfactory system, we developed an in vivo bioelectronic nose based on a bioengineered rat by recording electrophysiological-responsive signals from the olfactory bulb with implanted multichannel microelectrodes. The bioengineered rat was prepared by overexpressing a selected olfactory receptor (OR3) on the rat olfactory epithelium, and multichannel electrophysiological signals were obtained from the mitral/tufted (M/T) cell population of the olfactory bulb. The classification of target multiodorants was realized by analyzing the redundant stimuli-responsive firing information. Ligand odorants induced significant firing changes with specific response patterns compared with nonligand odorants. The responsive curves were dependent on the concentration of target ligand odorants ranging from 10-6 to 10-3 M, and the detection limit was as low as 10-5 M. In addition, different ligand odorants were successfully discriminated via principal component analysis. This in vivo bioelectronic nose provides a novel approach for the detection of specific target odorants and has promising application potential in the field of rapid on-site odor discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Zhu
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Shuge Liu
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Yulan Tian
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Yating Chen
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Ping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
| | - Liping Du
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
- Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Chunsheng Wu
- Institute of Medical Engineering, Department of Biophysics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710061, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi’an 710061, China
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4
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Tsukahara T, Brann DH, Pashkovski SL, Guitchounts G, Bozza T, Datta SR. A transcriptional rheostat couples past activity to future sensory responses. Cell 2021; 184:6326-6343.e32. [PMID: 34879231 PMCID: PMC8758202 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Animals traversing different environments encounter both stable background stimuli and novel cues, which are thought to be detected by primary sensory neurons and then distinguished by downstream brain circuits. Here, we show that each of the ∼1,000 olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) subtypes in the mouse harbors a distinct transcriptome whose content is precisely determined by interactions between its odorant receptor and the environment. This transcriptional variation is systematically organized to support sensory adaptation: expression levels of more than 70 genes relevant to transforming odors into spikes continuously vary across OSN subtypes, dynamically adjust to new environments over hours, and accurately predict acute OSN-specific odor responses. The sensory periphery therefore separates salient signals from predictable background via a transcriptional rheostat whose moment-to-moment state reflects the past and constrains the future; these findings suggest a general model in which structured transcriptional variation within a cell type reflects individual experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Tsukahara
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - David H Brann
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Stan L Pashkovski
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Thomas Bozza
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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5
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A single chemosensory GPCR is required for a concentration-dependent behavioral switching in C. elegans. Curr Biol 2021; 32:398-411.e4. [PMID: 34906353 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Animals detect and discriminate countless environmental chemicals for their well-being and survival. Although a single chemical can trigger opposing behavioral responses depending on its concentration, the mechanisms underlying such a concentration-dependent switching remain poorly understood. Here, we show that C. elegans exhibits either attraction or avoidance of the bacteria-derived volatile chemical dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) depending on its concentration. This behavioral switching is mediated by two different types of chemosensory neurons, both of which express the DMTS-sensitive seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) SRI-14. These two sensory neurons share downstream interneurons that process and translate DMTS signals via distinct glutamate receptors to generate the appropriate behavioral outcome. Thus, our results present one mechanism by which an animal connects two distinct types of chemosensory neurons detecting a common ligand to alternate downstream circuitry, thus efficiently switching between specific behavioral programs based on ligand concentration.
