1
|
Narasimhan S, Holtzman DM, Apostolova LG, Cruchaga C, Masters CL, Hardy J, Villemagne VL, Bell J, Cho M, Hampel H. Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease trajectories and the next-generation clinical care pathway. Nat Neurosci 2024:10.1038/s41593-024-01669-5. [PMID: 38898183 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-024-01669-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex, progressive primary neurodegenerative disease. Since pivotal genetic studies in 1993, the ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE ε4) has remained the strongest single genome-wide associated risk variant in AD. Scientific advances in APOE biology, AD pathophysiology and ApoE-targeted therapies have brought APOE to the forefront of research, with potential translation into routine AD clinical care. This contemporary Review will merge APOE research with the emerging AD clinical care pathway and discuss APOE genetic risk as a conduit to genomic-based precision medicine in AD, including ApoE's influence in the ATX(N) biomarker framework of AD. We summarize the evidence for APOE as an important modifier of AD clinical-biological trajectories. We then illustrate the utility of APOE testing and the future of ApoE-targeted therapies in the next-generation AD clinical-diagnostic pathway. With the emergence of new AD therapies, understanding how APOE modulates AD pathophysiology will become critical for personalized AD patient care.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight ADRC, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Liana G Apostolova
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Neurosciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Carlos Cruchaga
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- NeuroGenomics and Informatics Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Colin L Masters
- Florey Institute and the University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Hardy
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Dementia Research Institute, Reta Lila Weston Research Laboratories, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Grenon MB, Papavergi MT, Bathini P, Sadowski M, Lemere CA. Temporal Characterization of the Amyloidogenic APPswe/PS1dE9;hAPOE4 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5754. [PMID: 38891941 PMCID: PMC11172317 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating disorder with a global prevalence estimated at 55 million people. In clinical studies administering certain anti-beta-amyloid (Aβ) antibodies, amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIAs) have emerged as major adverse events. The frequency of these events is higher among apolipoprotein ε4 allele carriers (APOE4) compared to non-carriers. To reflect patients most at risk for vascular complications of anti-Aβ immunotherapy, we selected an APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mouse model bearing the human APOE4 gene (APPPS1:E4) and compared it with the same APP/PS1 mouse model bearing the human APOE3 gene (APOE ε3 allele; APPPS1:E3). Using histological and biochemical analyses, we characterized mice at three ages: 8, 12, and 16 months. Female and male mice were assayed for general cerebral fibrillar and pyroglutamate (pGlu-3) Aβ deposition, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), microhemorrhages, apoE and cholesterol composition, astrocytes, microglia, inflammation, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuritic dystrophy. Amyloidosis, lipid deposition, and astrogliosis increased with age in APPPS1:E4 mice, while inflammation did not reveal significant changes with age. In general, APOE4 carriers showed elevated Aβ, apoE, reactive astrocytes, pro-inflammatory cytokines, microglial response, and neuritic dystrophy compared to APOE3 carriers at different ages. These results highlight the potential of the APPPS1:E4 mouse model as a valuable tool in investigating the vascular side effects associated with anti-amyloid immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martine B. Grenon
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
- Section Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Maria-Tzousi Papavergi
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Praveen Bathini
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
| | - Martin Sadowski
- Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA;
| | - Cynthia A. Lemere
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Thierry M, Ponce J, Martà-Ariza M, Askenazi M, Faustin A, Leitner D, Pires G, Kanshin E, Drummond E, Ueberheide B, Wisniewski T. The influence of APOE ε4 on the pTau interactome in sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2024; 147:91. [PMID: 38772917 PMCID: PMC11108952 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-024-02744-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
APOEε4 is the major genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although APOEε4 is known to promote Aβ pathology, recent data also support an effect of APOE polymorphism on phosphorylated Tau (pTau) pathology. To elucidate these potential effects, the pTau interactome was analyzed across APOE genotypes in the frontal cortex of 10 advanced AD cases (n = 5 APOEε3/ε3 and n = 5 APOEε4/ε4), using a combination of anti-pTau pS396/pS404 (PHF1) immunoprecipitation (IP) and mass spectrometry (MS). This proteomic approach was complemented by an analysis of anti-pTau PHF1 and anti-Aβ 4G8 immunohistochemistry, performed in the frontal cortex of 21 advanced AD cases (n = 11 APOEε3/ε3 and n = 10 APOEε4/ε4). Our dataset includes 1130 and 1330 proteins enriched in IPPHF1 samples from APOEε3/ε3 and APOEε4/ε4 groups (fold change ≥ 1.50, IPPHF1 vs IPIgG ctrl). We identified 80 and 68 proteins as probable pTau interactors in APOEε3/ε3 and APOEε4/ε4 groups, respectively (SAINT score ≥ 0.80; false discovery rate (FDR) ≤ 5%). A total of 47/80 proteins were identified as more likely to interact with pTau in APOEε3/ε3 vs APOEε4/ε4 cases. Functional enrichment analyses showed that they were significantly associated with the nucleoplasm compartment and involved in RNA processing. In contrast, 35/68 proteins were identified as more likely to interact with pTau in APOEε4/ε4 vs APOEε3/ε3 cases. They were significantly associated with the synaptic compartment and involved in cellular transport. A characterization of Tau pathology in the frontal cortex showed a higher density of plaque-associated neuritic crowns, made of dystrophic axons and synapses, in APOEε4 carriers. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy was more frequent and severe in APOEε4/ε4 cases. Our study supports an influence of APOE genotype on pTau-subcellular location in AD. These results suggest a facilitation of pTau progression to Aβ-affected brain regions in APOEε4 carriers, paving the way to the identification of new therapeutic targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manon Thierry
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Jackeline Ponce
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Proteomics Laboratory, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mitchell Martà-Ariza
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Arline Faustin
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dominique Leitner
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Geoffrey Pires
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA
| | - Evgeny Kanshin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Proteomics Laboratory, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Brain and Mind Centre, School of Medical Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Beatrix Ueberheide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Proteomics Laboratory, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1023J, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, USA.
