1
|
Schreurs BG, O'Dell DE, Wang D. The Role of Cerebellar Intrinsic Neuronal Excitability, Synaptic Plasticity, and Perineuronal Nets in Eyeblink Conditioning. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:200. [PMID: 38534469 DOI: 10.3390/biology13030200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Evidence is strong that, in addition to fine motor control, there is an important role for the cerebellum in cognition and emotion. The deep nuclei of the mammalian cerebellum also contain the highest density of perineural nets-mesh-like structures that surround neurons-in the brain, and it appears there may be a connection between these nets and cognitive processes, particularly learning and memory. Here, we review how the cerebellum is involved in eyeblink conditioning-a particularly well-understood form of learning and memory-and focus on the role of perineuronal nets in intrinsic membrane excitability and synaptic plasticity that underlie eyeblink conditioning. We explore the development and role of perineuronal nets and the in vivo and in vitro evidence that manipulations of the perineuronal net in the deep cerebellar nuclei affect eyeblink conditioning. Together, these findings provide evidence of an important role for perineuronal net in learning and memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernard G Schreurs
- Department of Neuroscience, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Deidre E O'Dell
- Department of Biology, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Pennsylvania Western (PennWest) University, California, PA 15419, USA
| | - Desheng Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Halverson HE, Kim J, Freeman JH. Dynamic Changes in Local Activity and Network Interactions among the Anterior Cingulate, Amygdala, and Cerebellum during Associative Learning. J Neurosci 2023; 43:8385-8402. [PMID: 37852793 PMCID: PMC10711712 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0731-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Communication between the cerebellum and forebrain structures is necessary for motor learning and has been implicated in a variety of cognitive functions. The exact nature of cerebellar-forebrain interactions supporting behavior and cognition is not known. We examined how local and network activity support learning by simultaneously recording neural activity in the cerebellum, amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex while male and female rats were trained in trace eyeblink conditioning. Initially, the cerebellum and forebrain signal the contingency between external stimuli through increases in theta power and synchrony. Neuronal activity driving expression of the learned response was observed in the cerebellum and became evident in the anterior cingulate and amygdala as learning progressed. Aligning neural activity to the training stimuli or learned response provided a way to differentiate between learning-related activity driven by different mechanisms. Stimulus and response-related increases in theta power and coherence were observed across all three areas throughout learning. However, increases in slow gamma power and coherence were only observed when oscillations were aligned to the cerebellum-driven learned response. Percentage of learned responses, learning-related local activity, and slow gamma communication from cerebellum to forebrain all progressively increased during training. The relatively fast frequency of slow gamma provides an ideal mechanism for the cerebellum to communicate learned temporal information to the forebrain. This cerebellar response-aligned slow gamma then provides enrichment of behavior-specific temporal information to local neuronal activity in the forebrain. These dynamic network interactions likely support a wide range of behaviors and cognitive tasks that require coordination between the forebrain and cerebellum.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study presents new evidence for how dynamic learning-related changes in single neurons and neural oscillations in a cerebellar-forebrain network support associative motor learning. The current results provide an integrated mechanism for how bidirectional communication between the cerebellum and forebrain represents important external events and internal neural drive. This bidirectional communication between the cerebellum and forebrain likely supports a wide range of behaviors and cognitive tasks that require temporal precision.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hunter E Halverson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242
| | - Jangjin Kim
- Department of Psychology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, South Korea
| | - John H Freeman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Frontera JL, Sala RW, Georgescu IA, Baba Aissa H, d'Almeida MN, Popa D, Léna C. The cerebellum regulates fear extinction through thalamo-prefrontal cortex interactions in male mice. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1508. [PMID: 36932068 PMCID: PMC10023697 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36943-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear extinction is a form of inhibitory learning that suppresses the expression of aversive memories and plays a key role in the recovery of anxiety and trauma-related disorders. Here, using male mice, we identify a cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway regulating fear extinction. The cerebellar fastigial nucleus (FN) projects to the lateral subregion of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus (MD), which is reciprocally connected with the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC). The inhibition of FN inputs to MD in male mice impairs fear extinction in animals with high fear responses and increases the bursting of MD neurons, a firing pattern known to prevent extinction learning. Indeed, this MD bursting is followed by high levels of the dmPFC 4 Hz oscillations causally associated with fear responses during fear extinction, and the inhibition of FN-MD neurons increases the coherence of MD bursts and oscillations with dmPFC 4 Hz oscillations. Overall, these findings reveal a regulation of fear-related thalamo-cortical dynamics by the cerebellum and its contribution to fear extinction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jimena L Frontera
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Romain W Sala
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Ioana A Georgescu
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Hind Baba Aissa
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marion N d'Almeida
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Daniela Popa
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Clément Léna
- Neurophysiology of Brain Circuits Team, Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, 75005, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Parras GG, Leal-Campanario R, López-Ramos JC, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM. Functional properties of eyelid conditioned responses and involved brain centers. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:1057251. [PMID: 36570703 PMCID: PMC9780278 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.1057251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For almost a century the classical conditioning of nictitating membrane/eyelid responses has been used as an excellent and feasible experimental model to study how the brain organizes the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of new motor abilities in alert behaving mammals, including humans. Lesional, pharmacological, and electrophysiological approaches, and more recently, genetically manipulated animals have shown the involvement of numerous brain areas in this apparently simple example of associative learning. In this regard, the cerebellum (both cortex and nuclei) has received particular attention as a putative site for the acquisition and storage of eyelid conditioned responses, a proposal not fully accepted by all researchers. Indeed, the acquisition of this type of learning implies the activation of many neural processes dealing with the sensorimotor integration and the kinematics of the acquired ability, as well as with the attentional and cognitive aspects also involved in this process. Here, we address specifically the functional roles of three brain structures (red nucleus, cerebellar interpositus nucleus, and motor cortex) mainly involved in the acquisition and performance of eyelid conditioned responses and three other brain structures (hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex, and claustrum) related to non-motor aspects of the acquisition process. The main conclusion is that the acquisition of this motor ability results from the contribution of many cortical and subcortical brain structures each one involved in specific (motor and cognitive) aspects of the learning process.
Collapse
|
5
|
Yu X, Jembere F, Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Prefrontal projections to the nucleus reuniens signal behavioral relevance of stimuli during associative learning. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11995. [PMID: 35835794 PMCID: PMC9283438 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15886-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleus reuniens (RE) is necessary for memories dependent on the interaction between the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus (HPC). One example is trace eyeblink conditioning, in which the mPFC exhibits differential activity to neutral conditioned stimuli (CS) depending on their contingency with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). To test if this relevancy signal is routed to the RE, we photometrically recorded mPFC axon terminals within the RE and tracked their changes with learning. As a comparison, we measured prefrontal terminal activity in the mediodorsal thalamus (MD), which lacks connectivity with the HPC. In naïve male rats, prefrontal terminals within the RE were not strongly activated by tone or light. As the rats associated one of the stimuli (CS+) with the US, terminals gradually increased their response to the CS+ but not the other stimulus (CS-). In contrast, stimulus-evoked responses of prefrontal terminals within the MD were strong even before conditioning. They also became augmented only to the CS+ in the first conditioning session; however, the degree of activity differentiation did not improve with learning. These findings suggest that associative learning selectively increased mPFC output to the RE, signaling the behavioral relevance of sensory stimuli.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotian Yu
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Fasika Jembere
- Human Biology Program, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. .,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. .,Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ventromedial Thalamus-Projecting DCN Neurons Modulate Associative Sensorimotor Responses in Mice. Neurosci Bull 2022; 38:459-473. [PMID: 34989972 PMCID: PMC9106783 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-021-00810-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) integrate various inputs to the cerebellum and form the final cerebellar outputs critical for associative sensorimotor learning. However, the functional relevance of distinct neuronal subpopulations within the DCN remains poorly understood. Here, we examined a subpopulation of mouse DCN neurons whose axons specifically project to the ventromedial (Vm) thalamus (DCNVm neurons), and found that these neurons represent a specific subset of DCN units whose activity varies with trace eyeblink conditioning (tEBC), a classical associative sensorimotor learning task. Upon conditioning, the activity of DCNVm neurons signaled the performance of conditioned eyeblink responses (CRs). Optogenetic activation and inhibition of the DCNVm neurons in well-trained mice amplified and diminished the CRs, respectively. Chemogenetic manipulation of the DCNVm neurons had no effects on non-associative motor coordination. Furthermore, optogenetic activation of the DCNVm neurons caused rapid elevated firing activity in the cingulate cortex, a brain area critical for bridging the time gap between sensory stimuli and motor execution during tEBC. Together, our data highlights DCNVm neurons' function and delineates their kinematic parameters that modulate the strength of associative sensorimotor responses.
