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de Castro Lippi IC, da Luz Scheffer J, de Lima YS, Lunardi JS, Astolfi A, Kadri SM, Alvarez MVN, de Oliveira Orsi R. Intake of imidacloprid in lethal and sublethal doses alters gene expression in Apis mellifera bees. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 940:173393. [PMID: 38795984 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
Bees are important pollinators for ecosystems and agriculture; however, populations have suffered a decline that may be associated with several factors, including habitat loss, climate change, increased vulnerability to diseases and parasites and use of pesticides. The extensive use of neonicotinoids, including imidacloprid, as agricultural pesticides, leads to their persistence in the environment and accumulation in bees, pollen, nectar, and honey, thereby inducing deleterious effects. Forager honey bees face significant exposure to pesticide residues while searching for resources outside the hive, particularly systemic pesticides like imidacloprid. In this study, 360 Apis mellifera bees, twenty-one days old (supposed to be in the forager phase) previously marked were fed syrup (honey and water, 1:1 m/v) containing a lethal dose (0.081 μg/bee) or sublethal dose (0.00081 μg/bee) of imidacloprid. The syrup was provided in plastic troughs, with 250 μL added per trough onto each plastic Petri dish containing 5 bees (50 μL per bee). The bees were kept in the plastic Petri dishes inside an incubator, and after 1 and 4 h of ingestion, the bees were euthanised and stored in an ultra-freezer (-80 °C) for transcriptome analysis. Following the 1-h ingestion of imidacloprid, 1516 genes (73 from lethal dose; 1509 from sublethal dose) showed differential expression compared to the control, while after 4 h, 758 genes (733 from lethal dose; 25 from sublethal) exhibited differential expression compared to the control. All differentially expressed genes found in the brain tissue transcripts of forager bees were categorised based on gene ontology into functional groups encompassing biological processes, molecular functions, and cellular components. These analyses revealed that sublethal doses might be capable of altering more genes than lethal doses, potentially associated with a phenomenon known as insecticide-induced hormesis. Alterations in genes related to areas such as the immune system, nutritional metabolism, detoxification system, circadian rhythm, odour detection, foraging activity, and memory in bees were present after exposure to the pesticide. These findings underscore the detrimental effects of both lethal and sublethal doses of imidacloprid, thereby providing valuable insights for establishing public policies regarding the use of neonicotinoids, which are directly implicated in the compromised health of Apis mellifera bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Cristina de Castro Lippi
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Jaine da Luz Scheffer
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Yan Souza de Lima
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Juliana Sartori Lunardi
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Aline Astolfi
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Samir Moura Kadri
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo de Oliveira Orsi
- Centre of Education, Science and Technology in Rational Beekeeping (NECTAR), Department of Animal Production and Medicine Veterinary Preventive, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil.
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Mustard JA, Dobb R, Wright GA. Chronic nicotine exposure influences learning and memory in the honey bee. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 151:104582. [PMID: 37918514 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2023.104582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
In insects, nicotine activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which are expressed throughout the central nervous system. However, little work has been done to investigate the effects of chronic nicotine treatment on learning or other behaviors in non-herbivorous insects. To examine the effects of long term nicotine consumption on learning and memory, honey bees were fed nicotine containing solutions over four days. Bees were able to detect nicotine at 0.1 mM in sucrose solutions, and in a no choice assay, bees reduced food intake when nicotine was 1 mM or higher. Treatment with a low dose of nicotine decreased the proportion of bees able to form an associative memory when bees were conditioned with either a massed or spaced appetitive olfactory training paradigm. On the other hand, higher doses of nicotine increased memory retention and the proportion of bees responding to the odor during 10 min and 24 h recall tests. The reduction in nicotine containing food consumed may also impact response levels during learning and recall tests. These data suggest that long term exposure to nicotine has complex effects on learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Mustard
- School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA.
| | - Rachel Dobb
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
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Yu JX, Hui YM, Xue JA, Qu JB, Ling SQ, Wang W, Zeng XN, Liu JL. Formation characteristics of long-term memory in Bactrocera dorsalis. INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 30:829-843. [PMID: 36151856 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Studies on insects have contributed significantly to a better understanding of learning and memory, which is a necessary cognitive capability for all animals. Although the formation of memory has been studied in some model insects, more evidence is required to clarify the characteristics of memory formation, especially long-term memory (LTM), which is important for reliably storing information. Here, we explored this question by examining Bactrocera dorsalis, an agricultural pest with excellent learning abilities. Using the classical conditioning paradigm of the olfactory proboscis extension reflex (PER), we found that paired conditioning with multiple trials (>3) spaced with an intertrial interval (≥10 min) resulted in stable memory that lasted for at least 3 d. Furthermore, even a single conditioning trial was sufficient for the formation of a 2-d memory. With the injection of protein inhibitors, protein-synthesis-dependent memory was confirmed to start 4 h after training, and its dependence on translation and transcription differed. Moreover, the results revealed that the dependence of memory on protein translation exhibited a time-window effect (4-6 h). Our findings provide an integrated view of LTM in insects, suggesting common mechanisms in LTM formation that play a key role in the biological basis of memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Xin Yu
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan-Min Hui
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun-Ao Xue
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Bao Qu
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Si-Quan Ling
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Silviculture, Protection, and Utilization, Guangdong Academy of Forestry, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xin-Nian Zeng
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Li Liu
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Bachert A, Scheiner R. The ant's weapon improves honey bee learning performance. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8399. [PMID: 37225773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35540-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Formic acid is the main component of the ant's major weapon against enemies. Being mainly used as a chemical defense, the acid is also exploited for recruitment and trail marking. The repelling effect of the organic acid is used by some mammals and birds which rub themselves in the acid to eliminate ectoparasites. Beekeepers across the world rely on this effect to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Varroa mites are considered the most destructive pest of honey bees worldwide and can lead to the loss of entire colonies. Formic acid is highly effective against Varroa mites but can also kill the honeybee queen and worker brood. Whether formic acid can also affect the behavior of honey bees is unknown. We here study the effect of formic acid on sucrose responsiveness and cognition of honey bees treated at different live stages in field-relevant doses. Both behaviors are essential for survival of the honey bee colony. Rather unexpectedly, formic acid clearly improved the learning performance of the bees in appetitive olfactory conditioning, while not affecting sucrose responsiveness. This exciting side effect of formic acid certainly deserves further detailed investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Bachert
- Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Gießen, Schubertstraße 81, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Ricarda Scheiner
- Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
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Zhao H, Li G, Cui X, Wang H, Liu Z, Yang Y, Xu B. Review on effects of some insecticides on honey bee health. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 188:105219. [PMID: 36464327 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2022.105219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Insecticides, one of the main agrochemicals, are useful for controlling pests; however, the indiscriminate use of insecticides has led to negative effects on nontarget insects, especially honey bees, which are essential for pollination services. Different classes of insecticides, such as neonicotinoids, pyrethroids, chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, flupyradifurone and sulfoxaflor, not only negatively affect honey bee growth and development but also decrease their foraging activity and pollination services by influencing their olfactory sensation, memory, navigation back to the nest, flight ability, and dance circuits. Honey bees resist the harmful effects of insecticides by coordinating the expression of genes related to immunity, metabolism, and detoxification pathways. To our knowledge, more research has been conducted on the effects of neonicotinoids on honey bee health than those of other insecticides. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the effects of some insecticides, especially neonicotinoids, on honey bee health. Possible strategies to increase the positive impacts of insecticides on agriculture and reduce their negative effects on honey bees are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Guilin Li
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Xuepei Cui
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Hongfang Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Zhenguo Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Yuewei Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China.
| | - Baohua Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, China.