- Departments of Pathology and Psychiatry, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30 Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Foley KE, Wilcock DM. Three major effects of APOE ε4 on Aβ immunotherapy induced ARIA. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1412006. [PMID: 38756535 PMCID: PMC11096466 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1412006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The targeting of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques therapeutically as one of the primary causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia has been an ongoing effort spanning decades. While some antibodies are extremely promising and have been moved out of clinical trials and into the clinic, most of these treatments show similar adverse effects in the form of cerebrovascular damage known as amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA). The two categories of ARIA are of major concern for patients, families, and prescribing physicians, with ARIA-E presenting as cerebral edema, and ARIA-H as cerebral hemorrhages (micro- and macro-). From preclinical and clinical trials, it has been observed that the greatest genetic risk factor for AD, APOEε4, is also a major risk factor for anti-Aβ immunotherapy-induced ARIA. APOEε4 carriers represent a large population of AD patients, and, therefore, limits the broad adoption of these therapies across the AD population. In this review we detail three hypothesized mechanisms by which APOEε4 influences ARIA risk: (1) reduced cerebrovascular integrity, (2) increased neuroinflammation and immune dysregulation, and (3) elevated levels of CAA. The effects of APOEε4 on ARIA risk is clear, however, the underlying mechanisms require more research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kate E. Foley
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Donna M. Wilcock
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Xie J, Wu S, Szadowski H, Min S, Yang Y, Bowman AB, Rochet JC, Freeman JL, Yuan C. Developmental Pb exposure increases AD risk via altered intracellular Ca 2+ homeostasis in hiPSC-derived cortical neurons. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105023. [PMID: 37423307 PMCID: PMC10413359 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to environmental chemicals such as lead (Pb) during vulnerable developmental periods can result in adverse health outcomes later in life. Human cohort studies have demonstrated associations between developmental Pb exposure and Alzheimer's disease (AD) onset in later life which were further corroborated by findings from animal studies. The molecular pathway linking developmental Pb exposure and increased AD risk, however, remains elusive. In this work, we used human iPSC-derived cortical neurons as a model system to study the effects of Pb exposure on AD-like pathogenesis in human cortical neurons. We exposed neural progenitor cells derived from human iPSC to 0, 15, and 50 ppb Pb for 48 h, removed Pb-containing medium, and further differentiated them into cortical neurons. Immunofluorescence, Western blotting, RNA-sequencing, ELISA, and FRET reporter cell lines were used to determine changes in AD-like pathogenesis in differentiated cortical neurons. Exposing neural progenitor cells to low-dose Pb, mimicking a developmental exposure, can result in altered neurite morphology. Differentiated neurons exhibit altered calcium homeostasis, synaptic plasticity, and epigenetic landscape along with elevated AD-like pathogenesis markers, including phosphorylated tau, tau aggregates, and Aβ42/40. Collectively, our findings provide an evidence base for Ca dysregulation caused by developmental Pb exposure as a plausible molecular mechanism accounting for increased AD risk in populations with developmental Pb exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junkai Xie
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Shichen Wu
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Hailey Szadowski
- Agriculture and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Sehong Min
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Purdue Institute of Integrated Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Aaron B Bowman
- Purdue Institute of Integrated Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Jean-Christophe Rochet
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Purdue Institute of Integrated Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Jennifer L Freeman
- Purdue Institute of Integrated Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Purdue Center of Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Chongli Yuan
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Purdue Institute of Integrated Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Purdue Center of Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xiong M, Wang C, Gratuze M, Saadi F, Bao X, Bosch ME, Lee C, Jiang H, Serrano JR, Gonzales ER, Kipnis M, Holtzman DM. Astrocytic APOE4 removal confers cerebrovascular protection despite increased cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Mol Neurodegener 2023; 18:17. [PMID: 36922879 PMCID: PMC10018855 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00610-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer Disease (AD) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) are both characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation in the brain, although Aβ deposits mostly in the brain parenchyma in AD and in the cerebrovasculature in CAA. The presence of CAA can exacerbate clinical outcomes of AD patients by promoting spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage and ischemia leading to CAA-associated cognitive decline. Genetically, AD and CAA share the ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene as the strongest genetic risk factor. Although tremendous efforts have focused on uncovering the role of APOE4 on parenchymal plaque pathogenesis in AD, mechanistic studies investigating the role of APOE4 on CAA are still lacking. Here, we addressed whether abolishing APOE4 generated by astrocytes, the major producers of APOE, is sufficient to ameliorate CAA and CAA-associated vessel damage. METHODS We generated transgenic mice that deposited both CAA and plaques in which APOE4 expression can be selectively suppressed in astrocytes. At 2-months-of-age, a timepoint preceding CAA and plaque formation, APOE4 was removed from astrocytes of 5XFAD APOE4 knock-in mice. Mice were assessed at 10-months-of-age for Aβ plaque and CAA pathology, gliosis, and vascular integrity. RESULTS Reducing the levels of APOE4 in astrocytes shifted the deposition of fibrillar Aβ from the brain parenchyma to the cerebrovasculature. However, despite increased CAA, astrocytic APOE4 removal reduced overall Aβ-mediated gliosis and also led to increased cerebrovascular integrity and function in vessels containing CAA. CONCLUSION In a mouse model of CAA, the reduction of APOE4 derived specifically from astrocytes, despite increased fibrillar Aβ deposition in the vasculature, is sufficient to reduce Aβ-mediated gliosis and cerebrovascular dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Xiong
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
- Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences (DBBS), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
- Present Address: Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080 USA
| | - Chao Wang
- Institute for Brain Science and Disease, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016 China
| | - Maud Gratuze
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
- Present address: Institute of Neurophysiopathology (INP UMR7051), CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, 13005 France
| | - Fareeha Saadi
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Xin Bao
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Megan E. Bosch
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Choonghee Lee
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Javier Remolina Serrano
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Ernesto R. Gonzales
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Michal Kipnis
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - David M. Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhang Y, Gao H, Zheng W, Xu H. Current understanding of the interactions between metal ions and Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 172:105824. [PMID: 35878744 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia in the elderly, is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder with no effective disease-modifying treatments to date. Studies have shown that an imbalance in brain metal ions, such as zinc, copper, and iron, is closely related to the onset and progression of AD. Many efforts have been made to understand metal-related mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for AD. Emerging evidence suggests that interactions of brain metal ions and apolipoprotein E (ApoE), which is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset AD, may be one of the mechanisms for neurodegeneration. Here, we summarize the key points regarding how metal ions and ApoE contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. We further describe the interactions between metal ions and ApoE in the brain and propose that their interactions play an important role in neuropathological alterations and cognitive decline in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Zhang
- Department of Tissue Engineering, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Huiling Gao
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Wei Zheng
- Department of Histology and Embryology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - He Xu
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liao J, Chen G, Liu X, Wei ZZ, Yu SP, Chen Q, Ye K. C/EBPβ/AEP signaling couples atherosclerosis to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:3034-3046. [PMID: 35422468 PMCID: PMC9912845 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01556-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (ATH) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are both age-dependent inflammatory diseases, associated with infiltrated macrophages and vascular pathology and overlapping molecules. C/EBPβ, an Aβ or inflammatory cytokine-activated transcription factor, and AEP (asparagine endopeptidase) are intimately implicated in both ATH and AD; however, whether C/EBPβ/AEP signaling couples ATH to AD pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Here we show that C/EBPβ/AEP pathway mediates ATH pathology and couples ATH to AD. Deletion of C/EBPβ or AEP from primary macrophages diminishes cholesterol load, and inactivation of this pathway reduces foam cell formation and lesions in aorta in ApoE-/- mice, fed with HFD (high-fat-diet). Knockout of ApoE from 3xTg AD mouse model augments serum LDL and increases lesion areas in the aorta. Depletion of C/EBPβ or AEP from 3xTg/ApoE-/- mice substantially attenuates these effects and elevates cerebral blood flow and vessel length, improving cognitive functions. Strikingly, knockdown of ApoE from the hippocampus of 3xTg mice decreases the cerebral blood flow and vessel length and aggravates AD pathologies, leading to cognitive deficits. Inactivation of C/EBPβ/AEP pathway alleviates these events and restores cognitive functions. Hence, our findings demonstrate that C/EBPβ/AEP signaling couples ATH to AD via mediating vascular pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianming Liao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, Hubei, China
| | - Guiqin Chen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, Hubei, China
| | - Xia Liu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Zheng Zachory Wei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Shan Ping Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Qianxue Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, Hubei, China.