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhang WW, Li RR, Zhang J, Yan J, Zhang QH, Hu ZA, Hu B, Yao ZX, Chen H. Hippocampal Interneurons are Required for Trace Eyeblink Conditioning in Mice. Neurosci Bull 2021; 37:1147-1159. [PMID: 33991316 PMCID: PMC8353031 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-021-00700-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
While the hippocampus has been implicated in supporting the association among time-separated events, the underlying cellular mechanisms have not been fully clarified. Here, we combined in vivo multi-channel recording and optogenetics to investigate the activity of hippocampal interneurons in freely-moving mice performing a trace eyeblink conditioning (tEBC) task. We found that the hippocampal interneurons exhibited conditioned stimulus (CS)-evoked sustained activity, which predicted the performance of conditioned eyeblink responses (CRs) in the early acquisition of the tEBC. Consistent with this, greater proportions of hippocampal pyramidal cells showed CS-evoked decreased activity in the early acquisition of the tEBC. Moreover, optogenetic suppression of the sustained activity in hippocampal interneurons severely impaired acquisition of the tEBC. In contrast, suppression of the sustained activity of hippocampal interneurons had no effect on the performance of well-learned CRs. Our findings highlight the role of hippocampal interneurons in the tEBC, and point to a potential cellular mechanism subserving associative learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wei Zhang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Rong-Rong Li
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jie Yan
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Qian-Hui Zhang
- Department of Foreign Language, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Zhi-An Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China. .,Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
| | - Zhong-Xiang Yao
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
| | - Hao Chen
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Shadmehr R. Population coding in the cerebellum: a machine learning perspective. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:2022-2051. [PMID: 33112717 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00449.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The cere resembles a feedforward, three-layer network of neurons in which the "hidden layer" consists of Purkinje cells (P-cells) and the output layer consists of deep cerebellar nucleus (DCN) neurons. In this analogy, the output of each DCN neuron is a prediction that is compared with the actual observation, resulting in an error signal that originates in the inferior olive. Efficient learning requires that the error signal reach the DCN neurons, as well as the P-cells that project onto them. However, this basic rule of learning is violated in the cerebellum: the olivary projections to the DCN are weak, particularly in adulthood. Instead, an extraordinarily strong signal is sent from the olive to the P-cells, producing complex spikes. Curiously, P-cells are grouped into small populations that converge onto single DCN neurons. Why are the P-cells organized in this way, and what is the membership criterion of each population? Here, I apply elementary mathematics from machine learning and consider the fact that P-cells that form a population exhibit a special property: they can synchronize their complex spikes, which in turn suppress activity of DCN neuron they project to. Thus complex spikes cannot only act as a teaching signal for a P-cell, but through complex spike synchrony, a P-cell population may act as a surrogate teacher for the DCN neuron that produced the erroneous output. It appears that grouping of P-cells into small populations that share a preference for error satisfies a critical requirement of efficient learning: providing error information to the output layer neuron (DCN) that was responsible for the error, as well as the hidden layer neurons (P-cells) that contributed to it. This population coding may account for several remarkable features of behavior during learning, including multiple timescales, protection from erasure, and spontaneous recovery of memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reza Shadmehr
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Reus-García MM, Sánchez-Campusano R, Ledderose J, Dogbevia GK, Treviño M, Hasan MT, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM. The Claustrum is Involved in Cognitive Processes Related to the Classical Conditioning of Eyelid Responses in Behaving Rabbits. Cereb Cortex 2020; 31:281-300. [PMID: 32885230 PMCID: PMC7727357 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It is assumed that the claustrum (CL) is involved in sensorimotor integration and cognitive processes. We recorded the firing activity of identified CL neurons during classical eyeblink conditioning in rabbits, using a delay paradigm in which a tone was presented as conditioned stimulus (CS), followed by a corneal air puff as unconditioned stimulus (US). Neurons were identified by their activation from motor (MC), cingulate (CC), and medial prefrontal (mPFC) cortices. CL neurons were rarely activated by single stimuli of any modality. In contrast, their firing was significantly modulated during the first sessions of paired CS/US presentations, but not in well-trained animals. Neuron firing rates did not correlate with the kinematics of conditioned responses (CRs). CL local field potentials (LFPs) changed their spectral power across learning and presented well-differentiated CL–mPFC/CL–MC network dynamics, as shown by crossfrequency spectral measurements. CL electrical stimulation did not evoke eyelid responses, even in trained animals. Silencing of synaptic transmission of CL neurons by the vINSIST method delayed the acquisition of CRs but did not affect their presentation rate. The CL plays an important role in the acquisition of associative learning, mostly in relation to the novelty of CS/US association, but not in the expression of CRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Mar Reus-García
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville 4103, Spain
| | | | - Julia Ledderose
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin 10117, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Godwin K Dogbevia
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.,Division of Cardiac Surgery, University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa K1Y 4W7, Canada
| | - Mario Treviño
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.,Laboratorio de Plasticidad Cortical y Aprendizaje Perceptual, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44130, México
| | - Mazahir T Hasan
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.,Laboratory of Memory Circuits, Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa 48940, Spain.,Ikerbasque-Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao 48013, Spain
| | - Agnès Gruart
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville 4103, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
de Oliveira EF, Dickson CT, Reyes MB. Hippocampal and lateral entorhinal cortex physiological activity during trace conditioning under urethane anesthesia. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:781-789. [PMID: 32727318 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00293.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant evidence shows that the acquisition of delay conditioning can occur in out-of-awareness states, such as under anesthesia. However, it is unclear to what extent and what type of conditioning animals may achieve during nonawake states. Trace conditioning is an appealing protocol to study under anesthesia, given the long empty gap separating the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, which must be bridged for acquisition to happen. Here, we show evidence that rats develop physiological responses during the trace conditioning paradigm under anesthesia. We recorded the activity of the hippocampus (HPC) and lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) in urethane-anesthetized rats, along with an electromyogram and an electrocardiogram. The protocol consisted of randomly presenting two distinct sound stimuli (CS- and CS+), where only one stimulus (CS+) was assigned to be trace-paired with a footshock. A trial-average analysis revealed that animals developed significant climbing heart rate activity initiating at the CS onset and persisting during the trace period. Such climbing arose for both CS- and CS+ with similar slopes but different intercepts, suggesting CS+ heart rates were typically above CS-. The power and coherence of HPC and LEC high-frequency bands (>100 Hz) significantly increased during CS presentation and trace, similarly to CS- and CS+ and insensitive to either activated or deactivated states. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to perform a trace conditioning protocol under anesthesia. Confirmation of this procedure acquisition can allow a new preparation for the exploration of brain mechanisms that bind time-discontinuous events.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Some forms of learning, such as some types of conditioning, can occur in anesthetized states. However, the extent to which memories can be formed in these states is still an open question. Here, we investigated the trace conditioning under urethane anesthesia and found heart rate, hippocampus, and lateral entorhinal cortex physiological changes to stimuli presentation. This new preparation may allow for exploration of memory acquisition of time-discontinuous events in the nonawake brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eliezyer Fermino de Oliveira