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6
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Leboulle G, Gehne N, Froese A, Menzel R. In-vivo egfp expression in the honeybee Apis mellifera induced by electroporation and viral expression vector. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263908. [PMID: 35653376 PMCID: PMC9162312 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study we describe egfp expression induced by two techniques: in vivo electroporation and viral transduction in several cell types of the adult honeybee brain. Non-neuronal and neuronal cell types were identified and the expression persisted at least during three days. Kenyon cells, optic lobe neurons and protocerebral lobe neurons were electroporated. Astrocyte-like glia cells, fibrous lamellar glia cells and cortex glia cells were identified. Viral transduction targeted one specific type of glia cells that could not be identified. EGFP positive cells types were rather variable after electroporation, and viral transduction resulted in more homogenous groups of positive cells. We propose that these techniques remain a good alternative to transgenic animals because they potentially target only somatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gérard Leboulle
- Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Nora Gehne
- Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja Froese
- Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Randolf Menzel
- Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Bestea L, Briard E, Carcaud J, Sandoz JC, Velarde R, Giurfa M, de Brito Sanchez MG. The short neuropeptide F (sNPF) promotes the formation of appetitive visual memories in honey bees. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20210520. [PMID: 35104428 PMCID: PMC8807059 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Motivation can critically influence learning and memory. Multiple neural mechanisms regulate motivational states, among which signalling via specific neuropeptides, such as NPY in vertebrates and NPF and its short variant sNPF in invertebrates, plays an essential role. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is a privileged model for the study of appetitive learning and memory. Bees learn and memorize sensory cues associated with nectar reward while foraging, and their learning is affected by their feeding state. However, the neural underpinnings of their motivational states remain poorly known. Here we focused on the short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and studied if it modulates the acquisition and formation of colour memories. Artificially increasing sNPF levels in partially fed foragers with a reduced motivation to learn colours resulted in significant colour learning and memory above the levels exhibited by starved foragers. Our results thus identify sNPF as a critical component of motivational processes involved in foraging and in the cognitive processes associated with this activity in honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Bestea
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Centre for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse cedex 09 F-31062, France
| | - Emmanuelle Briard
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Centre for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse cedex 09 F-31062, France
| | - Julie Carcaud
- Evolution, Genomes, Behavior and Ecology, CNRS (UMR 9191), IRD, University Paris Saclay, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91198, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Sandoz
- Evolution, Genomes, Behavior and Ecology, CNRS (UMR 9191), IRD, University Paris Saclay, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91198, France
| | - Rodrigo Velarde
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Centre for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse cedex 09 F-31062, France
- Latin American Society for Bee Research (SOLATINA), Bolivian Chapter, Santivañez 0134, Cochabamba, Bolivia
| | - Martin Giurfa
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Centre for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse cedex 09 F-31062, France
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, People's Republic of China
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - Maria Gabriela de Brito Sanchez
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Centre for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse cedex 09 F-31062, France
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8
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Hashemzaei M, Baratzadeh N, Sharamian I, Fanoudi S, Sanati M, Rezaei H, Shahraki J, Rezaee R, Belaran M, Bazi A, Tabrizian K. Intrahippocampal co-administration of nicotine and O-acetyl-L-carnitine prevents the H-89-induced spatial learning deficits in Morris water maze. JOURNAL OF COMPLEMENTARY & INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 19:691-696. [PMID: 33964190 DOI: 10.1515/jcim-2021-0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES H-89 (a protein kinase AII [PKA II] inhibitor) impairs the spatial memory in the Morris water maze task in rats. In the present study, we aimed to study the protective effects of nicotine and O-acetyl-L-carnitine against H-89-induced spatial memory deficits. METHODS Spatial memory impairment was induced by the bilateral intrahippocampal administration of 10 µM H-89 (dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO) to rats. The rats then received bilateral administrations of either nicotine (1 μg/μL, dissolved in saline) or O-acetyl-L-carnitine (100 μM/side, dissolved in deionized water) alone and in combination. Control groups received either saline, deionized water, or DMSO. RESULTS The H-89-treated animals showed significant increases in the time and distance travelled to find hidden platforms, and there was also a significant decrease in the time spent in the target quadrant compared to DMSO-treated animals. Nicotine and O-acetyl-L-carnitine had no significant effects on H-89-induced spatial learning impairments alone, but the bilateral intrahippocampal co-administration of nicotine and O-acetyl-L-carnitine prevented H-89-induced spatial learning deficits and increased the time spent in the target quadrant in comparison with H-89-treated animals. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated the potential synergistic effects of nicotine and O-acetyl-L-carnitine in preventing protein kinase AII inhibitor (H-89)-induced spatial learning impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Hashemzaei
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Najmeh Baratzadeh
- Students Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Iraj Sharamian
- Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Sahar Fanoudi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mehdi Sanati
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hanieh Rezaei
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Jafar Shahraki
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Ramin Rezaee
- Clinical Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Maryam Belaran
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Ali Bazi
- Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Zabol University of Medical Science, Zabol, Iran
| | - Kaveh Tabrizian
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
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9
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Marachlian E, Klappenbach M, Locatelli F. Learning-dependent plasticity in the antennal lobe improves discrimination and recognition of odors in the honeybee. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 383:165-175. [PMID: 33511470 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03396-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Honeybees are extensively used to study olfactory learning and memory processes thanks to their ability to discriminate and remember odors and because of their advantages for optophysiological recordings of the circuits involved in memory and odor perception. There are evidences that the encoding of odors in areas of primary sensory processing is not rigid, but undergoes changes caused by olfactory experience. The biological meaning of these changes is focus of intense discussions. Along this review, we present evidences of plasticity related to different forms of learning and discuss its function in the context of olfactory challenges that honeybees have to solve. So far, results in honeybees are consistent with a model in which changes in early olfactory processing contributes to the ability of an animal to recognize the presence of relevant odors and facilitates the discrimination of odors in a way adjusted to its own experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Marachlian
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Université Paris, Paris, France
| | - Martin Klappenbach
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular e Instituto de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando Locatelli
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular e Instituto de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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10
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Scheiner R, Frantzmann F, Jäger M, Mitesser O, Helfrich-Förster C, Pauls D. A Novel Thermal-Visual Place Learning Paradigm for Honeybees ( Apis mellifera). Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:56. [PMID: 32351370 PMCID: PMC7174502 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) have fascinating navigational skills and learning capabilities in the field. To decipher the mechanisms underlying place learning in honeybees, we need paradigms to study place learning of individual honeybees under controlled laboratory conditions. Here, we present a novel visual place learning arena for honeybees which relies on high temperatures as aversive stimuli. Honeybees learn to locate a safe spot in an unpleasantly warm arena, relying on a visual panorama. Bees can solve this task at a temperature of 46°C, while at temperatures above 48°C bees die quickly. This new paradigm, which is based on pioneering work on Drosophila, allows us now to investigate thermal-visual place learning of individual honeybees in the laboratory, for example after controlled genetic knockout or pharmacological intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricarda Scheiner
- Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Felix Frantzmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Neurobiology and Genetics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Maria Jäger
- Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Mitesser
- Field Station Fabrikschleichach, Biocenter, Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Charlotte Helfrich-Förster
- Neurobiology and Genetics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Dennis Pauls
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Neurobiology and Genetics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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11
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Villar ME, Marchal P, Viola H, Giurfa M. Redefining Single-Trial Memories in the Honeybee. Cell Rep 2020; 30:2603-2613.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.01.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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12
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Brünner B, Saumweber J, Samur M, Weber D, Schumann I, Mahishi D, Rohwedder A, Thum AS. Food restriction reconfigures naïve and learned choice behavior in Drosophila larvae. J Neurogenet 2020; 34:123-132. [PMID: 31975653 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2020.1714612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In many animals, the establishment and expression of food-related memory is limited by the presence of food and promoted by its absence, implying that this behavior is driven by motivation. In the past, this has already been demonstrated in various insects including honeybees and adult Drosophila. For Drosophila larvae, which are characterized by an immense growth and the resulting need for constant food intake, however, knowledge is rather limited. Accordingly, we have analyzed whether starvation modulates larval memory formation or expression after appetitive classical olfactory conditioning, in which an odor is associated with a sugar reward. We show that odor-sugar memory of starved larvae lasts longer than in fed larvae, although the initial performance is comparable. 80 minutes after odor fructose conditioning, only starved but not fed larvae show a reliable odor-fructose memory. This is likely due to a specific increase in the stability of anesthesia-resistant memory (ARM). Furthermore, we observe that starved larvae, in contrast to fed ones, prefer sugars that offer a nutritional benefit in addition to their sweetness. Taken together our work shows that Drosophila larvae adjust the expression of learned and naïve choice behaviors in the absence of food. These effects are only short-lasting probably due to their lifestyle and their higher internal motivation to feed. In the future, the extensive use of established genetic tools will allow us to identify development-specific differences arising at the neuronal and molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benita Brünner
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Merve Samur
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Üsküdar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Denise Weber
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Deepthi Mahishi
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Andreas S Thum
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Cholé H, Carcaud J, Mazeau H, Famié S, Arnold G, Sandoz JC. Social Contact Acts as Appetitive Reinforcement and Supports Associative Learning in Honeybees. Curr Biol 2019; 29:1407-1413.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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14
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Finkelstein AB, Brent CS, Giurfa M, Amdam GV. Foraging Experiences Durably Modulate Honey Bees' Sucrose Responsiveness and Antennal Lobe Biogenic Amine Levels. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5393. [PMID: 30931967 PMCID: PMC6443788 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Foraging exposes organisms to rewarding and aversive events, providing a selective advantage for maximizing the former while minimizing the latter. Honey bees (Apis mellifera) associate environmental stimuli with appetitive or aversive experiences, forming preferences for scents, locations, and visual cues. Preference formation is influenced by inter-individual variation in sensitivity to rewarding and aversive stimuli, which can be modulated by pharmacological manipulation of biogenic amines. We propose that foraging experiences act on biogenic amine pathways to induce enduring changes to stimulus responsiveness. To simulate varied foraging conditions, freely-moving bees were housed in cages where feeders offered combinations of sucrose solution, floral scents, and aversive electric shock. Transient effects were excluded by providing bees with neutral conditions for three days prior to all subsequent assays. Sucrose responsiveness was reduced in bees that had foraged for scented rather than unscented sucrose under benign conditions. This was not the case under aversive foraging conditions, suggesting an adaptive tuning process which maximizes preference for high quality, non-aversive floral sites. Foraging conditions also influenced antennal lobe octopamine and serotonin, neuromodulators involved in stimulus responsiveness and foraging site evaluation. Our results suggest that individuals’ foraging experiences durably modify neurochemistry and shape future foraging behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Colin S Brent
- United States Department of Agriculture, Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, USA
| | - Martin Giurfa
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France
| | - Gro V Amdam
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA.,Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway
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15
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Oberhauser FB, Koch A, Czaczkes TJ. Small differences in learning speed for different food qualities can drive efficient collective foraging in ant colonies. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2583-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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16
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Gong Z, Wang C, Nieh JC, Tan K. Inhibiting DNA methylation alters olfactory extinction but not acquisition learning in Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 90:43-48. [PMID: 27262427 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
DNA methylation plays a key role in invertebrate acquisition and extinction memory. Honey bees have excellent olfactory learning, but the role of DNA methylation in memory formation has, to date, only been studied in Apis mellifera. We inhibited DNA methylation by inhibiting DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) with zebularine (zeb) and studied the resulting effects upon olfactory acquisition and extinction memory in two honey bee species, Apis cerana and A. mellifera. We used the proboscis extension reflex (PER) assay to measure memory. We provide the first demonstration that DNA methylation is also important in the olfactory extinction learning of A. cerana. DNMT did not reduce acquisition learning in either species. However, zeb bidirectionally and differentially altered extinction learning in both species. In particular, zeb provided 1h before acquisition learning improved extinction memory retention in A. mellifera, but reduced extinction memory retention in A. cerana. The reasons for these differences are unclear, but provide a basis for future studies to explore species-specific differences in the effects of methylation on memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwen Gong
- Eastern Bee Research Institute of Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China; Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Chao Wang
- Eastern Bee Research Institute of Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
| | - James C Nieh
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ken Tan
- Eastern Bee Research Institute of Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China; Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China.
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17
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Gehring KB, Heufelder K, Feige J, Bauer P, Dyck Y, Ehrhardt L, Kühnemund J, Bergmann A, Göbel J, Isecke M, Eisenhardt D. Involvement of phosphorylated Apis mellifera CREB in gating a honeybee's behavioral response to an external stimulus. Learn Mem 2016; 23:195-207. [PMID: 27084927 PMCID: PMC4836635 DOI: 10.1101/lm.040964.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) is involved in neuronal plasticity. Phosphorylation activates CREB and an increased level of phosphorylated CREB is regarded as an indicator of CREB-dependent transcriptional activation. In honeybees(Apis mellifera)we recently demonstrated a particular high abundance of the phosphorylated honeybee CREB homolog (pAmCREB) in the central brain and in a subpopulation of mushroom body neurons. We hypothesize that these high pAmCREB levels are related to learning and memory formation. Here, we tested this hypothesis by analyzing brain pAmCREB levels in classically conditioned bees and bees experiencing unpaired presentations of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US). We demonstrate that both behavioral protocols display differences in memory formation but do not alter the level of pAmCREB in bee brains directly after training. Nevertheless, we report that bees responding to the CS during unpaired stimulus presentations exhibit higher levels of pAmCREB than nonresponding bees. In addition, Trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor that is thought to enhance histone acetylation by CREB-binding protein, increases the bees' CS responsiveness. We conclude that pAmCREB is involved in gating a bee's behavioral response driven by an external stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin B Gehring