| | - Keqiang Ye
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rudge JD. A New Hypothesis for Alzheimer’s Disease: The Lipid Invasion Model. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2022; 6:129-161. [PMID: 35530118 PMCID: PMC9028744 DOI: 10.3233/adr-210299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper proposes a new hypothesis for Alzheimer’s disease (AD)—the lipid invasion model. It argues that AD results from external influx of free fatty acids (FFAs) and lipid-rich lipoproteins into the brain, following disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The lipid invasion model explains how the influx of albumin-bound FFAs via a disrupted BBB induces bioenergetic changes and oxidative stress, stimulates microglia-driven neuroinflammation, and causes anterograde amnesia. It also explains how the influx of external lipoproteins, which are much larger and more lipid-rich, especially more cholesterol-rich, than those normally present in the brain, causes endosomal-lysosomal abnormalities and overproduction of the peptide amyloid-β (Aβ). This leads to the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the most well-known hallmarks of AD. The lipid invasion model argues that a key role of the BBB is protecting the brain from external lipid access. It shows how the BBB can be damaged by excess Aβ, as well as by most other known risk factors for AD, including aging, apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), and lifestyle factors such as hypertension, smoking, obesity, diabetes, chronic sleep deprivation, stress, and head injury. The lipid invasion model gives a new rationale for what we already know about AD, explaining its many associated risk factors and neuropathologies, including some that are less well-accounted for in other explanations of AD. It offers new insights and suggests new ways to prevent, detect, and treat this destructive disease and potentially other neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D’Arcy Rudge
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ojo JO, Reed JM, Crynen G, Vallabhaneni P, Evans J, Shackleton B, Eisenbaum M, Ringland C, Edsell A, Mullan M, Crawford F, Bachmeier C. Molecular Pathobiology of the Cerebrovasculature in Aging and in Alzheimers Disease Cases With Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:658605. [PMID: 34079449 PMCID: PMC8166206 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.658605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebrovascular dysfunction and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) are hallmark features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Molecular damage to cerebrovessels in AD may result in alterations in vascular clearance mechanisms leading to amyloid deposition around blood vessels and diminished neurovascular-coupling. The sequelae of molecular events leading to these early pathogenic changes remains elusive. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive in-depth molecular characterization of the proteomic changes in enriched cerebrovessel fractions isolated from the inferior frontal gyrus of autopsy AD cases with low (85.5 ± 2.9 yrs) vs. high (81 ± 4.4 yrs) CAA score, aged-matched control (87.4 ± 1.5 yrs) and young healthy control (47 ± 3.3 yrs) cases. We employed a 10-plex tandem isobaric mass tag approach in combination with our ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography MS/MS (Q-Exactive) method. Enriched cerebrovascular fractions showed very high expression levels of proteins specific to endothelial cells, mural cells (pericytes and smooth muscle cells), and astrocytes. We observed 150 significantly regulated proteins in young vs. aged control cerebrovessels. The top pathways significantly modulated with aging included chemokine, reelin, HIF1α and synaptogenesis signaling pathways. There were 213 proteins significantly regulated in aged-matched control vs. high CAA cerebrovessels. The top three pathways significantly altered from this comparison were oxidative phosphorylation, Sirtuin signaling pathway and TCA cycle II. Comparison between low vs. high CAA cerebrovessels identified 84 significantly regulated proteins. Top three pathways significantly altered between low vs. high CAA cerebrovessels included TCA Cycle II, Oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial dysfunction. Notably, high CAA cases included more advanced AD pathology thus cerebrovascular effects may be driven by the severity of amyloid and Tangle pathology. These descriptive proteomic changes provide novel insights to explain the age-related and AD-related cerebrovascular changes contributing to AD pathogenesis. Particularly, disturbances in energy bioenergetics and mitochondrial biology rank among the top AD pathways altered in cerebrovessels. Targeting these failed mechanisms in endothelia and mural cells may provide novel disease modifying targets for developing therapeutic strategies against cerebrovascular deterioration and promoting cerebral perfusion in AD. Our future work will focus on interrogating and validating these novel targets and pathways and their functional significance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph O. Ojo
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- James A. Haley Veterans' Hospital, Tampa, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Jon M. Reed
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, CT, United States
| | | | | | - James Evans
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
| | - Benjamin Shackleton
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Maximillian Eisenbaum
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Charis Ringland
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michael Mullan
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Crawford
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- James A. Haley Veterans' Hospital, Tampa, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Corbin Bachmeier
- Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, United States
- The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
- Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Bay Pines, FL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Feng W, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Xu H, Wu T, Marshall C, Gao J, Xiao M. Microglia prevent beta-amyloid plaque formation in the early stage of an Alzheimer's disease mouse model with suppression of glymphatic clearance. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2020; 12:125. [PMID: 33008458 PMCID: PMC7532614 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-020-00688-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Soluble beta-amyloid (Aβ) can be cleared from the brain through various mechanisms including enzymatic degradation, glial cell phagocytosis, transport across the blood-brain barrier, and glymphatic clearance. However, the relative contribution of each clearance system and their compensatory effects in delaying the pathological process of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are currently unknown. Methods Fluorescent trace, immunofluorescence, and Western blot analyses were performed to compare glymphatic clearance ability and Aβ accumulation among 3-month-old APP695/PS1-dE9 transgenic (APP/PS1) mice, wild-type mice, aquaporin 4 knock out (AQP4−/−) mice, and AQP4−/−/APP/PS1 mice. The consequence of selectively eliminating microglial cells, or downregulating apolipoprotein E (apoE) expression, on Aβ burden, was also investigated in the frontal cortex of AQP4−/−/APP/PS1 mice and APP/PS1 mice. Results AQP4 deletion in APP/PS1 mice significantly exaggerated glymphatic clearance dysfunction, and intraneuronal accumulation of Aβ and apoE, although it did not lead to Aβ plaque deposition. Notably, microglia, but not astrocytes, increased activation and phagocytosis of Aβ in the cerebral cortex of AQP4−/−/APP/PS1 mice, compared with APP/PS1 mice. Selectively eliminating microglia in the frontal cortex via local injection of clodronate liposomes resulted in deposition of Aβ plaques in AQP4−/−/APP/PS1 mice, but not APP/PS1 mice. Moreover, knockdown of apoE reduced intraneuronal Aβ levels in both APP/PS1 mice and AQP4−/−/APP/PS1 mice, indicating an inhibitory effect of apoE on Aβ clearance. Conclusion The above results suggest that the glymphatic system mediated Aβ and apoE clearance and microglia mediated Aβ degradation synergistically prevent Aβ plague formation in the early stages of the AD mouse model. Protecting one or both of them might be beneficial to delaying the onset of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weixi Feng
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanli Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ze Wang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hanrong Xu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ting Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Charles Marshall
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Kentucky Center of Excellence in Rural Health, Hazard, KY, USA
| | - Junying Gao
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China. .,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Ming Xiao
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China. .,Brain Institute, The Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Intracisternal injection of beta-amyloid seeds promotes cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 89:628-640. [PMID: 32739364 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta amyloid (Aβ) is a key component of parenchymal Aβ plaques and vascular Aβ fibrils, which lead to cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recent studies have revealed that Aβ contained in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can re-enter into brain through paravascular spaces. However, whether Aβ in CSF may act as a constant source of pathogenic Aβ in AD is still unclear. This study aimed to examine whether Aβ pathology could be worsened when CSF Aβ level was enhanced by intra-cisternal infusion of aged brain extract containing abundant Aβ in TgCRND8 host mice. TgCRND8 mouse is an AD animal model which develops predominant parenchymal Aβ plaques in the brain at as early as 3 months of age. Here, we showed that single intracisternal injection of Aβ seeds into TgCRND8 mice before the presence of Aβ pathology induced robust prion-like propagation of CAA within 90 days. The induced CAA is mainly distributed in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and thalamus of TgCRND8 mice. Surprisingly, despite the robust increase in CAA levels, the TgCRND8 mice had a marked decrease in parenchymal Aβ plaques and the plaques related neuroinflammation in the brains compared with the control mice. These results amply indicate that Aβ in CSF may act as a source of Aβ contributing to the growth of vascular Aβ deposits in CAA. Our findings provide experimental evidence to unravel the mechanisms of CAA formation and the potential of targeting CSF Aβ for CAA.
Collapse
|
13
|
Blanchard JW, Bula M, Davila-Velderrain J, Akay LA, Zhu L, Frank A, Victor MB, Bonner JM, Mathys H, Lin YT, Ko T, Bennett DA, Cam HP, Kellis M, Tsai LH. Reconstruction of the human blood-brain barrier in vitro reveals a pathogenic mechanism of APOE4 in pericytes. Nat Med 2020; 26:952-963. [PMID: 32514169 PMCID: PMC7704032 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0886-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In Alzheimer's disease, amyloid deposits along the brain vasculature lead to a condition known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), which impairs blood-brain barrier (BBB) function and accelerates cognitive degeneration. Apolipoprotein (APOE4) is the strongest risk factor for CAA, yet the mechanisms underlying this genetic susceptibility are unknown. Here we developed an induced pluripotent stem cell-based three-dimensional model that recapitulates anatomical and physiological properties of the human BBB in vitro. Similarly to CAA, our in vitro BBB displayed significantly more amyloid accumulation in APOE4 compared to APOE3. Combinatorial experiments revealed that dysregulation of calcineurin-nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) signaling and APOE in pericyte-like mural cells induces APOE4-associated CAA pathology. In the human brain, APOE and NFAT are selectively dysregulated in pericytes of APOE4 carriers, and inhibition of calcineurin-NFAT signaling reduces APOE4-associated CAA pathology in vitro and in vivo. Our study reveals the role of pericytes in APOE4-mediated CAA and highlights calcineurin-NFAT signaling as a therapeutic target in CAA and Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joel W Blanchard
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michael Bula
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jose Davila-Velderrain
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Leyla Anne Akay
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lena Zhu
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alexander Frank
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Matheus B Victor
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Julia Maeve Bonner
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Hansruedi Mathys
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yuan-Ta Lin
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Tak Ko
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Hugh P Cam
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Manolis Kellis
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Li-Huei Tsai
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wisniewski T, Drummond E. APOE-amyloid interaction: Therapeutic targets. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 138:104784. [PMID: 32027932 PMCID: PMC7118587 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder that is growing in prevalence globally. It is the only major cause of death without any effective pharmacological means to treat or slow progression. Inheritance of the ε4 allele of the Apolipoprotein (APO) E gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset AD. The interaction between APOE and amyloid β (Aβ) plays a key role in AD pathogenesis. The APOE-Aβ interaction regulates Aβ aggregation and clearance and therefore directly influences the development of amyloid plaques, congophilic amyloid angiopathy and subsequent tau related pathology. Relatively few AD therapeutic approaches have directly targeted the APOE-Aβ interaction thus far. Here we review the critical role of APOE in the pathogenesis of AD and some of the most promising therapeutic approaches that focus on the APOE-Aβ interaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wisniewski
- Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30(th) Street, New York, NY 10016, USA.