- Center for Mathematics, Computing, and Cognition-Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil.,Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Clayton Thomas Dickson
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Marcelo Bussotti Reyes
- Center for Mathematics, Computing, and Cognition-Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Hull C. Prediction signals in the cerebellum: beyond supervised motor learning. eLife 2020; 9:54073. [PMID: 32223891 PMCID: PMC7105376 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While classical views of cerebellar learning have suggested that this structure predominantly operates according to an error-based supervised learning rule to refine movements, emerging evidence suggests that the cerebellum may also harness a wider range of learning rules to contribute to a variety of behaviors, including cognitive processes. Together, such evidence points to a broad role for cerebellar circuits in generating and testing predictions about movement, reward, and other non-motor operations. However, this expanded view of cerebellar processing also raises many new questions about how such apparent diversity of function arises from a structure with striking homogeneity. Hence, this review will highlight both current evidence for predictive cerebellar circuit function that extends beyond the classical view of error-driven supervised learning, as well as open questions that must be addressed to unify our understanding cerebellar circuit function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Court Hull
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Wu GY, Liu SL, Yao J, Li X, Wu B, Ye JN, Sui JF. Optogenetic Inhibition of Medial Prefrontal Cortex-Pontine Nuclei Projections During the Stimulus-free Trace Interval Impairs Temporal Associative Motor Learning. Cereb Cortex 2019; 28:3753-3763. [PMID: 28968654 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is closely involved in many higher-order cognitive functions, including learning to associate temporally discontiguous events (called temporal associative learning). However, direct evidence for the role of mPFC and the neural pathway underlying modulation of temporal associative motor learning is sparse. Here, we show that optogenetic inhibition of the mPFC or its axon terminals at the pontine nuclei (PN) during trace intervals or whole trial period significantly impaired the trace eyeblink conditioning (TEC), but had no significant effects on TEC during the conditioned stimulus or intertrial interval period. Our results suggest that activities associated with the mPFC-PN projection during trace intervals is crucial for trace associative motor learning. This finding is of great importance in understanding the mechanisms and the relevant neural pathways underlying mPFC modulation of temporal associative motor learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Yan Wu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shu-Lei Liu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Juan Yao
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bing Wu
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jian-Ning Ye
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jian-Feng Sui
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Xing B, Morrissey MD, Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Distributed representations of temporal stimulus associations across regular-firing and fast-spiking neurons in rat medial prefrontal cortex. J Neurophysiol 2019; 123:439-450. [PMID: 31851558 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00565.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex has been implicated in various cognitive processes, including working memory, executive control, decision making, and relational learning. One core computational requirement underlying all these processes is the integration of information across time. When rodents and rabbits associate two temporally discontiguous stimuli, some neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) change firing rates in response to the preceding stimulus and sustain the firing rate during the subsequent temporal interval. These firing patterns are thought to serve as a mechanism to buffer the previously presented stimuli and signal the upcoming stimuli; however, how these critical properties are distributed across different neuron types remains unknown. We investigated the firing selectivity of regular-firing, burst-firing, and fast-spiking neurons in the prelimbic region of the mPFC while rats associated two neutral conditioned stimuli (CS) with one aversive stimulus (US). Analyses of firing patterns of individual neurons and neuron ensembles revealed that regular-firing neurons maintained rich information about CS identity and CS-US contingency during intervals separating the CS and US. Moreover, they further strengthened the latter selectivity with repeated conditioning sessions over a month. The selectivity of burst-firing neurons for both stimulus features was weaker than that of regular-firing neurons, indicating the difference in task engagement between two subpopulations of putative excitatory neurons. In contrast, putative inhibitory, fast-spiking neurons showed a stronger selectivity for CS identity than for CS-US contingency, suggesting their potential role in sensory discrimination. These results reveal a fine-scaled functional organization in the prefrontal network supporting the formation of temporal stimulus associations.NEW & NOTEWORTHY To associate stimuli that occurred separately in time, the brain needs to bridge the temporal gap by maintaining what was presented and predicting what would follow. We show that in rat medial prefrontal cortex, the former function is associated with a subpopulation of putative inhibitory neurons, whereas the latter is supported by a subpopulation of putative excitatory neurons. Our results reveal a distinct contribution of these microcircuit components to neural representations of temporal stimulus associations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bohan Xing
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark D Morrissey
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Neuroscience Program, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Changes in cerebellar intrinsic neuronal excitability and synaptic plasticity result from eyeblink conditioning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 166:107094. [PMID: 31542329 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2019.107094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There is a long history of research documenting plasticity in the cerebellum as well as the role of the cerebellum in learning and memory. Recordings in slices of cerebellum have provided evidence of long-term depression and long-term potentiation at several excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Lesions and recordings show the cerebellum is crucial for eyeblink conditioning and it appears changes in both synaptic and membrane plasticity are involved. In addition to its role in fine motor control, there is growing consensus that the cerebellum is crucial for perceptual, cognitive, and emotional functions. In the current review, we explore the evidence that eyeblink conditioning results in significant changes in intrinsic membrane excitability as well as synaptic plasticity in Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex in rabbits and changes in intrinsic membrane excitability in principal neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei in rats.