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Heufelder
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Janina Feige
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Paul Bauer
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yan Dyck
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lea Ehrhardt
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes Kühnemund
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja Bergmann
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Josefine Göbel
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marlene Isecke
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dorothea Eisenhardt
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
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18
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Christen V, Mittner F, Fent K. Molecular Effects of Neonicotinoids in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:4071-81. [PMID: 26990785 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Neonicotinoids are implicated in the decline of bee populations. As agonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, they disturb acetylcholine receptor signaling leading to neurotoxicity. Several behavioral studies showed the link between neonicotinoid exposure and adverse effects on foraging activity and reproduction. However, molecular effects underlying these effects are poorly understood. Here we elucidated molecular effects at environmental realistic levels of three neonicotinoids and nicotine, and compared laboratory studies to field exposures with acetamiprid. We assessed transcriptional alterations of eight selected genes in caged honey bees exposed to different concentrations of the neonicotinoids acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloporid, and thiamethoxam, as well as nicotine. We determined transcripts of several targets, including nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α 1 and α 2 subunit, the multifunctional gene vitellogenin, immune system genes apidaecin and defensin-1, stress-related gene catalase and two genes linked to memory formation, pka and creb. Vitellogenin showed a strong increase upon neonicotinoid exposures in the laboratory and field, while creb and pka transcripts were down-regulated. The induction of vitellogenin suggests adverse effects on foraging activity, whereas creb and pka down-regulation may be implicated in decreased long-term memory formation. Transcriptional alterations occurred at environmental concentrations and provide an explanation for the molecular basis of observed adverse effects of neonicotinoids to bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Christen
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland (FHNW) , School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Mittner
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland (FHNW) , School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Karl Fent
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland (FHNW) , School of Life Sciences, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich (ETH Zürich) , Department of Environmental System Sciences, Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollution Dynamics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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19
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Mohammadi M, Guan J, Khodagholi F, Yans A, Khalaj S, Gholami M, Taghizadeh GH, Aliaghaei A, Abdollahi M, Ghahremani MH, Sharifzadeh M. Reduction of autophagy markers mediated protective effects of JNK inhibitor and bucladesine on memory deficit induced by Aβ in rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2016; 389:501-10. [PMID: 26899864 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-016-1222-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy, the process of self-degradation of cellular components, has an important role in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we investigated the effects of SP600125 as c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor and bucladesine as a cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) analog on spatial memory and expression of autophagic factors in Aβ-injected rats. Male Wistar rats were used. Rats were randomly allocated into five groups as following: amyloid beta (Aβ)-only group, Aβ + SP600125 (30 μg/1 μ/side, n = 7) and/or bucladesine (100 μM/1 μl/side, n = 7), and the normal control (vehicle only) group. The treatments were administered bilaterally to the CA1 sub-region of the hippocampus stereotaxically. Spatial reference memory was performed using Morris Water Maze 21 days later. The expression of authophagy markers (beclin1, Atg7, Atg12, and LC3 II/LC3 I) in the hippocampus was evaluated using western blotting. Compared to the vehicle group, Aβ administration reduced spatial reference learning (P < 0.001) and memory (P < 0.01) and upregulated the expression of beclin1, Atg7, Atg12, and LC3 II/I (P < 0.0001). Compare to Aβ-only group, the administration of SP600125 and/or bucladesine improved spatial reference learning (P < 0.001) and memory (P < 0.01). Compared to the Aβ-only group, the treatment with SP600125 and/or bucladesine also reduced beclin1, Atg7, Atg12, and LC3 II/I (P < 0.0001) which was similar to amount of normal rats. In summary, it seems that the improvement of spatial memory by SP600125 and/or bucladesine in Aβ-injected rats is in relation with normalizing of autophagy to the physiologic level, possibly through neuroprotection and/or neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mohammadi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - J Guan
- Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland, New Zealand.,Centre for Brain Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland, New Zealand.,Gravida National Centre for Growth and Development, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - F Khodagholi
- Neuroscience Research Centre, ShahidBeheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Neurobiology Research Centre, ShahidBeheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - A Yans
- Neuroscience Research Centre, ShahidBeheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Neurobiology Research Centre, ShahidBeheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S Khalaj
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - M Gholami
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - G H Taghizadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - A Aliaghaei
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, ShahidBeheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - M Abdollahi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - M H Ghahremani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - M Sharifzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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20
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Tabrizian K, Yazdani A, Baheri B, Payandemehr B, Sanati M, Hashemzaei M, Miri A, Zandkarimi M, Belaran M, Fanoudi S, Sharifzadeh M. Zinc Chloride and Lead Acetate-Induced Passive Avoidance Memory Retention Deficits Reversed by Nicotine and Bucladesine in Mice. Biol Trace Elem Res 2016; 169:106-13. [PMID: 26066527 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-015-0399-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
It is very important to investigate the neurotoxic effects of metals on learning and memory processes. In this study, we tried to investigate the effects and time course properties of oral administration of zinc chloride (25, 50, and 75 mg/kg, for 2 weeks), lead acetate (250, 750, 1,500, and 2,500 ppm for 4, 6 and 8 weeks), and their possible mechanisms on a model of memory function. For this matter, we examined the intra-peritoneal injections of nicotine (0.25, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mg/kg) and bucladesine (50, 100, 300, and 600 nM/mouse) for 4 days alone and in combination with mentioned metals in the step-through passive avoidance task. Control animals received saline, drinking water, saline, and DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide)/deionized water (1:9), respectively. At the end of each part of studies, animals were trained for 1 day in step-through task. The avoidance memory retention alterations were evaluated 24 and 48 h later in singular and combinational studies. Zinc chloride (75 mg/kg) oral gavage for 2 weeks decreased latency times compared to control animals. Also, lead acetate (750 ppm oral administrations for 8 weeks) caused significant lead blood levels and induced avoidance memory retention impairments. Four-days intra-peritoneal injection of nicotine (1 mg/kg) increased latency time compared to control animals. Finally, findings of this research showed that treatment with intra-peritoneal injections of nicotine (1 mg/kg) and/or bucladesine (600 nM/mouse) reversed zinc chloride- and lead acetate-induced avoidance memory retention impairments. Taken together, these results showed the probable role of cholinergic system and protein kinase A pathways in zinc chloride- and lead acetate-induced avoidance memory alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaveh Tabrizian
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
- Medicinal Plants Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Abdolmajid Yazdani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Behnam Baheri
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Borna Payandemehr
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Sanati
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Hashemzaei
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Abdolhossein Miri
- Medicinal Plants Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Majid Zandkarimi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Maryam Belaran
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sahar Fanoudi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sharifzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Tehran, Iran.