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Brain & Mind Centre and Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ulanova M, Poljak A, Wen W, Bongers A, Gloag L, Gooding J, Tilley R, Sachdev P, Braidy N. Nanoparticles as contrast agents for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2020; 15:725-743. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2019-0316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticle (NP)-based magnetic contrast agents have opened the potential for MRI to be used for early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This article aims to review the current progress of research in this field. A comprehensive literature search was performed based on PubMed, Medline, EMBASE, PsychINFO and Scopus databases using the following terms: ‘Alzheimer’s disease’ AND ‘nanoparticles’ AND ‘Magnetic Resonance Imaging.’ 33 studies were included that described the development and utility of various NPs for AD imaging, including their coating, functionalization, MRI relaxivity, toxicity and bioavailability. NPs show immense promise for neuroimaging, due to superior relaxivity and biocompatibility compared with currently available imaging agents. Consistent reporting is imperative for further progress in this field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Ulanova
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Anne Poljak
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Wei Wen
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Andre Bongers
- Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Biological Resources Imaging Laboratory, Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Lucy Gloag
- School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Australian Centre for NanoMedicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Justin Gooding
- School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Australian Centre for NanoMedicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science & Technology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Richard Tilley
- Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Australian Centre for NanoMedicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Perminder Sachdev
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Neuropsychiatric Institute, Euroa Centre, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Nady Braidy
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and Alzheimer disease - one peptide, two pathways. Nat Rev Neurol 2019; 16:30-42. [PMID: 31827267 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-019-0281-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The shared role of amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and Alzheimer disease (AD) is arguably the clearest instance of crosstalk between neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular processes. The pathogenic pathways of CAA and AD intersect at the levels of Aβ generation, its circulation within the interstitial fluid and perivascular drainage pathways and its brain clearance, but diverge in their mechanisms of brain injury and disease presentation. Here, we review the evidence for and the pathogenic implications of interactions between CAA and AD. Both pathologies seem to be driven by impaired Aβ clearance, creating conditions for a self-reinforcing cycle of increased vascular Aβ, reduced perivascular clearance and further CAA and AD progression. Despite the close relationship between vascular and plaque Aβ deposition, several factors favour one or the other, such as the carboxy-terminal site of the peptide and specific co-deposited proteins. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities that have been seen in trials of anti-Aβ immunotherapy are another probable intersection between CAA and AD, representing overload of perivascular clearance pathways and the effects of removing Aβ from CAA-positive vessels. The intersections between CAA and AD point to a crucial role for improving vascular function in the treatment of both diseases and indicate the next steps necessary for identifying therapies.
Collapse
|
17
|
Huynh TPV, Wang C, Tran AC, Tabor GT, Mahan TE, Francis CM, Finn MB, Spellman R, Manis M, Tanzi RE, Ulrich JD, Holtzman DM. Lack of hepatic apoE does not influence early Aβ deposition: observations from a new APOE knock-in model. Mol Neurodegener 2019; 14:37. [PMID: 31623648 PMCID: PMC6796484 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-019-0337-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD). ApoE is produced by both astrocytes and microglia in the brain, whereas hepatocytes produce the majority of apoE found in the periphery. Studies using APOE knock-in and transgenic mice have demonstrated a strong isoform-dependent effect of apoE on the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brain in the form of both Aβ-containing amyloid plaques and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. However, the specific contributions of different apoE pools to AD pathogenesis remain unknown. Methods We have begun to address these questions by generating new lines of APOE knock-in (APOE-KI) mice (ε2/ε2, ε3/ε3, and ε4/ε4) where the exons in the coding region of APOE are flanked by loxP sites, allowing for cell type-specific manipulation of gene expression. We assessed these mice both alone and after crossing them with mice with amyloid deposition in the brain. Using biochemical and histological methods. We also investigated how removal of APOE expression from hepatocytes affected cerebral amyloid deposition. Results As in other APOE knock-in mice, apoE protein was present predominantly in astrocytes in the brain under basal conditions and was also detected in reactive microglia surrounding amyloid plaques. Primary cultured astrocytes and microglia from the APOE-KI mice secreted apoE in lipoprotein particles of distinct size distribution upon native gel analysis with microglial particles being substantially smaller than the HDL-like particles secreted by astrocytes. Crossing of APP/PS1 transgenic mice to the different APOE-KI mice recapitulated the previously described isoform-specific effect (ε4 > ε3) on amyloid plaque and Aβ accumulation. Deletion of APOE in hepatocytes did not alter brain apoE levels but did lead to a marked decrease in plasma apoE levels and changes in plasma lipid profile. Despite these changes in peripheral apoE and on plasma lipids, cerebral accumulation of amyloid plaques in APP/PS1 mice was not affected. Conclusions Altogether, these new knock-in strains offer a novel and dynamic tool to study the role of APOE in AD pathogenesis in a spatially and temporally controlled manner. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13024-019-0337-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tien-Phat V Huynh
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ainsley C Tran
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - G Travis Tabor
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Thomas E Mahan
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Caroline M Francis
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Mary Beth Finn
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rebecca Spellman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Melissa Manis
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rudolph E Tanzi
- McCance Center for Brain Health and Genetics and Aging Research Unit, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Jason D Ulrich
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fitz NF, Nam KN, Koldamova R, Lefterov I. Therapeutic targeting of nuclear receptors, liver X and retinoid X receptors, for Alzheimer's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3599-3610. [PMID: 30924124 PMCID: PMC6715597 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
After 15 years of research into Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapeutics, including billions of US dollars provided by federal agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and private foundations, there are still no meaningful therapies that can delay the onset or slow the progression of AD. An understanding of the proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the hypothesis that pathogenic mechanisms in familial and sporadic forms of AD are very similar led to the assumption that pharmacological inhibition of secretases or immunological approaches to clear amyloid depositions in the brain would have been the core to drug discovery strategies and successful therapies. However, there are other understudied approaches including targeting genes, gene networks, and metabolic pathways outside the proteolytic processing of APP. The advancement of newly developed sequencing technologies and mass spectrometry, as well as the availability of animal models expressing human apolipoprotein E isoforms, has been critical in rationalizing additional AD therapeutics. The purpose of this review is to present one of those approaches, based on the role of ligand-activated nuclear liver X and retinoid X receptors in the brain. This therapeutic approach was initially proposed utilizing in vitro models 15 years ago and has since been examined in numerous studies using AD-like mouse models. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas F Fitz
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kyong Nyon Nam
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Radosveta Koldamova
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Iliya Lefterov