Collapse
|
15
|
Chabrol FP, Blot A, Mrsic-Flogel TD. Cerebellar Contribution to Preparatory Activity in Motor Neocortex. Neuron 2019; 103:506-519.e4. [PMID: 31201123 PMCID: PMC6693889 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In motor neocortex, preparatory activity predictive of specific movements is maintained by a positive feedback loop with the thalamus. Motor thalamus receives excitatory input from the cerebellum, which learns to generate predictive signals for motor control. The contribution of this pathway to neocortical preparatory signals remains poorly understood. Here, we show that, in a virtual reality conditioning task, cerebellar output neurons in the dentate nucleus exhibit preparatory activity similar to that in anterolateral motor cortex prior to reward acquisition. Silencing activity in dentate nucleus by photoactivating inhibitory Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex caused robust, short-latency suppression of preparatory activity in anterolateral motor cortex. Our results suggest that preparatory activity is controlled by a learned decrease of Purkinje cell firing in advance of reward under supervision of climbing fiber inputs signaling reward delivery. Thus, cerebellar computations exert a powerful influence on preparatory activity in motor neocortex. Similar activity in dentate nucleus (DN) and ALM cortex prior to reward acquisition Silencing DN activity selectively suppresses preparatory activity in ALM Preparatory activity likely controlled by learned decrease in Purkinje cell firing Dynamics of preparatory activity imply reward time prediction from external cues
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francois P Chabrol
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, 4056 Basel, Switzerland; Sainsbury Wellcome Center, University College London, 25 Howland Street, London W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Antonin Blot
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, 4056 Basel, Switzerland; Sainsbury Wellcome Center, University College London, 25 Howland Street, London W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Thomas D Mrsic-Flogel
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, 4056 Basel, Switzerland; Sainsbury Wellcome Center, University College London, 25 Howland Street, London W1T 4JG, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wu GY, Liu SL, Yao J, Sun L, Wu B, Yang Y, Li X, Sun QQ, Feng H, Sui JF. Medial Prefrontal Cortex-Pontine Nuclei Projections Modulate Suboptimal Cue-Induced Associative Motor Learning. Cereb Cortex 2019; 28:880-893. [PMID: 28077515 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse and powerful mechanisms have evolved to enable organisms to modulate learning and memory under a variety of survival conditions. Cumulative evidence has shown that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is closely involved in many higher-order cognitive functions. However, when and how the medial PFC (mPFC) modulates associative motor learning remains largely unknown. Here, we show that delay eyeblink conditioning (DEC) with the weak conditioned stimulus (wCS) but not the strong CS (sCS) elicited a significant increase in the levels of c-Fos expression in caudal mPFC. Both optogenetic inhibition and activation of the bilateral caudal mPFC, or its axon terminals at the pontine nucleus (PN) contralateral to the training eye, significantly impaired the acquisition, recent and remote retrieval of DEC with the wCS but not the sCS. However, direct optogenetic activation of the contralateral PN had no significant effect on the acquisition, recent and remote retrieval of DEC. These results are of great importance in understanding the elusive role of the mPFC and its projection to PN in subserving the associative motor learning under suboptimal learning cue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Yan Wu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Shu-Lei Liu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Juan Yao
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Lin Sun
- Institute of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing400715, China
| | - Bing Wu
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Qian-Quan Sun
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jian-Feng Sui
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China.,Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Reevaluating the ability of cerebellum in associative motor learning. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6029. [PMID: 30988338 PMCID: PMC6465343 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42413-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been well established that the cerebellum and its associated circuitry constitute the essential neuronal system for both delay and trace classical eyeblink conditioning (DEC and TEC). However, whether the cerebellum is sufficient to independently modulate the DEC, and TEC with a shorter trace interval remained controversial. Here, we used direct optogenetic stimulation of mossy fibers in the middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP) as a conditioned stimulus (CS) replacement for the peripheral CS (eg, a tone CS or a light CS) paired with a periorbital shock unconditioned stimulus (US) to examine the ability of the cerebellum to learn the DEC and the TEC with various trace intervals. Moreover, neural inputs to the pontine nucleus (PN) were pharmacological blocked to limit the associative motor learning inside the cerebellum. We show that all rats quickly acquired the DEC, indicating that direct optogenetic stimulation of mossy fibers in the left MCP is a very effective and sufficient CS to establish DEC and to limit the motor learning process inside the cerebellum. However, only five out of seven rats acquired the TEC with a 150-ms trace interval, three out of nine rats acquired the TEC with a 350-ms trace interval, and none of the rats acquired the TEC with a 500-ms trace interval. Moreover, pharmacological blocking glutamatergic and GABAergic inputs to the PN from the extra-cerebellar and cerebellar regions has no significant effect on the DEC and TEC learning with the optogenetic CS. These results indicate that the cerebellum has the ability to independently support both the simple DEC, and the TEC with a trace interval of 150 or 350 ms, but not the TEC with a trace interval of 500 ms. The present results are of great importance in our understanding of the mechanisms and ability of the cerebellum in associative motor learning and memory.
Collapse
|
18
|
Zhang LQ, Yao J, Gao J, Sun L, Wang LT, Sui JF. Modulation of eyeblink conditioning through sensory processing of conditioned stimulus by cortical and subcortical regions. Behav Brain Res 2019; 359:149-155. [PMID: 30385367 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) is one of the simplest forms of associative learning that depends critically on the cerebellum. Using delay EBC (dEBC), a standard paradigm in which the unconditioned stimulus (US) is delayed and co-terminates with the conditioned stimulus (CS), converging lines of evidence has been accumulated and shows that the essential neural circuit mediating EBC resides in the cerebellum and brainstem. In addition to this essential circuit, multiple cerebral cortical and subcortical structures are required to modulate dEBC with suboptimal training parameters, and trace EBC (tEBC) in which a trace-interval separates the CS and US. However, it remains largely unclear why and how so many brain regions are involved for modulation of EBC. Previous research has suggested that the forebrain regions, such as medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus, may be required to process weak CSs, or to realize temporal overlap between the CS and US signal inputs when the two stimuli were separated in time (i.e. during tEBC). Here, we proposed a multi-level network model for EBC modulation which focuses on sensory processing of CS. The model explains how different neural pathways projecting to pontine nucleus (PN) are involved to amplify or extend CS through heterosynaptic facilitation mechanism or "substitution effect" under different circumstances to achieve EBC. As such, our model can serve as a general framework to explain the modulating mechanism of EBC in a variety of conditions and to help understand the interaction among cerebellum, brainstem, cortical and subcortical regions in EBC modulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lang-Qian Zhang
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Department of Medical Technology, Chongqing Medical and Pharmaceutical College, 82 University City Road, Shapingba District, Chongqing 401331, PR China
| | - Juan Yao
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Jie Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400042, PR China
| | - Lin Sun
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Li-Ting Wang
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| | - Jian-Feng Sui
- Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Khilkevich A, Zambrano J, Richards MM, Mauk MD. Cerebellar implementation of movement sequences through feedback. eLife 2018; 7:37443. [PMID: 30063004 PMCID: PMC6107335 DOI: 10.7554/elife.37443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Most movements are not unitary, but are comprised of sequences. Although patients with cerebellar pathology display severe deficits in the execution and learning of sequences (Doyon et al., 1997; Shin and Ivry, 2003), most of our understanding of cerebellar mechanisms has come from analyses of single component movements. Eyelid conditioning is a cerebellar-mediated behavior that provides the ability to control and restrict inputs to the cerebellum through stimulation of mossy fibers. We utilized this advantage to test directly how the cerebellum can learn a sequence of inter-connected movement components in rabbits. We show that the feedback signals from one component are sufficient to serve as a cue for the next component in the sequence. In vivo recordings from Purkinje cells demonstrated that all components of the sequence were encoded similarly by cerebellar cortex. These results provide a simple yet general framework for how the cerebellum can use simple associate learning processes to chain together a sequence of appropriately timed responses. Imagine a gymnastics competition in which participants take turns to cartwheel and somersault across the floor. The routines on display comprise sequences of precisely timed movements learned through practice. This is also true for many of the actions we perform every day, such as reaching for a cup of coffee. A region of the brain called the cerebellum helps us learn sequences of movements. But how does it do this? To find out, Khilkevich et al. came up with a new version of an old experiment. Rabbits were first trained to blink their eye in response to a specific external cue. This type of learning, called associative learning, has been shown before in the cerebellum. But Khilkevich et al. wondered whether the cerebellum could also use internal feedback signals from the eyeblink as a cue to learn the next movement? If so, this might explain how the cerebellum can chain movements together in a sequence. As predicted, Khilkevich et al. found that rabbits could learn to blink their eye in response to an initial signal, and then blink again in response to the first blink. Control experiments confirmed that the second eyeblink was coupled to the first, and not to the original cue. Moreover, on many trials the rabbits showed a third and even fourth eyeblink. This is because feedback signals from the first, second or third blink were the same. Thus, the feedback signals from the first blink triggered the second blink, feedback from the second triggered the third, and so forth. Rabbits could also learn to use a blink of the left eye as a cue for a blink of the right eye. Similar patterns of neuronal activity accompanied each blink, suggesting that the same mechanism generated them all. The cerebellum can thus use feedback from one movement as a cue to learn the proper timing of the next movement in a sequence. A key question is whether this mechanism of sequence learning extends beyond movement. The cerebellum has extensive connections to the brain’s outer layer, the cortex, including many areas involved in cognition. Future experiments should test whether the cerebellum might help guide sequences of cortical activity during cognitive tasks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrei Khilkevich
- Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
| | - Juan Zambrano
- Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
| | - Molly-Marie Richards
- Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
| | - Michael Dean Mauk
- Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pilkiw M, Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Neural representations of time-linked memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 153:57-70. [PMID: 29614377 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Many cognitive processes, such as episodic memory and decision making, rely on the ability to form associations between two events that occur separately in time. The formation of such temporal associations depends on neural representations of three types of information: what has been presented (trace holding), what will follow (temporal expectation), and when the following event will occur (explicit timing). The present review seeks to link these representations with firing patterns of single neurons recorded while rodents and non-human primates associate stimuli, outcomes, and motor responses over time intervals. Across these studies, two distinct firing patterns were observed in the hippocampus, neocortex, and striatum: some neurons change firing rates during or shortly after the stimulus presentation and sustain the firing rate stably or sidlingly during the subsequent intervals (tonic firings). Other neurons transiently change firing rates during a specific moment within the time intervals (phasic firings), and as a group, they form a sequential firing pattern that covers the entire interval. Clever task designs used in some of these studies collectively provide evidence that both tonic and phasic firing responses represent trace holding, temporal expectation, and explicit timing. Subsequently, we applied machine-learning based classification approaches to the two firing patterns within the same dataset collected from rat medial prefrontal cortex during trace eyeblink conditioning. This quantitative analysis revealed that phasic-firing patterns showed greater selectivity for stimulus identity and temporal position than tonic-firing patterns. Our summary illuminates distributed neural representations of temporal association in the forebrain and generates several ideas for future investigations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maryna Pilkiw
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3G3, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3G3, Canada; Neuroscience Program, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3G3, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Time-limited involvement of caudal anterior cingulate cortex in trace eyeblink conditioning retrieval is dependent on conditioned stimulus intensity. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191320. [PMID: 29370235 PMCID: PMC5784963 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been widely investigated for its roles in learning and memory. The present study investigated the time-limited involvement of the caudal anterior cingulate cortex (cACC) of the mPFC in the retrieval process for a simple associative motor learning, trace eyeblink conditioning (tEBC), using a 75 dB or 100 dB tone as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The GABAA receptor agonist muscimol was injected into the cACC of guinea pigs at 1 day or 4 weeks after tEBC acquisition. When muscimol was administered 1 day after tEBC acquisition, the conditioned response (CR) of the 75 dB group was severely impaired, whereas the CR of the 100 dB group exhibited no significant change relative to the control. When muscimol was administered 4 weeks after tEBC acquisition, the CR was impaired in both the 75 dB and 100 dB groups. This study indicate that the cACC of the mPFC is necessary for recent retrieval of tEBC with a low-intensity CS but not of tEBC with a high-intensity CS, whereas for remote retrieval of tEBC, the cACC of the mPFC is essential regardless of whether the CS intensity is high or low. These results support a conditional role for the mPFC in modulating recent retrieval of tEBC and a persistent role for its involvement in remote retrieval of tEBC.
Collapse
|
22
|
The Motor Cortex Is Involved in the Generation of Classically Conditioned Eyelid Responses in Behaving Rabbits. J Neurosci 2017; 36:6988-7001. [PMID: 27358456 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4190-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Classical blink conditioning is a well known model for studying neural generation of acquired motor responses. The acquisition of this type of associative learning has been related to many cortical, subcortical, and cerebellar structures. However, until now, no one has studied the motor cortex (MC) and its possible role in classical eyeblink conditioning. We recorded in rabbits the activity of MC neurons during blink conditioning using a delay paradigm. Neurons were identified by their antidromic activation from facial nucleus (FN) or red nucleus (RN). For conditioning, we used a tone as a conditioned stimulus (CS) followed by an air puff as an unconditioned stimulus (US) that coterminated with it. Conditioned responses (CRs) were determined from the electromyographic activity of the orbicularis oculi muscle and/or from eyelid position recorded with the search coil technique. Type A neurons increased their discharge rates across conditioning sessions and reached peak firing during the CS-US interval, while type B cells presented a second peak during US presentation. Both of them project to the FN. Type C cells increased their firing across the CS-US interval, reaching peak values at the time of US presentation, and were activated from the RN. These three types of neurons fired well in advance of the beginning of CRs and changed with them. Reversible inactivation of the MC during conditioning evoked a decrease in learning curves and in the amplitude of CRs, while train stimulation of the MC simulated the profile and kinematics of conditioned blinks. In conclusion, MC neurons are involved in the acquisition and expression of CRs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Classical blink conditioning is a popular experimental model for studying neural mechanisms underlying the acquisition of motor skills. The acquisition of this type of associative learning has been related to many cortical, subcortical, and cerebellar structures. However, until now, no one has studied the motor cortex (MC) and its possible role in classical eyeblink conditioning. Here, we report that the firing activities of MC neurons, recorded in behaving rabbits, are related to and preceded the initiation of conditioned blinks. MC neurons were identified as projecting to the red or facial nuclei and encoded the kinematics of conditioned eyelid responses. The timed stimulation of recording sites simulated the profile of conditioned blinks. MC neurons play a role in the acquisition and expression of these acquired motor responses.
Collapse
|
23
|
Prefrontal Cortex Dysfunction in Fragile X Mice Depends on the Continued Absence of Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein in the Adult Brain. J Neurosci 2017; 37:7305-7317. [PMID: 28652410 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0571-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fragile X Syndrome (FX) is generally considered a developmental disorder, arising from a mutation that disrupts the transcription of Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP). However, FMRP regulates the transcription of other proteins and participates in an unknown number of protein-protein interactions throughout life. In addition to known developmental issues, it is thus likely that some dysfunction is also due to the ongoing absence of FMRP. Dissociating dysfunction due to developmental dysregulation from dysfunction due to the continued absence of FMRP is necessary to understand the different roles of FMRP and to treat patients effectively throughout life. We show here that FX model mice display substantial deficits in a PFC-dependent task. We then use conditional knock-out mice to eliminate FMRP only in the PFC alone of adult mice. We observe an increase in the proportion of nonlearners and a delay in the onset of learning in both FX and conditional knock-out mice. The results suggest that these deficits (1) are due to the absence of FMRP in the PFC alone and (2) are not the result of developmental dysregulation. Furthermore, PFC-associated deficits are rescued by initiating production of FMRP in adult conditional restoration mice, suggesting that PFC dysfunction may persist as long as FMRP is absent and therefore can be rescued after development. The data suggest that it is possible to dissociate the roles of FMRP in neural function from developmental dysregulation, and that PFC function can be restored in the adult FX brain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The absence of Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) from birth results in developmental disabilities and lifelong impairments. We show here that in mouse models PFC dysfunction in Fragile X Syndrome (FX) can be attributed to the continued absence of FMRP from the PFC, independent of FMRP status during development. Furthermore, initiation of FMRP production in the PFC of adult FX animals rescues PFC function. The results suggest that at least some FX-specific neurological defects can be rescued in the adult FX brain after development.