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21
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Abram PK, Cusumano A, Peri E, Brodeur J, Boivin G, Colazza S. Thermal stress affects patch time allocation by preventing forgetting in a parasitoid wasp. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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22
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Felsenberg J, Dyck Y, Feige J, Ludwig J, Plath JA, Froese A, Karrenbrock M, Nölle A, Heufelder K, Eisenhardt D. Differences in long-term memory stability and AmCREB level between forward and backward conditioned honeybees (Apis mellifera). Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:91. [PMID: 25964749 PMCID: PMC4410603 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In classical conditioning a predictive relationship between a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus; CS) and a meaningful stimulus (unconditioned stimulus; US) is learned when the CS precedes the US. In backward conditioning the sequence of the stimuli is reversed. In this situation animals might learn that the CS signals the end or the absence of the US. In honeybees 30 min and 24 h following backward conditioning a memory for the excitatory and inhibitory properties of the CS could be retrieved, but it remains unclear whether a late long-term memory is formed that can be retrieved 72 h following backward conditioning. Here we examine this question by studying late long-term memory formation in forward and backward conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER). We report a difference in the stability of memory formed upon forward and backward conditioning with the same number of conditioning trials. We demonstrate a transcription-dependent memory 72 h after forward conditioning but do not observe a 72 h memory after backward conditioning. Moreover we find that protein degradation is differentially involved in memory formation following these two conditioning protocols. We report differences in the level of a transcription factor, the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) known to induce transcription underlying long-term memory formation, following forward and backward conditioning. Our results suggest that these alterations in CREB levels might be regulated by the proteasome. We propose that the differences observed are due to the sequence of stimulus presentation between forward and backward conditioning and not to differences in the strength of the association of both stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Felsenberg
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Yan Dyck
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Janina Feige
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Jenny Ludwig
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Jenny Aino Plath
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja Froese
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Melanie Karrenbrock
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Nölle
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Heufelder
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Dorothea Eisenhardt
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
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23
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Urlacher E, Tarr IS, Mercer AR. Social modulation of stress reactivity and learning in young worker honey bees. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113630. [PMID: 25470128 PMCID: PMC4254648 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alarm pheromone and its major component isopentylacetate induce stress-like responses in forager honey bees, impairing their ability to associate odors with a food reward. We investigated whether isopentylacetate exposure decreases appetitive learning also in young worker bees. While isopentylacetate-induced learning deficits were observed in guards and foragers collected from a queen-right colony, learning impairments resulting from exposure to this pheromone could not be detected in bees cleaning cells. As cell cleaners are generally among the youngest workers in the colony, effects of isopentylacetate on learning behavior were examined further using bees of known age. Adult workers were maintained under laboratory conditions from the time of adult emergence. Fifty percent of the bees were exposed to queen mandibular pheromone during this period, whereas control bees were not exposed to this pheromone. Isopentylacetate-induced learning impairments were apparent in young (less than one week old) controls, but not in bees of the same age exposed to queen mandibular pheromone. This study reveals young worker bees can exhibit a stress-like response to alarm pheromone, but isopentylacetate-induced learning impairments in young bees are suppressed by queen mandibular pheromone. While isopentylacetate exposure reduced responses during associative learning (acquisition), it did not affect one-hour memory retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Urlacher
- Department of Zoology, 340 Great King Street, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- * E-mail:
| | - Ingrid S. Tarr
- Department of Zoology, 340 Great King Street, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Alison R. Mercer
- Department of Zoology, 340 Great King Street, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
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24
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Marter K, Grauel MK, Lewa C, Morgenstern L, Buckemüller C, Heufelder K, Ganz M, Eisenhardt D. Duration of the unconditioned stimulus in appetitive conditioning of honeybees differentially impacts learning, long-term memory strength, and the underlying protein synthesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:676-85. [PMID: 25403456 PMCID: PMC4236413 DOI: 10.1101/lm.035600.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
This study examines the role of stimulus duration in learning and memory formation of honeybees (Apis mellifera). In classical appetitive conditioning honeybees learn the association between an initially neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS) and the occurrence of a meaningful stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus (US). Thereby the CS becomes a predictor for the US eliciting a conditioned response (CR). Here we study the role of US duration in classical conditioning by examining honeybees conditioned with different US durations. We quantify the CR during acquisition, memory retention, and extinction of the early long-term memory (eLTM), and examine the molecular mechanisms of eLTM by interfering with protein synthesis. We find that the US duration affects neither the probability nor the strength of the CR during acquisition, eLTM retention, and extinction 24 h after conditioning. However, we find that the resistance to extinction 24 h after conditioning is susceptible to protein synthesis inhibition depending on the US duration. We conclude that the US duration does not affect the predictability of the US but modulates the protein synthesis underlying the eLTM's strength. Thus, the US duration differentially impacts learning, eLTM strength, and its underlying protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Marter
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - M Katharina Grauel
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen Lewa
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Morgenstern
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Buckemüller
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Heufelder
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marion Ganz
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dorothea Eisenhardt
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Chemie, Pharmazie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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25
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Simcock NK, Gray HE, Wright GA. Single amino acids in sucrose rewards modulate feeding and associative learning in the honeybee. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 69:41-8. [PMID: 24819203 PMCID: PMC4194351 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Obtaining the correct balance of nutrients requires that the brain integrates information about the body's nutritional state with sensory information from food to guide feeding behaviour. Learning is a mechanism that allows animals to identify cues associated with nutrients so that they can be located quickly when required. Feedback about nutritional state is essential for nutrient balancing and could influence learning. How specific this feedback is to individual nutrients has not often been examined. Here, we tested how the honeybee's nutritional state influenced the likelihood it would feed on and learn sucrose solutions containing single amino acids. Nutritional state was manipulated by pre-feeding bees with either 1M sucrose or 1M sucrose containing 100mM of isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, or methionine 24h prior to olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response. We found that bees pre-fed sucrose solution consumed less of solutions containing amino acids and were also less likely to learn to associate amino acid solutions with odours. Unexpectedly, bees pre-fed solutions containing an amino acid were also less likely to learn to associate odours with sucrose the next day. Furthermore, they consumed more of and were more likely to learn when rewarded with an amino acid solution if they were pre-fed isoleucine and proline. Our data indicate that single amino acids at relatively high concentrations inhibit feeding on sucrose solutions containing them, and they can act as appetitive reinforcers during learning. Our data also suggest that select amino acids interact with mechanisms that signal nutritional sufficiency to reduce hunger. Based on these experiments, we predict that nutrient balancing for essential amino acids during learning requires integration of information about several amino acids experienced simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola K Simcock
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Helen E Gray
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Geraldine A Wright
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.
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26
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Eisenhardt D. Molecular mechanisms underlying formation of long-term reward memories and extinction memories in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:534-42. [PMID: 25225299 PMCID: PMC4175491 DOI: 10.1101/lm.033118.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The honeybee (Apis mellifera) has long served as an invertebrate model organism for reward learning and memory research. Its capacity for learning and memory formation is rooted in the ecological need to efficiently collect nectar and pollen during summer to ensure survival of the hive during winter. Foraging bees learn to associate a flower's characteristic features with a reward in a way that resembles olfactory appetitive classical conditioning, a learning paradigm that is used to study mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation in the honeybee. Due to a plethora of studies on appetitive classical conditioning and phenomena related to it, the honeybee is one of the best characterized invertebrate model organisms from a learning psychological point of view. Moreover, classical conditioning and associated behavioral phenomena are surprisingly similar in honeybees and vertebrates, suggesting a convergence of underlying neuronal processes, including the molecular mechanisms that contribute to them. Here I review current thinking on the molecular mechanisms underlying long-term memory (LTM) formation in honeybees following classical conditioning and extinction, demonstrating that an in-depth analysis of the molecular mechanisms of classical conditioning in honeybees might add to our understanding of associative learning in honeybees and vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Eisenhardt
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Institute of Biology, Neurobiology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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27
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Pamir E, Szyszka P, Scheiner R, Nawrot MP. Rapid learning dynamics in individual honeybees during classical conditioning. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:313. [PMID: 25309366 PMCID: PMC4164006 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Associative learning in insects has been studied extensively by a multitude of classical conditioning protocols. However, so far little emphasis has been put on the dynamics of learning in individuals. The honeybee is a well-established animal model for learning and memory. We here studied associative learning as expressed in individual behavior based on a large collection of data on olfactory classical conditioning (25 datasets, 3298 animals). We show that the group-averaged learning curve and memory retention score confound three attributes of individual learning: the ability or inability to learn a given task, the generally fast acquisition of a conditioned response (CR) in learners, and the high stability of the CR during consecutive training and memory retention trials. We reassessed the prevailing view that more training results in better memory performance and found that 24 h memory retention can be indistinguishable after single-trial and multiple-trial conditioning in individuals. We explain how inter-individual differences in learning can be accommodated within the Rescorla–Wagner theory of associative learning. In both data-analysis and modeling we demonstrate how the conflict between population-level and single-animal perspectives on learning and memory can be disentangled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evren Pamir