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6
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Kowalewski J, Huynh B, Ray A. A System-Wide Understanding of the Human Olfactory Percept Chemical Space. Chem Senses 2021; 46:6153471. [PMID: 33640959 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjab007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The fundamental units of olfactory perception are discrete 3D structures of volatile chemicals that each interact with specific subsets of a very large family of hundreds of odorant receptor proteins, in turn activating complex neural circuitry and posing a challenge to understand. We have applied computational approaches to analyze olfactory perceptual space from the perspective of odorant chemical features. We identify physicochemical features associated with ~150 different perceptual descriptors and develop machine-learning models. Validation of predictions shows a high success rate for test set chemicals within a study, as well as across studies more than 30 years apart in time. Due to the high success rates, we are able to map ~150 percepts onto a chemical space of nearly 0.5 million compounds, predicting numerous percept-structure combinations. The chemical structure-to-percept prediction provides a system-level view of human olfaction and opens the door for comprehensive computational discovery of fragrances and flavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Kowalewski
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, 3401 Watkins Drive, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Brandon Huynh
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, 3401 Watkins Drive, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Anandasankar Ray
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, 3401 Watkins Drive, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.,Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, 3401 Watkins Drive, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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7
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Salthammer T, Monegel F, Schulz N, Uhde E, Grimme S, Seibert J, Hohm U, Palm W. Sensory Perception of Non-Deuterated and Deuterated Organic Compounds. Chemistry 2021; 27:1046-1056. [PMID: 33058253 PMCID: PMC7839723 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202003754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The chemical background of olfactory perception has been subject of intensive research, but no available model can fully explain the sense of smell. There are also inconsistent results on the role of the isotopology of molecules. In experiments with human subjects it was found that the isotope effect is weak with acetone and D6 -acetone. In contrast, clear differences were observed in the perception of octanoic acid and D15 -octanoic acid. Furthermore, a trained sniffer dog was initially able to distinguish between these isotopologues of octanoic acid. In chromatographic measurements, the respective deuterated molecule showed weaker interaction with a non-polar liquid phase. Quantum chemical calculations give evidence that deuterated octanoic acid binds more strongly to a model receptor than non-deuterated. In contrast, the binding of the non-deuterated molecule is stronger with acetone. The isotope effect is calculated in the framework of statistical mechanics. It results from a complicated interplay between various thermostatistical contributions to the non-covalent free binding energies and it turns out to be very molecule-specific. The vibrational terms including non-classical zero-point energies play about the same role as rotational/translational contributions and are larger than bond length effects for the differential isotope perception of odor for which general rules cannot be derived.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tunga Salthammer
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor ChemistryFraunhofer WKI38108BraunschweigGermany
| | - Friederike Monegel
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor ChemistryFraunhofer WKI38108BraunschweigGermany
| | - Nicole Schulz
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor ChemistryFraunhofer WKI38108BraunschweigGermany
| | - Erik Uhde
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor ChemistryFraunhofer WKI38108BraunschweigGermany
| | - Stefan Grimme
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical ChemistryInstitute for Physical and Theoretical ChemistryUniversity of Bonn53115BonnGermany
| | - Jakob Seibert
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical ChemistryInstitute for Physical and Theoretical ChemistryUniversity of Bonn53115BonnGermany
| | - Uwe Hohm
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical ChemistryUniversity of Braunschweig—Institute of Technology38106BraunschweigGermany
| | - Wolf‐Ulrich Palm
- Institute of Sustainable and Environmental ChemistryLeuphana University Lüneburg21335LüneburgGermany
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Kurian SM, Naressi RG, Manoel D, Barwich AS, Malnic B, Saraiva LR. Odor coding in the mammalian olfactory epithelium. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 383:445-456. [PMID: 33409650 PMCID: PMC7873010 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03327-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Noses are extremely sophisticated chemical detectors allowing animals to use scents to interpret and navigate their environments. Odor detection starts with the activation of odorant receptors (ORs), expressed in mature olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) populating the olfactory mucosa. Different odorants, or different concentrations of the same odorant, activate unique ensembles of ORs. This mechanism of combinatorial receptor coding provided a possible explanation as to why different odorants are perceived as having distinct odors. Aided by new technologies, several recent studies have found that antagonist interactions also play an important role in the formation of the combinatorial receptor code. These findings mark the start of a new era in the study of odorant-receptor interactions and add a new level of complexity to odor coding in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bettina Malnic
- Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Luis R Saraiva
- Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar.
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, USA.
- College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar.