Collapse
|
24
|
Encoding Temporal Features of Skilled Movements-What, Whether and How? ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 957:35-54. [PMID: 28035559 PMCID: PMC5638013 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47313-0_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In order to reliably produce intelligible speech or fluently play a melody on a piano, learning the precise timing of muscle activations is essential. Surprisingly, the fundamental question of how memories of complex temporal dynamics of movement are stored across the brain is still unresolved. This review outlines the constraints that determine whether and how the timing of skilled movements is represented in the central nervous system and introduces different computational and neural mechanisms that can be harnessed for temporal encoding. It concludes by proposing a schematic model of how these different mechanisms may complement and interact with each other in fast feedback loops to achieve skilled motor timing.
Collapse
|
25
|
Connor DA, Gould TJ. The role of working memory and declarative memory in trace conditioning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 134 Pt B:193-209. [PMID: 27422017 PMCID: PMC5755400 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Translational assays of cognition that are similarly implemented in both lower and higher-order species, such as rodents and primates, provide a means to reconcile preclinical modeling of psychiatric neuropathology and clinical research. To this end, Pavlovian conditioning has provided a useful tool for investigating cognitive processes in both lab animal models and humans. This review focuses on trace conditioning, a form of Pavlovian conditioning typified by the insertion of a temporal gap (i.e., trace interval) between presentations of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US). This review aims to discuss pre-clinical and clinical work investigating the mnemonic processes recruited for trace conditioning. Much work suggests that trace conditioning involves unique neurocognitive mechanisms to facilitate formation of trace memories in contrast to standard Pavlovian conditioning. For example, the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC) appear to play critical roles in trace conditioning. Moreover, cognitive mechanistic accounts in human studies suggest that working memory and declarative memory processes are engaged to facilitate formation of trace memories. The aim of this review is to integrate cognitive and neurobiological accounts of trace conditioning from preclinical and clinical studies to examine involvement of working and declarative memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David A Connor
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, United States
| | - Thomas J Gould
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Prefrontal Single-Neuron Responses after Changes in Task Contingencies during Trace Eyeblink Conditioning in Rabbits. eNeuro 2016; 3:eN-NWR-0057-16. [PMID: 27517083 PMCID: PMC4947975 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0057-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of studies indicate that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays a role in mediating the expression of behavioral responses during tasks that require flexible changes in behavior. During trace eyeblink conditioning, evidence suggests that the mPFC provides the cerebellum with a persistent input to bridge the temporal gap between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Therefore, the mPFC is in a position to directly mediate the expression of trace conditioned responses. However, it is unknown whether persistent neural responses are associated with the flexible expression of behavior when task contingencies are changed during trace eyeblink conditioning. To investigate this, single-unit activity was recorded in the mPFC of rabbits during extinction and reacquisition of trace eyeblink conditioning, and during training to a different conditional stimulus. Persistent responses remained unchanged after full extinction, and also did not change during reacquisition training. During training to a different tone, however, the generalization of persistent responses to the new stimulus was associated with an animal’s performance—when persistent responses generalized to the new tone, performance was high (>50% response rate). When persistent responses decreased to baseline rates, performance was poor (<50% response rate). The data suggest that persistent mPFC responses do not appear to mediate flexible changes in the expression of the original learning, but do appear to play a role in the generalization of that learning when the task is modified.
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Fear memory is the best-studied form of memory. It was thoroughly investigated in the past 60 years mostly using two classical conditioning procedures (contextual fear conditioning and fear conditioning to a tone) and one instrumental procedure (one-trial inhibitory avoidance). Fear memory is formed in the hippocampus (contextual conditioning and inhibitory avoidance), in the basolateral amygdala (inhibitory avoidance), and in the lateral amygdala (conditioning to a tone). The circuitry involves, in addition, the pre- and infralimbic ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the central amygdala subnuclei, and the dentate gyrus. Fear learning models, notably inhibitory avoidance, have also been very useful for the analysis of the biochemical mechanisms of memory consolidation as a whole. These studies have capitalized on in vitro observations on long-term potentiation and other kinds of plasticity. The effect of a very large number of drugs on fear learning has been intensively studied, often as a prelude to the investigation of effects on anxiety. The extinction of fear learning involves to an extent a reversal of the flow of information in the mentioned structures and is used in the therapy of posttraumatic stress disorder and fear memories in general.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Izquierdo
- National Institute of Translational Neuroscience, National Research Council of Brazil, and Memory Center, Brain Institute, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Cristiane R. G. Furini
- National Institute of Translational Neuroscience, National Research Council of Brazil, and Memory Center, Brain Institute, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jociane C. Myskiw
- National Institute of Translational Neuroscience, National Research Council of Brazil, and Memory Center, Brain Institute, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Chen H, Wang YJ, Yang L, Sui JF, Hu ZA, Hu B. Theta synchronization between medial prefrontal cortex and cerebellum is associated with adaptive performance of associative learning behavior. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20960. [PMID: 26879632 PMCID: PMC4754690 DOI: 10.1038/srep20960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Associative learning is thought to require coordinated activities among distributed brain regions. For example, to direct behavior appropriately, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) must encode and maintain sensory information and then interact with the cerebellum during trace eyeblink conditioning (TEBC), a commonly-used associative learning model. However, the mechanisms by which these two distant areas interact remain elusive. By simultaneously recording local field potential (LFP) signals from the mPFC and the cerebellum in guinea pigs undergoing TEBC, we found that theta-frequency (5.0-12.0 Hz) oscillations in the mPFC and the cerebellum became strongly synchronized following presentation of auditory conditioned stimulus. Intriguingly, the conditioned eyeblink response (CR) with adaptive timing occurred preferentially in the trials where mPFC-cerebellum theta coherence was stronger. Moreover, both the mPFC-cerebellum theta coherence and the adaptive CR performance were impaired after the disruption of endogenous orexins in the cerebellum. Finally, association of the mPFC -cerebellum theta coherence with adaptive CR performance was time-limited occurring in the early stage of associative learning. These findings suggest that the mPFC and the cerebellum may act together to contribute to the adaptive performance of associative learning behavior by means of theta synchronization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Yi-jie Wang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Li Yang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Jian-feng Sui
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Zhi-an Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
A Variable Oscillator Underlies the Measurement of Time Intervals in the Rostral Medial Prefrontal Cortex during Classical Eyeblink Conditioning in Rabbits. J Neurosci 2016; 35:14809-21. [PMID: 26538651 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2285-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We were interested in determining whether rostral medial prefrontal cortex (rmPFC) neurons participate in the measurement of conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus (CS-US) time intervals during classical eyeblink conditioning. Rabbits were conditioned with a delay paradigm consisting of a tone as CS. The CS started 50, 250, 500, 1000, or 2000 ms before and coterminated with an air puff (100 ms) directed at the cornea as the US. Eyelid movements were recorded with the magnetic search coil technique and the EMG activity of the orbicularis oculi muscle. Firing activities of rmPFC neurons were recorded across conditioning sessions. Reflex and conditioned eyelid responses presented a dominant oscillatory frequency of ≈12 Hz. The firing rate of each recorded neuron presented a single peak of activity with a frequency dependent on the CS-US interval (i.e., ≈12 Hz for 250 ms, ≈6 Hz for 500 ms, and≈3 Hz for 1000 ms). Interestingly, rmPFC neurons presented their dominant firing peaks at three precise times evenly distributed with respect to CS start and also depending on the duration of the CS-US interval (only for intervals of 250, 500, and 1000 ms). No significant neural responses were recorded at very short (50 ms) or long (2000 ms) CS-US intervals. rmPFC neurons seem not to encode the oscillatory properties characterizing conditioned eyelid responses in rabbits, but are probably involved in the determination of CS-US intervals of an intermediate range (250-1000 ms). We propose that a variable oscillator underlies the generation of working memories in rabbits. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The way in which brains generate working memories (those used for the transient processing and storage of newly acquired information) is still an intriguing question. Here, we report that the firing activities of neurons located in the rostromedial prefrontal cortex recorded in alert behaving rabbits are controlled by a dynamic oscillator. This oscillator generated firing frequencies in a variable band of 3-12 Hz depending on the conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus intervals (1 s, 500 ms, 250 ms) selected for classical eyeblink conditioning of behaving rabbits. Shorter (50 ms) and longer (2 s) intervals failed to activate the oscillator and prevented the acquisition of conditioned eyelid responses. This is an unexpected mechanism to generate sustained firing activities in neural circuits generating working memories.