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Germany ; Neuroinformatics and Theoretical Neuroscience, Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin Germany ; Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Paul Szyszka
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz Konstanz, Germany
| | - Ricarda Scheiner
- Department of Behavioral Physiology and Sociobiology (Zoology II), University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin P Nawrot
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Germany ; Neuroinformatics and Theoretical Neuroscience, Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin Germany
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28
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Matsumoto Y, Sandoz JC, Devaud JM, Lormant F, Mizunami M, Giurfa M. Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, calmodulin, adenylyl cyclase, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II are required for late, but not early, long-term memory formation in the honeybee. Learn Mem 2014; 21:272-86. [PMID: 24741108 PMCID: PMC3994501 DOI: 10.1101/lm.032037.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Memory is a dynamic process that allows encoding, storage, and retrieval of information acquired through individual experience. In the honeybee Apis mellifera, olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER) has shown that besides short-term memory (STM) and mid-term memory (MTM), two phases of long-term memory (LTM) are formed upon multiple-trial conditioning: an early phase (e-LTM) which depends on translation from already available mRNA, and a late phase (l-LTM) which requires de novo transcription and translation. Here we combined olfactory PER conditioning and neuropharmacological inhibition and studied the involvement of the NO-cGMP pathway, and of specific molecules, such as cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNG), calmodulin (CaM), adenylyl cyclase (AC), and Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), in the formation of olfactory LTM in bees. We show that in addition to NO-cGMP and cAMP-PKA, CNG channels, CaM, AC, and CaMKII also participate in the formation of a l-LTM (72-h post-conditioning) that is specific for the learned odor. Importantly, the same molecules are dispensable for olfactory learning and for the formation of both MTM (in the minute and hour range) and e-LTM (24-h post-conditioning), thus suggesting that the signaling pathways leading to l-LTM or e-LTM involve different molecular actors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukihisa Matsumoto
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, Research Centre on Animal Cognition, 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
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29
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Felsenberg J, Plath JA, Lorang S, Morgenstern L, Eisenhardt D. Short- and long-term memories formed upon backward conditioning in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Learn Mem 2013; 21:37-45. [PMID: 24353291 PMCID: PMC3867710 DOI: 10.1101/lm.031765.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In classical conditioning, the temporal sequence of stimulus presentations is critical for the association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). In forward conditioning, the CS precedes the US and is learned as a predictor for the US. Thus it acquires properties to elicit a behavioral response, defined as excitatory properties. In backward conditioning, the US precedes the CS. The CS might be learned as a predictor for the cessation of the US acquiring inhibitory properties that inhibit a behavioral response. Interestingly, behavior after backward conditioning is controlled by both excitatory and inhibitory properties of the CS, but the underlying mechanisms determining which of these opposing properties control behavior upon retrieval is poorly understood. We performed conditioning experiments in the honeybee (Apis mellifera) to investigate the CS properties that control behavior at different time points after backward conditioning. The CS properties, as characterized by the retardation or enhancement of subsequent acquisition, were examined 30 min and 24 h after backward conditioning. We found that 30 min after backward conditioning, the CS acquired an inhibitory property during backward conditioning depending on the intertrial interval, the number of trials, and the odor used as the CS. One day after backward conditioning, we observed significant retardation of acquisition. In addition, we demonstrated an enhanced, generalized odor response in the backward conditioned group compared to untreated animals. These results indicate that two long-lasting opposing memories have been formed in parallel: one about the excitatory properties of the CS and one about the inhibitory properties of the CS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dorothea Eisenhardt
- Freie Universität Berlin, FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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30
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Klappenbach M, Kaczer L, Locatelli F. Dopamine interferes with appetitive long-term memory formation in honey bees. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2013; 106:230-7. [PMID: 24076013 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Revised: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Studies in vertebrates and invertebrates have proved the instructive role that different biogenic amines play in the neural representation of rewards and punishments during associative learning. Results from diverse arthropods and using different learning paradigms initially agreed that dopamine (DA) is needed for aversive learning and octopamine (OA) is needed for appetitive learning. However, the notion that both amines constitute separate pathways for appetitive and aversive learning is changing. Here, we asked whether DA, so far only involved in aversive memory formation in honey bees, does also modulate appetitive memory. Using the well characterized appetitive olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex (PER), we show that DA impairs appetitive memory consolidation. In addition, we found that blocking DA receptors enhances appetitive memory. These results are consistent with the view that aversive and appetitive components interact during learning and memory formation to ensure adaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martín Klappenbach
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología de la Memoria, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, IFIByNE CONICET, Argentina
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31
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Raccuglia D, Mueller U. Focal uncaging of GABA reveals a temporally defined role for GABAergic inhibition during appetitive associative olfactory conditioning in honeybees. Learn Mem 2013; 20:410-6. [PMID: 23860600 DOI: 10.1101/lm.030205.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Throughout the animal kingdom, the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a key modulator of physiological processes including learning. With respect to associative learning, the exact time in which GABA interferes with the molecular events of learning has not yet been clearly defined. To address this issue, we used two different approaches to activate GABA receptors during appetitive olfactory conditioning in the honeybee. Injection of GABA-A receptor agonist muscimol 20 min before but not 20 min after associative conditioning affects memory performance. These memory deficits were attenuated by additional training sessions. Muscimol has no effect on sensory perception, odor generalization, and nonassociative learning, indicating a specific role of GABA during associative conditioning. We used photolytic uncaging of GABA to identify the GABA-sensitive time window during the short pairing of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) that lasts only seconds. Either uncaging of GABA in the antennal lobes or the mushroom bodies during the CS presentation of the CS-US pairing impairs memory formation, while uncaging GABA during the US phase has no effect on memory. Uncaging GABA during the CS presentation in memory retrieval also has no effect. Thus, in honeybee appetitive olfactory learning GABA specifically interferes with the integration of CS and US during associative conditioning and exerts a modulatory role in memory formation depending on the training strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Raccuglia
- Department 8.3 Biosciences Zoology/Physiology-Neurobiology, ZHMB Center of Human and Molecular Biology, Faculty 8-Natural Science and Technology III, Saarland University, D-66041 Saarbrücken, Germany
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32
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Geddes LH, McQuillan HJ, Aiken A, Vergoz V, Mercer AR. Steroid hormone (20-hydroxyecdysone) modulates the acquisition of aversive olfactory memories in pollen forager honeybees. Learn Mem 2013; 20:399-409. [DOI: 10.1101/lm.030825.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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33
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Jaumann S, Scudelari R, Naug D. Energetic cost of learning and memory can cause cognitive impairment in honeybees. Biol Lett 2013; 9:20130149. [PMID: 23784929 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2013.0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The energetic cost of cognitive functions can lead to either impairments in learning and memory, or to trade-offs with other functions, when the amount of available energy is limited. However, it has been suggested that, under such conditions, social groups such as honeybees might be able to ward off cognitive impairments in individual bees by adjusting resource allocation at the colony level. Using two complementary experiments, one that tests the effect of learning on subsequent energetic state and survival, and another that tests the effect of energetic state on learning and retention, we show that individual bees pay a significant energetic cost for learning and therefore suffer from significant cognitive deficits under energetic stress. We discuss the implications of such cognitive impairments for the recent observations of bees disappearing from their colonies as well as for social life in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jaumann
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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34
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35
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Lefer D, Perisse E, Hourcade B, Sandoz J, Devaud JM. Two waves of transcription are required for long-term memory in the honeybee. Learn Mem 2012; 20:29-33. [PMID: 23247252 DOI: 10.1101/lm.026906.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Storage of information into long-term memory (LTM) usually requires at least two waves of transcription in many species. However, there is no clear evidence of this phenomenon in insects, which are influential models for memory studies. We measured retention in honeybees after injecting a transcription inhibitor at different times before and after conditioning. We identified two separate time windows during which the transcription blockade impairs memory quantitatively and qualitatively, suggesting the occurrence of an early transcription wave (triggered during conditioning) and a later one (starting several hours after learning). Hence insects, like other species, would require two transcription waves for LTM formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Lefer
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
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36
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Mujagić S, Würth SM, Hellbach S, Dürr V. Tactile conditioning and movement analysis of antennal sampling strategies in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). JOURNAL OF VISUALIZED EXPERIMENTS : JOVE 2012:e50179. [PMID: 23271329 DOI: 10.3791/50179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are eusocial insects and well known for their complex division of labor and associative learning capability(1, 2). The worker bees spend the first half of their life inside the dark hive, where they are nursing the larvae or building the regular hexagonal combs for food (e.g. pollen or nectar) and brood(3). The antennae are extraordinary multisensory feelers and play a pivotal role in various tactile mediated tasks(4), including hive building(5) and pattern recognition(6). Later in life, each single bee leaves the hive to forage for food. Then a bee has to learn to discriminate profitable food sources, memorize their location, and communicate it to its nest mates(7). Bees use different floral signals like colors or odors(7, 8), but also tactile cues from the petal surface(9) to form multisensory memories of the food source. Under laboratory conditions, bees can be trained in an appetitive learning paradigm to discriminate tactile object features, such as edges or grooves with their antennae(10, 11, 12, 13). This learning paradigm is closely related to the classical olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER) in harnessed bees(14). The advantage of the tactile learning paradigm in the laboratory is the possibility of combining behavioral experiments on learning with various physiological measurements, including the analysis of the antennal movement pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Mujagić
- Biological Cybernetics, CITEC - Cognitive Interaction Technology - Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University.