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Vihani A, Hu XS, Gundala S, Koyama S, Block E, Matsunami H. Semiochemical responsive olfactory sensory neurons are sexually dimorphic and plastic. eLife 2020; 9:e54501. [PMID: 33231170 PMCID: PMC7732343 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding how genes and experience work in concert to generate phenotypic variability will provide a better understanding of individuality. Here, we considered this in the main olfactory epithelium, a chemosensory structure with over a thousand distinct cell types in mice. We identified a subpopulation of olfactory sensory neurons, defined by receptor expression, whose abundances were sexually dimorphic. This subpopulation of olfactory sensory neurons was over-represented in sex-separated mice and robustly responsive to sex-specific semiochemicals. Sex-combined housing led to an attenuation of the dimorphic representations. Single-cell sequencing analysis revealed an axis of activity-dependent gene expression amongst a subset of the dimorphic OSN populations. Finally, the pro-apoptotic gene Baxwas necessary to generate the dimorphic representations. Altogether, our results suggest a role of experience and activity in influencing homeostatic mechanisms to generate a robust sexually dimorphic phenotype in the main olfactory epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aashutosh Vihani
- Department of Neurobiology, Neurobiology Graduate Program, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | - Xiaoyang Serene Hu
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | - Sivaji Gundala
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbanyUnited States
| | - Sachiko Koyama
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences, Indiana UniversityBloomingtonUnited States
| | - Eric Block
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbanyUnited States
| | - Hiroaki Matsunami
- Department of Neurobiology, Neurobiology Graduate Program, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
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10
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McClintock TS, Khan N, Alimova Y, Aulisio M, Han DY, Breheny P. Encoding the Odor of Cigarette Smoke. J Neurosci 2020; 40:7043-7053. [PMID: 32801155 PMCID: PMC7480249 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1144-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The encoding of odors is believed to begin as a combinatorial code consisting of distinct patterns of responses from odorant receptors (ORs), trace-amine associated receptors (TAARs), or both. To determine how specific response patterns arise requires detecting patterns in vivo and understanding how the components of an odor, which are nearly always mixtures of odorants, give rise to parts of the pattern. Cigarette smoke, a common and clinically relevant odor consisting of >400 odorants, evokes responses from 144 ORs and 3 TAARs in freely behaving male and female mice, the first example of in vivo responses of both ORs and TAARs to an odor. As expected, a simplified artificial mimic of cigarette smoke odor tested at low concentration to identify highly sensitive receptors evokes responses from four ORs, all also responsive to cigarette smoke. Human subjects of either sex identify 1-pentanethiol as the odorant most critical for perception of the artificial mimic; and in mice the OR response patterns to these two odors are significantly similar. Fifty-eight ORs respond to the headspace above 25% 1-pentanethiol, including 9 ORs responsive to cigarette smoke. The response patterns to both cigarette smoke and 1-pentanethiol have strongly responsive ORs spread widely across OR sequence diversity, consistent with most other combinatorial codes previously measured in vivo The encoding of cigarette smoke is accomplished by a broad receptor response pattern, and 1-pentanethiol is responsible for a small subset of the responsive ORs in this combinatorial code.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Complex odors are usually perceived as distinct odor objects. Cigarette smoke is the first complex odor whose in vivo receptor response pattern has been measured. It is also the first pattern shown to include responses from both odorant receptors and trace-amine associated receptors, confirming that the encoding of complex odors can be enriched by signals coming through both families of receptors. Measures of human perception and mouse receptor physiology agree that 1-pentanethiol is a critical component of a simplified odorant mixture designed to mimic cigarette smoke odor. Its receptor response pattern helps to link those of the artificial mimic and real cigarette smoke, consistent with expectations about perceptual similarity arising from shared elements in receptor response patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naazneen Khan
- Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Yelena Alimova
- Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Madeline Aulisio
- College of Public Health, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Dong Y Han
- Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Patrick Breheny
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
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Abstract
The encoding of odors is believed to begin as a combinatorial code consisting of distinct patterns of responses from odorant receptors (ORs), trace-amine associated receptors (TAARs), or both. To determine how specific response patterns arise requires detecting patterns in vivo and understanding how the components of an odor, which are nearly always mixtures of odorants, give rise to parts of the pattern. Cigarette smoke, a common and clinically relevant odor consisting of >400 odorants, evokes responses from 144 ORs and 3 TAARs in freely behaving male and female mice, the first example of in vivo responses of both ORs and TAARs to an odor. As expected, a simplified artificial mimic of cigarette smoke odor tested at low concentration to identify highly sensitive receptors evokes responses from four ORs, all also responsive to cigarette smoke. Human subjects of either sex identify 1-pentanethiol as the odorant most critical for perception of the artificial mimic; and in mice the OR response patterns to these two odors are significantly similar. Fifty-eight ORs respond to the headspace above 25% 1-pentanethiol, including 9 ORs responsive to cigarette smoke. The response patterns to both cigarette smoke and 1-pentanethiol have strongly responsive ORs spread widely across OR sequence diversity, consistent with most other combinatorial codes previously measured in vivo The encoding of cigarette smoke is accomplished by a broad receptor response pattern, and 1-pentanethiol is responsible for a small subset of the responsive ORs in this combinatorial code.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Complex odors are usually perceived as distinct odor objects. Cigarette smoke is the first complex odor whose in vivo receptor response pattern has been measured. It is also the first pattern shown to include responses from both odorant receptors and trace-amine associated receptors, confirming that the encoding of complex odors can be enriched by signals coming through both families of receptors. Measures of human perception and mouse receptor physiology agree that 1-pentanethiol is a critical component of a simplified odorant mixture designed to mimic cigarette smoke odor. Its receptor response pattern helps to link those of the artificial mimic and real cigarette smoke, consistent with expectations about perceptual similarity arising from shared elements in receptor response patterns.
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