Collapse
|
30
|
Raghavan RT, Prevosto V, Sommer MA. Contribution of Cerebellar Loops to Action Timing. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2016; 8:28-34. [PMID: 27933311 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies of sensorimotor processing have benefited from decision-making paradigms that emphasize the selection of appropriate movements. Selecting when to make those responses, or action timing, is important as well. Although the cerebellum is commonly viewed as a controller of movement dynamics, its role in action timing is also firmly supported. Several lines of research have now extended this idea. Anatomical findings have revealed connections between the cerebellum and broader timing circuits, neurophysiological results have suggested mechanisms for timing within its microcircuitry, and theoretical work has indicated how temporal signals are processed through it and decoded by its targets. These developments are inspiring renewed studies of the role of the cerebellar loops in action timing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramanujan T Raghavan
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham NC 27708
| | - Vincent Prevosto
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham NC 27708; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham NC 27708
| | - Marc A Sommer
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham NC 27708; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham NC 27708; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham NC 27708
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Abstract
This chapter reviews the past research toward identifying the brain circuit and its computation underlying the associative memory in eyeblink classical conditioning. In the standard delay eyeblink conditioning paradigm, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and eyeblink-eliciting unconditioned stimulus (US) converge in the cerebellar cortex and interpositus nucleus (IPN) through the pontine nuclei and inferior olivary nucleus. Repeated pairings of CS and US modify synaptic weights in the cerebellar cortex and IPN, enabling IPN neurons to activate the red nucleus and generate the conditioned response (CR). In a variant of the standard paradigm, trace eyeblink conditioning, the CS and US are separated by a brief stimulus-free trace interval. Acquisition in trace eyeblink conditioning depends on several forebrain regions, including the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex as well as the cerebellar-brainstem circuit. Details of computations taking place in these regions remain unclear; however, recent evidence supports a view that the forebrain encodes a temporal sequence of the CS, trace interval, and US in a specific environmental context and signals the cerebellar-brainstem circuit to execute the CR when the US is likely to occur. Together, delay eyeblink conditioning represents one of the most successful cases of understanding the neural substrates of long-term memory in mammals, while trace eyeblink conditioning demonstrates its utility for uncovering detailed computations in the whole brain network underlying long-term memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Psychology, Cell and Systems Biology, Neuroscience Program, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3G3, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Hu C, Zhang LB, Chen H, Xiong Y, Hu B. Neurosubstrates and mechanisms underlying the extinction of associative motor memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
33
|
Morita K, Kawaguchi Y. Computing reward-prediction error: an integrated account of cortical timing and basal-ganglia pathways for appetitive and aversive learning. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 42:2003-21. [PMID: 26095906 PMCID: PMC5034842 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There are two prevailing notions regarding the involvement of the corticobasal ganglia system in value‐based learning: (i) the direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia are crucial for appetitive and aversive learning, respectively, and (ii) the activity of midbrain dopamine neurons represents reward‐prediction error. Although (ii) constitutes a critical assumption of (i), it remains elusive how (ii) holds given (i), with the basal‐ganglia influence on the dopamine neurons. Here we present a computational neural‐circuit model that potentially resolves this issue. Based on the latest analyses of the heterogeneous corticostriatal neurons and connections, our model posits that the direct and indirect pathways, respectively, represent the values of upcoming and previous actions, and up‐regulate and down‐regulate the dopamine neurons via the basal‐ganglia output nuclei. This explains how the difference between the upcoming and previous values, which constitutes the core of reward‐prediction error, is calculated. Simultaneously, it predicts that blockade of the direct/indirect pathway causes a negative/positive shift of reward‐prediction error and thereby impairs learning from positive/negative error, i.e. appetitive/aversive learning. Through simulation of reward‐reversal learning and punishment‐avoidance learning, we show that our model could indeed account for the experimentally observed features that are suggested to support notion (i) and could also provide predictions on neural activity. We also present a behavioral prediction of our model, through simulation of inter‐temporal choice, on how the balance between the two pathways relates to the subject's time preference. These results indicate that our model, incorporating the heterogeneity of the cortical influence on the basal ganglia, is expected to provide a closed‐circuit mechanistic understanding of appetitive/aversive learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Morita
- Physical and Health Education, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yasuo Kawaguchi
- Division of Cerebral Circuitry, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan.,Department of Physiological Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, Japan.,Japan Science and Technology Agency, Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Trace Eyeblink Conditioning in Mice Is Dependent upon the Dorsal Medial Prefrontal Cortex, Cerebellum, and Amygdala: Behavioral Characterization and Functional Circuitry. eNeuro 2015; 2:eN-NWR-0051-14. [PMID: 26464998 PMCID: PMC4596016 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0051-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trace eyeblink conditioning is useful for studying the interaction of multiple brain areas in learning and memory. The goal of the current work was to determine whether trace eyeblink conditioning could be established in a mouse model in the absence of elicited startle responses and the brain circuitry that supports this learning. We show here that mice can acquire trace conditioned responses (tCRs) devoid of startle while head-restrained and permitted to freely run on a wheel. Most mice (75%) could learn with a trace interval of 250 ms. Because tCRs were not contaminated with startle-associated components, we were able to document the development and timing of tCRs in mice, as well as their long-term retention (at 7 and 14 d) and flexible expression (extinction and reacquisition). To identify the circuitry involved, we made restricted lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and found that learning was prevented. Furthermore, inactivation of the cerebellum with muscimol completely abolished tCRs, demonstrating that learned responses were driven by the cerebellum. Finally, inactivation of the mPFC and amygdala in trained animals nearly abolished tCRs. Anatomical data from these critical regions showed that mPFC and amygdala both project to the rostral basilar pons and overlap with eyelid-associated pontocerebellar neurons. The data provide the first report of trace eyeblink conditioning in mice in which tCRs were driven by the cerebellum and required a localized region of mPFC for acquisition. The data further reveal a specific role for the amygdala as providing a conditioned stimulus-associated input to the cerebellum.