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Onos KD, Uyar A, Keezer KJ, Jackson HM, Preuss C, Acklin CJ, O’Rourke R, Buchanan R, Cossette TL, Sukoff Rizzo SJ, Soto I, Carter GW, Howell GR. Enhancing face validity of mouse models of Alzheimer's disease with natural genetic variation. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008155. [PMID: 31150388 PMCID: PMC6576791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical laboratory strains show limited genetic diversity and do not harness natural genetic variation. Mouse models relevant to Alzheimer's disease (AD) have largely been developed using these classical laboratory strains, such as C57BL/6J (B6), and this has likely contributed to the failure of translation of findings from mice to the clinic. Therefore, here we test the potential for natural genetic variation to enhance the translatability of AD mouse models. Two widely used AD-relevant transgenes, APPswe and PS1de9 (APP/PS1), were backcrossed from B6 to three wild-derived strains CAST/EiJ, WSB/EiJ, PWK/PhJ, representative of three Mus musculus subspecies. These new AD strains were characterized using metabolic, functional, neuropathological and transcriptional assays. Strain-, sex- and genotype-specific differences were observed in cognitive ability, neurodegeneration, plaque load, cerebrovascular health and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Analyses of brain transcriptional data showed strain was the greatest driver of variation. We identified significant variation in myeloid cell numbers in wild type mice of different strains as well as significant differences in plaque-associated myeloid responses in APP/PS1 mice between the strains. Collectively, these data support the use of wild-derived strains to better model the complexity of human AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristen D. Onos
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Asli Uyar
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Kelly J. Keezer
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | | | - Christoph Preuss
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Casey J. Acklin
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Rita O’Rourke
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Buchanan
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | | | | | - Ileana Soto
- Department of Biomedical and Translational Sciences, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Gregory W. Carter
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, United States of America
| | - Gareth R. Howell
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Deletion of plasma Phospholipid Transfer Protein (PLTP) increases microglial phagocytosis and reduces cerebral amyloid-β deposition in the J20 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Oncotarget 2018; 9:19688-19703. [PMID: 29731975 PMCID: PMC5929418 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.24802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) binds and transfers a number of amphipathic compounds, including phospholipids, cholesterol, diacylglycerides, tocopherols and lipopolysaccharides. PLTP functions are relevant for many pathophysiological alterations involved in neurodegenerative disorders (especially lipid metabolism, redox status, and immune reactions), and a significant increase in brain PLTP levels was observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) compared to controls. To date, it has not been reported whether PLTP can modulate the formation of amyloid plaques, i.e. one of the major histopathological hallmarks of AD. We thus assessed the role of PLTP in the AD context by breeding PLTP-deficient mice with an established model of AD, the J20 mice. A phenotypic characterization of the amyloid pathology was conducted in J20 mice expressing or not PLTP. We showed that PLTP deletion is associated with a significant reduction of cerebral Aβ deposits and astrogliosis, which can be explained at least in part by a rise of Aβ clearance through an increase in the microglial phagocytic activity and the expression of the Aβ-degrading enzyme neprilysin. PLTP arises as a negative determinant of plaque clearance and over the lifespan, elevated PLTP activity could lead to a higher Aβ load in the brain.
Collapse
|
21
|
Hur J, Mateo V, Amalric N, Babiak M, Béréziat G, Kanony-Truc C, Clerc T, Blaise R, Limon I. Cerebrovascular β-amyloid deposition and associated microhemorrhages in a Tg2576 Alzheimer mouse model are reduced with a DHA-enriched diet. FASEB J 2018; 32:4972-4983. [PMID: 29620941 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800200r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a major contributor to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Like AD, CAA is often accompanied by marked inflammation, aggravating associated vasculopathies. No evidence-based prevention or treatment strategies are available. Here, we evaluate the possible beneficial effect of a diet enriched with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is known to attenuate inflammation in CAA. Tg2576 mice, a transgenic model of AD/CAA, were fed a DHA-enriched diet starting at 2 mo of age and ending at 10, 14, or 18 mo of age. β-Amyloid (Aβ)-peptide deposition and bleeding were visualized by immunohistochemistry or histochemistry on coronal sections of the brain. DHA, arachidonic acid, and eicosanoid levels were measured by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry or GC-MS. DHA-enriched diet throughout aging limits the accumulation of vascular Aβ peptide deposits as well as the likelihood of microhemorrhages. There is a strong correlation between systemic 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) levels and the size of the area affected by both vascular amyloid deposits and hemorrhages. The lowest levels of 12-HETE, a lipid-derived proinflammatory product of 12-lipoxygenase (LOX), were found in DHA-fed mice. In vitro experiments performed on amyloid vascular smooth muscle cells showed that a 12-LOX inhibitor almost completely blocked the Aβ1-40 peptide-induced apoptosis of these cells. This study yet again highlights the important role of inflammation in CAA pathogenesis and identifies potential new targets for preventive care.-Hur, J., Mateo, V., Amalric, N., Babiak, M., Béréziat, G., Kanony-Truc, C., Clerc, T., Blaise, R., Limon, I. Cerebrovascular β-amyloid deposition and associated microhemorrhages in a Tg2576 Alzheimer mouse model are reduced with a DHA-enriched diet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justine Hur
- Biological Institute of Paris-Seine (IBPS), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8256 Biological Adaptation and Aging, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Véronique Mateo
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Immune Intervention and Biotherapies, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | | | - Mégane Babiak
- Biological Institute of Paris-Seine (IBPS), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8256 Biological Adaptation and Aging, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Gilbert Béréziat
- Biological Institute of Paris-Seine (IBPS), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8256 Biological Adaptation and Aging, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Claire Kanony-Truc
- Pierre Fabre Center for Research and Development, Pierre Fabre Research Institute, Toulouse, France
| | - Thierry Clerc
- Pierre Fabre Center for Research and Development, Pierre Fabre Research Institute, Toulouse, France
| | - Régis Blaise
- Biological Institute of Paris-Seine (IBPS), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8256 Biological Adaptation and Aging, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Limon
- Biological Institute of Paris-Seine (IBPS), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8256 Biological Adaptation and Aging, UMR-Scientifique CR7-INSERM Unité 1135, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Animal models of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Clin Sci (Lond) 2017; 131:2469-2488. [PMID: 28963121 DOI: 10.1042/cs20170033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Revised: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), due to vascular amyloid β (Aβ) deposition, is a risk factor for intracerebral haemorrhage and dementia. CAA can occur in sporadic or rare hereditary forms, and is almost invariably associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Experimental (animal) models are of great interest in studying mechanisms and potential treatments for CAA. Naturally occurring animal models of CAA exist, including cats, dogs and non-human primates, which can be used for longitudinal studies. However, due to ethical considerations and low throughput of these models, other animal models are more favourable for research. In the past two decades, a variety of transgenic mouse models expressing the human Aβ precursor protein (APP) has been developed. Many of these mouse models develop CAA in addition to senile plaques, whereas some of these models were generated specifically to study CAA. In addition, other animal models make use of a second stimulus, such as hypoperfusion or hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), to accelerate CAA. In this manuscript, we provide a comprehensive review of existing animal models for CAA, which can aid in understanding the pathophysiology of CAA and explore the response to potential therapies.