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37
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Menzel R. The honeybee as a model for understanding the basis of cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012; 13:758-68. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn3357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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38
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Merschbaecher K, Haettig J, Mueller U. Acetylation-mediated suppression of transcription-independent memory: bidirectional modulation of memory by acetylation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45131. [PMID: 23028801 PMCID: PMC3446950 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Learning induced changes in protein acetylation, mediated by histone acetyl transferases (HATs), and the antagonistic histone deacetylases (HDACs) play a critical role in memory formation. The status of histone acetylation affects the interaction between the transcription-complex and DNA and thus regulates transcription-dependent processes required for long-term memory (LTM). While the majority of studies report on the role of elevated acetylation in memory facilitation, we address the impact of both, increased and decreased acetylation on formation of appetitive olfactory memory in honeybees. We show that learning-induced changes in the acetylation of histone H3 at aminoacid-positions H3K9 and H3K18 exhibit distinct and different dynamics depending on the training strength. A strong training that induces LTM leads to an immediate increase in acetylation at H3K18 that stays elevated for hours. A weak training, not sufficient to trigger LTM, causes an initial increase in acetylation at H3K18, followed by a strong reduction in acetylation at H3K18 below the control group level. Acetylation at position H3K9 is not affected by associative conditioning, indicating specific learning-induced actions on the acetylation machinery. Elevating acetylation levels by blocking HDACs after conditioning leads to an improved memory. While memory after strong training is enhanced for at least 2 days, the enhancement after weak training is restricted to 1 day. Reducing acetylation levels by blocking HAT activity after strong training leads to a suppression of transcription-dependent LTM. The memory suppression is also observed in case of weak training, which does not require transcription processes. Thus, our findings demonstrate that acetylation-mediated processes act as bidirectional regulators of memory formation that facilitate or suppress memory independent of its transcription-requirement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Merschbaecher
- Dept. 8.3 Biosciences Zoology/Physiology-Neurobiology, ZHMB (Center of Human and Molecular Biology), Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Jakob Haettig
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Uli Mueller
- Dept. 8.3 Biosciences Zoology/Physiology-Neurobiology, ZHMB (Center of Human and Molecular Biology), Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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39
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Felsenberg J, Dombrowski V, Eisenhardt D. A role of protein degradation in memory consolidation after initial learning and extinction learning in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Learn Mem 2012; 19:470-7. [PMID: 22988289 DOI: 10.1101/lm.026245.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Protein degradation is known to affect memory formation after extinction learning. We demonstrate here that an inhibitor of protein degradation, MG132, interferes with memory formation after extinction learning in a classical appetitive conditioning paradigm. In addition, we find an enhancement of memory formation when the same inhibitor is applied after initial learning. This result supports the idea that MG132 targets an ongoing consolidation process. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the sensitivity of memory formation after initial learning and extinction learning to MG132 depends in the same way on the number of CS-US trials and the intertrial interval applied during initial learning. This supports the idea that the learning parameters during acquisition are critical for memory formation after extinction and that protein degradation in both learning processes might be functionally linked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Felsenberg
- FB Biologie, Pharmazie, Chemie, Institut für Biologie, Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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40
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Biergans SD, Jones JC, Treiber N, Galizia CG, Szyszka P. DNA methylation mediates the discriminatory power of associative long-term memory in honeybees. PLoS One 2012; 7:e39349. [PMID: 22724000 PMCID: PMC3377632 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory is created by several interlinked processes in the brain, some of which require long-term gene regulation. Epigenetic mechanisms are likely candidates for regulating memory-related genes. Among these, DNA methylation is known to be a long lasting genomic mark and may be involved in the establishment of long-term memory. Here we demonstrate that DNA methyltransferases, which induce and maintain DNA methylation, are involved in a particular aspect of associative long-term memory formation in honeybees, but are not required for short-term memory formation. While long-term memory strength itself was not affected by blocking DNA methyltransferases, odor specificity of the memory (memory discriminatory power) was. Conversely, perceptual discriminatory power was normal. These results suggest that different genetic pathways are involved in mediating the strength and discriminatory power of associative odor memories and provide, to our knowledge, the first indication that DNA methyltransferases are involved in stimulus-specific associative long-term memory formation.
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41
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Mustard JA, Dews L, Brugato A, Dey K, Wright GA. Consumption of an acute dose of caffeine reduces acquisition but not memory in the honey bee. Behav Brain Res 2012; 232:217-24. [PMID: 22521838 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 04/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Caffeine affects several molecules that are also involved in the processes underlying learning and memory such as cAMP and calcium. However, studies of caffeine's influence on learning and memory in mammals are often contradictory. Invertebrate model systems have provided valuable insight into the actions of many neuroactive compounds including ethanol and cocaine. We use the honey bee (Apis mellifera) to investigate how the ingestion of acute doses of caffeine before, during, and after conditioning influences performance in an appetitive olfactory learning and memory task. Consumption of caffeine doses of 0.01 M or greater during or prior to conditioning causes a significant reduction in response levels during acquisition. Although bees find the taste of caffeine to be aversive at high concentrations, the bitter taste does not explain the reduction in acquisition observed for bees fed caffeine before conditioning. While high doses of caffeine reduced performance during acquisition, the response levels of bees given caffeine were the same as those of the sucrose only control group in a recall test 24h after conditioning. In addition, caffeine administered after conditioning had no affect on recall. These results suggest that caffeine specifically affects performance during acquisition and not the processes involved in the formation of early long term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Mustard
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA.