Collapse
|
35
|
Hoffmann LC, Cicchese JJ, Berry SD. Harnessing the power of theta: natural manipulations of cognitive performance during hippocampal theta-contingent eyeblink conditioning. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:50. [PMID: 25918501 PMCID: PMC4394696 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurobiological oscillations are regarded as essential to normal information processing, including coordination and timing of cells and assemblies within structures as well as in long feedback loops of distributed neural systems. The hippocampal theta rhythm is a 3–12 Hz oscillatory potential observed during cognitive processes ranging from spatial navigation to associative learning. The lower range, 3–7 Hz, can occur during immobility and depends upon the integrity of cholinergic forebrain systems. Several studies have shown that the amount of pre-training theta in the rabbit strongly predicts the acquisition rate of classical eyeblink conditioning and that impairment of this system substantially slows the rate of learning. Our lab has used a brain-computer interface (BCI) that delivers eyeblink conditioning trials contingent upon the explicit presence or absence of hippocampal theta. A behavioral benefit of theta-contingent training has been demonstrated in both delay and trace forms of the paradigm with a two- to four-fold increase in learning speed. This behavioral effect is accompanied by enhanced amplitude and synchrony of hippocampal local field potential (LFP)s, multi-unit excitation, and single-unit response patterns that depend on theta state. Additionally, training in the presence of hippocampal theta has led to increases in the salience of tone-induced unit firing patterns in the medial prefrontal cortex, followed by persistent multi-unit activity during the trace interval. In cerebellum, rhythmicity and precise synchrony of stimulus time-locked LFPs with those of hippocampus occur preferentially under the theta condition. Here we review these findings, integrate them into current models of hippocampal-dependent learning and suggest how improvement in our understanding of neurobiological oscillations is critical for theories of medial temporal lobe processes underlying intact and pathological learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Loren C Hoffmann
- Center for Learning and Memory, University of Texas Austin, TX, USA
| | - Joseph J Cicchese
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience, Miami University Oxford, OH, USA
| | - Stephen D Berry
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience, Miami University Oxford, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Wang YJ, Chen H, Hu C, Ke XF, Yang L, Xiong Y, Hu B. Baseline theta activities in medial prefrontal cortex and deep cerebellar nuclei are associated with the extinction of trace conditioned eyeblink responses in guinea pigs. Behav Brain Res 2014; 275:72-83. [PMID: 25200518 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.08.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that both the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the cerebellum are involved in the extinction of trace conditioned eyeblink responses (CR). However, the neural mechanisms underlying the extinction are still relatively unclear. Theta oscillation in either the mPFC or the cerebellum has been revealed to correlate with the performance of trace CRs during the asymptotic acquisition. Therefore, we sought to further evaluate the impacts of pre-conditioned stimulus (CS) spontaneous theta (5.0-10.0Hz) oscillations in the mPFC and the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) on the extinction of trace CRs. Albino guinea pigs were given acquisition training for ten daily sessions followed by seven daily sessions of extinction. Local field potential (LFP) signals in the mPFC and the DCN were recorded when the animals received the CS-alone extinction training. It was found that higher mPFC relative theta ratios [theta/(delta+beta)] during the baseline period (850-ms prior to the CS onset) were predictive of fewer CR incidences rather than more adaptive CR performance (i.e., higher CR magnitude and later CR peak/onset latencies). Likewise, the pre-CS DCN theta activity was associated with the faster CR extinction. Furthermore, it was revealed that the power of pre-CS theta activities in the mPFC and the DCN were correlated until the extinction training day 2. Collectively, these results suggest that the mPFC and the DCN may interact with each other, and the brain oscillation state in which baseline theta activities in both areas are present contributes to the subsequent extinction of trace CRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-jie Wang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 5 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Chen Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 8 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Xian-feng Ke
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 8 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Li Yang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Yan Xiong
- Department of Orthopedics, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, PR China.
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Siegel JJ. Modification of persistent responses in medial prefrontal cortex during learning in trace eyeblink conditioning. J Neurophysiol 2014; 112:2123-37. [PMID: 25080570 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00372.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent spiking in response to a discrete stimulus is considered to reflect the active maintenance of a memory for that stimulus until a behavioral response is made. This response pattern has been reported in learning paradigms that impose a temporal gap between stimulus presentation and behavioral response, including trace eyeblink conditioning. However, it is unknown whether persistent responses are acquired as a function of learning or simply represent an already existing category of response type. This fundamental question was addressed by recording single-unit activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of rabbits during the initial learning phase of trace eyeblink conditioning. Persistent responses to the tone conditioned stimulus were observed in the mPFC during the very first training sessions. Further analysis revealed that most cells with persistent responses showed this pattern during the very first training trial, before animals had experienced paired training. However, persistent cells showed reliable decreases in response magnitude over the first training session, which were not observed on the second day of training or for sessions in which learning criterion was met. This modification of response magnitude was specific to persistent responses and was not observed for cells showing phasic tone-evoked responses. The data suggest that persistent responses to discrete stimuli do not require learning but that the ongoing robustness of such responses over the course of training is modified as a result of experience. Putative mechanisms for this modification are discussed, including changes in cellular or network properties, neuromodulatory tone, and/or the synaptic efficacy of tone-associated inputs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J Siegel
- Center for Learning and Memory and Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Functional reorganization of a prefrontal cortical network mediating consolidation of trace eyeblink conditioning. J Neurosci 2014; 34:1432-45. [PMID: 24453332 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4428-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been studied for its role in various cognitive functions, but the roles of its subregions remain unclear. We performed tetrode recordings simultaneously from prelimbic (PL) and rostral (rACC) and caudal (cACC) anterior cingulate subregions of the rabbit mPFC to understand their interactions during learning and tests of remote memory retention for whisker-signaled trace eyeblink conditioning. cACC neurons exhibited an innate response to the conditioning stimulus (CS) that rapidly decreased across sessions, suggesting an attentional role for facilitating CS-US associations. rACC neurons from conditioned rabbits exhibited robust responses to the CS that decreased within each session, possibly evaluating its emotional salience. PL neurons exhibited robust persistent activity during the trace interval during tests of remote memory retention, suggesting its involvement in retrieval and execution of a consolidated response. Mechanistically, conditioning was associated with a greater percentage of persistently responsive neurons than neurons from pseudoconditioned control rabbits, and responses differed significantly between trials with and without conditioned responses. Collectively, these responses reflect a functional reorganization of neural activity within the prefrontal network from an attentional mode to one that orchestrates the retrieval and execution of the learned response.
Collapse
|
39
|
Chen H, Wang YJ, Yang L, Hu C, Ke XF, Fan ZL, Sui JF, Hu B. Predictive nature of prefrontal theta oscillation on the performance of trace conditioned eyeblink responses in guinea pigs. Behav Brain Res 2014; 265:121-31. [PMID: 24572215 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Stimulus-evoked theta oscillations are observed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) when executing a variety of learning tasks. Here, we aimed to further determine whether spontaneous theta-band (5.0-10.0 Hz) oscillations in the mPFC predicted the subsequent behavioral performance in trace eyeblink conditioning (TEBC), in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) was separated from the unconditioned stimulus (US) by 500 ms trace interval. By recording local field potentials (LFP) signals in the guinea pigs performing the TEBC task, we found that, a higher mPFC relative theta ratio [theta/(delta+beta)] during the baseline (850-ms period prior to the onset of the CS) was predictive of higher magnitude and more adaptive timing rather than faster acquisition of trace conditioned eyeblink responses (CR). However, the prediction of baseline mPFC theta activity was time-limited to the well-learning stage. Additionally, the relative power of mPFC theta activity did not correlate with the CR performance if the trace interval between the CS and the US was shortened to 100 ms. These results suggest that the brain state in which the baseline mPFC theta activity is present or absent is detrimental for the subsequent performance of trace CRs especially when the asymptotic learning state is achieved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Yi-jie Wang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 5 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Li Yang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Chen Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 8 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Xian-feng Ke
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Battalion 8 of Cadet Brigade, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Zheng-li Fan
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Jian-feng Sui
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|