Collapse
|
23
|
Role of clusterin in the brain vascular clearance of amyloid-β. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:8681-8682. [PMID: 28765369 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1711357114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
|
24
|
Loss of clusterin shifts amyloid deposition to the cerebrovasculature via disruption of perivascular drainage pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6962-E6971. [PMID: 28701379 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1701137114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide deposition in brain parenchyma as plaques and in cerebral blood vessels as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). CAA deposition leads to several clinical complications, including intracerebral hemorrhage. The underlying molecular mechanisms that regulate plaque and CAA deposition in the vast majority of sporadic AD patients remain unclear. The clusterin (CLU) gene is genetically associated with AD and CLU has been shown to alter aggregation, toxicity, and blood-brain barrier transport of Aβ, suggesting it might play a key role in regulating the balance between Aβ deposition and clearance in both brain and blood vessels. Here, we investigated the effect of CLU on Aβ pathology using the amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mouse model of AD amyloidosis on a Clu+/+ or Clu-/- background. We found a marked decrease in plaque deposition in the brain parenchyma but an equally striking increase in CAA within the cerebrovasculature of APP/PS1;Clu-/- mice. Surprisingly, despite the several-fold increase in CAA levels, APP/PS1;Clu-/- mice had significantly less hemorrhage and inflammation. Mice lacking CLU had impaired clearance of Aβ in vivo and exogenously added CLU significantly prevented Aβ binding to isolated vessels ex vivo. These findings suggest that in the absence of CLU, Aβ clearance shifts to perivascular drainage pathways, resulting in fewer parenchymal plaques but more CAA because of loss of CLU chaperone activity, complicating the potential therapeutic targeting of CLU for AD.
Collapse
|
25
|
Drummond E, Wisniewski T. Alzheimer's disease: experimental models and reality. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 133:155-175. [PMID: 28025715 PMCID: PMC5253109 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-016-1662-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Experimental models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are critical to gaining a better understanding of pathogenesis and to assess the potential of novel therapeutic approaches. The most commonly used experimental animal models are transgenic mice that overexpress human genes associated with familial AD (FAD) that result in the formation of amyloid plaques. However, AD is defined by the presence and interplay of both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangle pathology. The track record of success in AD clinical trials thus far has been very poor. In part, this high failure rate has been related to the premature translation of highly successful results in animal models that mirror only limited aspects of AD pathology to humans. A greater understanding of the strengths and weakness of each of the various models and the use of more than one model to evaluate potential therapies would help enhance the success of therapy translation from preclinical studies to patients. In this review, we summarize the pathological features and limitations of the major experimental models of AD, including transgenic mice, transgenic rats, various physiological models of sporadic AD and in vitro human cell culture models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Drummond
- Center for Cognitive Neurology and Department of Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, Alexandria ERSP, 450 East 29th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Center for Cognitive Neurology and Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, NYU School of Medicine, Alexandria ERSP, 450 East 29th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Pankiewicz JE, Baquero-Buitrago J, Sanchez S, Lopez-Contreras J, Kim J, Sullivan PM, Holtzman DM, Sadowski MJ. APOE Genotype Differentially Modulates Effects of Anti-Aβ, Passive Immunization in APP Transgenic Mice. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:12. [PMID: 28143566 PMCID: PMC5282859 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0156-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background APOE genotype is the foremost genetic factor modulating β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition and risk of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here we investigated how APOE genotype influences response to anti-Aβ immunotherapy. Methods APPSW/PS1dE9 (APP) transgenic mice with targeted replacement of the murine Apoe gene for human APOE alleles received 10D5 anti-Aβ or TY11-15 isotype control antibodies between the ages of 12 and 15 months. Results Anti-Aβ immunization decreased both the load of fibrillar plaques and the load of Aβ immunopositive plaques in mice of all APOE backgrounds. Although the relative reduction in parenchymal Aβ plaque load was comparable across all APOE genotypes, APP/ε4 mice showed the greatest reduction in the absolute Aβ plaque load values, given their highest baseline. The immunization stimulated phagocytic activation of microglia, which magnitude adjusted for the post-treatment plaque load was the greatest in APP/ε4 mice implying association between the ε4 allele and impaired Aβ phagocytosis. Perivascular hemosiderin deposits reflecting ensued microhemorrhages were associated with vascular Aβ (VAβ) and ubiquitously present in control mice of all APOE genotypes, although in APP/ε3 mice their incidence was the lowest. Anti-Aβ immunization significantly reduced VAβ burden but increased the number of hemosiderin deposits across all APOE genotypes with the strongest and the weakest effect in APP/ε2 and APP/ε3 mice, respectively. Conclusions Our studies indicate that APOE genotype differentially modulates microglia activation and Aβ plaque load reduction during anti-Aβ immunotherapy. The APOE ε3 allele shows strong protective effect against immunotherapy associated microhemorrhages; while, conversely, the APOE ε2 allele increases risk thereof. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-017-0156-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna E Pankiewicz
- Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Jairo Baquero-Buitrago
- Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Sandrine Sanchez
- Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | | | - Jungsu Kim
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Patrick M Sullivan
- Department of Medicine (Geriatrics), Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.,Durham VA Medical Center's Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Martin J Sadowski
- Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Finch CE, Shams S. Apolipoprotein E and Sex Bias in Cerebrovascular Aging of Men and Mice. Trends Neurosci 2016; 39:625-637. [PMID: 27546867 PMCID: PMC5040339 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) research has mainly focused on neurodegenerative processes associated with the classic neuropathologic markers of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Additionally, cerebrovascular contributions to dementia are increasingly recognized, particularly from cerebral small vessel disease (SVD). Remarkably, in AD brains, the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ɛ4 allele shows male excess for cerebral microbleeds (CMBs), a marker of SVD, which is opposite to the female excess of plaques and tangles. Mouse transgenic models add further complexities to sex-ApoE ɛ4 allele interactions, with female excess of both CMBs and brain amyloid. We conclude that brain aging and AD pathogenesis cannot be understood in humans without addressing major gaps in the extent of sex differences in cerebrovascular pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caleb E Finch
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Sara Shams
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention, and Technology, Division of Medical Imaging and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Radiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Madigan JB, Wilcock DM, Hainsworth AH. Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: Topical Review of Animal Models. Stroke 2016; 47:1953-9. [PMID: 27301939 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.116.012066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy B Madigan
- From the Cardiovascular and Cell Sciences Research Institute, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); Neuroradiology Department, St George's Hospital, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M.); Atkinson Morley Neurosciences, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington (D.M.W.)
| | - Donna M Wilcock
- From the Cardiovascular and Cell Sciences Research Institute, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); Neuroradiology Department, St George's Hospital, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M.); Atkinson Morley Neurosciences, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington (D.M.W.)
| | - Atticus H Hainsworth
- From the Cardiovascular and Cell Sciences Research Institute, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); Neuroradiology Department, St George's Hospital, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M.); Atkinson Morley Neurosciences, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom (J.B.M., A.H.H.); and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington (D.M.W.).