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42
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Behrends A, Scheiner R. Octopamine improves learning in newly emerged bees but not in old foragers. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:1076-83. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.063297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their excellent learning abilities. Although most age groups learn quickly to associate an odor with a sucrose reward, newly emerged bees and old foragers often perform poorly. For a long time, the reason for the poor learning performance of these age groups was unclear. We show that reduced sensitivity for sucrose is the cause for poor associative learning in newly emerged bees but not in old foragers. By increasing the sensitivity for sucrose through octopamine, we selectively improved the learning performance of insensitive newly emerged bees. Interestingly, the learning performance of foragers experiencing the same treatment remained low, despite the observed increase in sensitivity for the reward. We thus demonstrate that increasing sensitivity for the reward can improve the associative learning performance of bees when they are young but not when they had foraged for a long time. Importantly, octopamine can have very different effects on bees, depending on their initial sensory sensitivity. These differential effects of octopamine have important consequences for interpreting the action of biogenic amines on insect behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Behrends
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Ökologie, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ricarda Scheiner
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Ökologie, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Universität Potsdam, Institut für Biochemie und Biologie, Zoophysiologie, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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43
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Riffell JA. The Neuroecology of a Pollinator's Buffet: Olfactory Preferences and Learning in Insect Pollinators. Integr Comp Biol 2011; 51:781-93. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icr094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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44
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Felsenberg J, Gehring KB, Antemann V, Eisenhardt D. Behavioural pharmacology in classical conditioning of the proboscis extension response in honeybees (Apis mellifera). J Vis Exp 2011:2282. [PMID: 21304470 PMCID: PMC3182661 DOI: 10.3791/2282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the survival of a honeybee colony depends on the exploitation of food sources, forager bees learn and memorize variable flower sites as well as their profitability. Forager bees can be easily trained in natural settings where they forage at a feeding site and learn the related signals such as odor or color. Appetitive associative learning can also be studied under controlled conditions in the laboratory by conditioning the proboscis extension response (PER) of individually harnessed honeybees3,4. This learning paradigm enables the study of the neuronal and molecular mechanisms that underlie learning and memory formation in a simple and highly reliable way5-12. A behavioral pharmacology approach is used to study molecular mechanisms. Drugs are injected systemically to interfere with the function of specific molecules during or after learning and memory formation13-16. Here we demonstrate how to train harnessed honeybees in PER conditioning and how to apply drugs systemically by injection into the bee flight muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Felsenberg
- Fachbereich Bio/Chem/Pharm, Institut für Biologie-Neurobiologie, Freie Universität Berlin
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Hadar R, Menzel R. Memory formation in reversal learning of the honeybee. Front Behav Neurosci 2010; 4:186. [PMID: 21179581 PMCID: PMC3004282 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In reversal learning animals are first trained with a differential learning protocol, where they learn to respond to a reinforced odor (CS+) and not to respond to a non-reinforced odor (CS−). Once they respond correctly to this rule, the contingencies of the conditioned stimuli are reversed, and animals learn to adjust their response to the new rule. This study investigated the effect of a protein synthesis inhibitor (emetine) on the memory formed after reversal learning in the honeybee Apis mellifera. Two groups of bees were studied: summer bees and winter bees, each yielded different results. Blocking protein synthesis in summer bees inhibits consolidation of the excitatory learning following reversal learning whereas it blocked the consolidation of the inhibitory learning in winter bees. These findings suggest that excitatory and inhibitory learning may involve different molecular processes in bees, which are seasonally dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravit Hadar
- Neurobiology, Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
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The influence of gustatory and olfactory experiences on responsiveness to reward in the honeybee. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13498. [PMID: 20975953 PMCID: PMC2958144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Honeybees (Apis mellifera) exhibit an extraordinarily tuned division of labor that depends on age polyethism. This adjustment is generally associated with the fact that individuals of different ages display different response thresholds to given stimuli, which determine specific behaviors. For instance, the sucrose-response threshold (SRT) which largely depends on genetic factors may also be affected by the nectar sugar content. However, it remains unknown whether SRTs in workers of different ages and tasks can differ depending on gustatory and olfactory experiences. Methodology Groups of worker bees reared either in an artificial environment or else in a queen-right colony, were exposed to different reward conditions at different adult ages. Gustatory response scores (GRSs) and odor-memory retrieval were measured in bees that were previously exposed to changes in food characteristics. Principal Findings Results show that the gustatory responses of pre-foraging-aged bees are affected by changes in sucrose solution concentration and also to the presence of an odor provided it is presented as scented sucrose solution. In contrast no differences in worker responses were observed when presented with odor only in the rearing environment. Fast modulation of GRSs was observed in older bees (12–16 days of age) which are commonly involved in food processing tasks within the hive, while slower modulation times were observed in younger bees (commonly nurse bees, 6–9 days of age). This suggests that older food-processing bees have a higher plasticity when responding to fluctuations in resource information than younger hive bees. Adjustments in the number of trophallaxis events were also found when scented food circulated inside the nest, and this was positively correlated with the differences in timing observed in gustatory responsiveness and memory retention for hive bees of different age classes. Conclusions This work demonstrates the accessibility of chemosensory information in the honeybee colonies with respect to incoming nectar. The modulation of the sensory-response systems within the hive can have important effects on the dynamics of food transfer and information propagation.
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Acute disruption of the NMDA receptor subunit NR1 in the honeybee brain selectively impairs memory formation. J Neurosci 2010; 30:7817-25. [PMID: 20534830 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5543-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Memory formation is a continuous process composed of multiple phases that can develop independently from each other. These phases depend on signaling pathways initiated after the activation of receptors in different brain regions. The NMDA receptor acts as a sensor of coincident activity between neural inputs, and, as such, its activation during learning is thought to be crucial for various forms of memory. In this study, we inhibited the expression of the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor in the honeybee brain using RNA interference. We show that the disruption of the subunit expression in the mushroom body region of the honeybee brain during and shortly after appetitive learning selectively impaired memory. Although the formation of mid-term memory and early long-term memory was impaired, late long-term memory was left intact. This indicates that late long-term memory formation differs in its dependence on NMDA receptor activity from earlier memory phases.
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48
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The quantitative evaluation of cholinergic markers in spatial memory improvement induced by nicotine-bucladesine combination in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2010; 636:102-7. [PMID: 20361958 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that post-training intra-hippocampal infusion of nicotine-bucladesine combination enhanced spatial memory retention in the Morris water maze. Here we investigated the role of cholinergic markers in nicotine-bucladesine combination-induced memory improvement. We assessed the expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) in CA1 region of the hippocampus and medial septal area (MSA) of the brain. Post-training bilateral infusion of a low concentration of either nicotine or bucladesine into the CA1 region of the hippocampus did not affect spatial memory significantly. Quantitative immunostaining analysis of optical density in CA1 regions and evaluation of immunopositive neurons in medial septal area of brain sections from all combination groups revealed a significant increase (P<0.001) in the ChAT and VAChT immunoreactivity. The maximum increase was observed with combination of 10-microM/side bucladesine and 0.5 microg/side nicotine and in a concentration dependent manner. Also, increase in the optical density and amount of ChAT and VAChT immunostaining correlated with the decrease in escape latency and traveled distance in rats treated with nicotine and low dose of bucladesine. Taken together, these results suggest that significant increases of ChAT and VAChT protein expressions in the CA1 region and medial septal area are the possible mechanisms of spatial memory improvement induced by nicotine-bucladesine combination.
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Dynamic use of fruit odours to locate host larvae: individual learning, physiological state and genetic variability as adaptive mechanisms. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2009; 70:67-95. [PMID: 19773067 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(09)70003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This chapter presents a series of behavioral studies designed to document how Leptopilina spp. learn fruit odours in order to find and explore host-infested fruits. Experimental analyses of conditioned responses explored individual learning, physiological changes and genetic variability as adaptive mechanisms of the host searching behavior. Both oriented walking and substrate probing can be easily observed and quantified in laboratory devices. We studied walking in a four-arm olfactometer and probing in an agar substrate in response to olfactory stimulation by fruit odours. We analyzed the odour learning process and the dynamics of the memory. We next investigated how odour memory is influenced by motivation factors such as mating or egg-load, and how much variation is due to inheritance, using isofemale lines. Next, we addressed the adaptive significance of innate and conditioned responses to fruit odour by comparing and crossing populations originating from areas with contrasted levels of host availability.
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Wright GA, Schiestl FP. The evolution of floral scent: the influence of olfactory learning by insect pollinators on the honest signalling of floral rewards. Funct Ecol 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01627.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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