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Saresella M, La Rosa F, Piancone F, Zoppis M, Marventano I, Calabrese E, Rainone V, Nemni R, Mancuso R, Clerici M. The NLRP3 and NLRP1 inflammasomes are activated in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:23. [PMID: 26939933 PMCID: PMC4778358 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0088-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and its key regulator, the inflammasome, are suspected to play a role in the neuroinflammation observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD); no conclusive data are nevertheless available in AD patients. RESULTS mRNA for inflammasome components (NLRP1, NLRP3, PYCARD, caspase 1, 5 and 8) and downstream effectors (IL-1β, IL-18) was up-regulated in severe and MILD AD. Monocytes co-expressing NLRP3 with caspase 1 or caspase 8 were significantly increased in severe AD alone, whereas those co-expressing NLRP1 and NLRP3 with PYCARD were augmented in both severe and MILD AD. Activation of the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes in AD was confirmed by confocal microscopy proteins co-localization and by the significantly higher amounts of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 being produced by monocytes. In MCI, the expression of NLRP3, but not the one of PYCARD or caspase 1 was increased, indicating that functional inflammasomes are not assembled in these individuals: this was confirmed by lack of co-localization and of proinflammatory cytokines production. CONCLUSIONS The activation of at least two different inflammasome complexes explains AD-associated neuroinflammation. Strategies targeting inflammasome activation could be useful in the therapy of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Saresella
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Francesca La Rosa
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Federica Piancone
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Martina Zoppis
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Ivana Marventano
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Elena Calabrese
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Veronica Rainone
- Departments of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco", University of Milano, 20100, Milan, Italy.
| | - Raffaello Nemni
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy. .,Departments of Physiopathology and Transplants, University of Milano, 20100, Milan, Italy.
| | - Roberta Mancuso
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy.
| | - Mario Clerici
- Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Piazza Morandi, 3, 20121, Milan, Italy. .,Departments of Physiopathology and Transplants, University of Milano, 20100, Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Kim DG, Krenz A, Toussaint LE, Maurer KJ, Robinson SA, Yan A, Torres L, Bynoe MS. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease induces signs of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in wild-type mice and accelerates pathological signs of AD in an AD model. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:1. [PMID: 26728181 PMCID: PMC4700622 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0467-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disease afflicting about one third of the world’s population and 30 % of the US population. It is induced by consumption of high-lipid diets and is characterized by liver inflammation and subsequent liver pathology. Obesity and consumption of a high-fat diet are known to increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we investigated NAFLD-induced liver inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD. Methods WT and APP-Tg mice were fed with a standard diet (SD) or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 2, 5 months, or 1 year to induce NAFLD. Another set of APP-Tg mice were removed from HFD after 2 months and put back on SD for 3 months. Results During acute phase NAFLD, WT and APP-Tg mice developed significant liver inflammation and pathology that coincided with increased numbers of activated microglial cells in the brain, increased inflammatory cytokine profile, and increased expression of toll-like receptors. Chronic NAFLD induced advanced pathological signs of AD in both WT and APP-Tg mice, and also induced neuronal apoptosis. We observed decreased brain expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP-1) which is involved in β-amyloid clearance, in both WT and APP-Tg mice after ongoing administration of the HFD. LRP-1 expression correlated with advanced signs of AD over the course of chronic NAFLD. Removal of mice from HFD during acute NAFLD reversed liver pathology, decreased signs of activated microglial cells and neuro-inflammation, and decreased β-amyloid plaque load. Conclusions Our findings indicate that chronic inflammation induced outside the brain is sufficient to induce neurodegeneration in the absence of genetic predisposition. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0467-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Do-Geun Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Antje Krenz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Leon E Toussaint
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Kirk J Maurer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA. .,Center for Animal Resources and Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA. .,Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, Dartmouth College, 1 Medical Center Drive, 302 W Borwell, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
| | - Sudie-Ann Robinson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Angela Yan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Luisa Torres
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Margaret S Bynoe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Liao F, Zhang TJ, Jiang H, Lefton KB, Robinson GO, Vassar R, Sullivan PM, Holtzman DM. Murine versus human apolipoprotein E4: differential facilitation of and co-localization in cerebral amyloid angiopathy and amyloid plaques in APP transgenic mouse models. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2015; 3:70. [PMID: 26556230 PMCID: PMC4641345 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-015-0250-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Amyloid β (Aβ) accumulates in the extracellular space as diffuse and neuritic plaques in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Aβ also deposits on the walls of arterioles as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) in most cases of AD and sometimes independently of AD. Apolipoprotein E (apoE) ɛ4 is associated with increases in both Aβ plaques and CAA in humans. Studies in mouse models that develop Aβ deposition have shown that murine apoE and human apoE4 have different abilities to facilitate plaque or CAA formation when studied independently. To better understand and compare the effects of murine apoE and human apoE4, we bred 5XFAD (line 7031) transgenic mice so that they expressed one copy of murine apoE and one copy of human apoE4 under the control of the normal murine apoE regulatory elements (5XFAD/apoEm/4). Results The 5XFAD/apoEm/4 mice contained levels of parenchymal CAA that were intermediate between 5XFAD/apoEm/m and 5XFAD/apoE4/4 mice. In 5XFAD/apoEm/4 mice, we found that Aβ parenchymal plaques co-localized with much more apoE than did parenchymal CAA, suggesting differential co-aggregation of apoE with Aβ in plaques versus CAA. More importantly, within the brain parenchyma of the 5XFAD/apoEm/4 mice, plaques contained more murine apoE, which on its own results in more pronounced and earlier plaque formation, while CAA contained more human apoE4 which on its own results in more pronounced CAA formation. We further confirmed the co-aggregation of mouse apoE with Aβ in plaques by showing a strong correlation between insoluble mouse apoE and insoluble Aβ in PS1APP-21/apoEm/4 mice which develop plaques without CAA. Conclusions These studies suggest that both murine apoE and human apoE4 facilitate differential opposing effects in influencing Aβ plaques versus CAA via different co-aggregation with these two amyloid lesions and set the stage for understanding these effects at a molecular level. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40478-015-0250-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
|
32
|
Fitz NF, Tapias V, Cronican AA, Castranio EL, Saleem M, Carter AY, Lefterova M, Lefterov I, Koldamova R. Opposing effects of Apoe/Apoa1 double deletion on amyloid-β pathology and cognitive performance in APP mice. Brain 2015; 138:3699-715. [PMID: 26510953 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awv293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (encoded by ABCA1) regulates cholesterol efflux from cells to apolipoproteins A-I and E (ApoA-I and APOE; encoded by APOA1 and APOE, respectively) and the generation of high density lipoproteins. In Abca1 knockout mice (Abca1(ko)), high density lipoproteins and ApoA-I are virtually lacking, and total APOE and APOE-containing lipoproteins in brain substantially decreased. As the ε4 allele of APOE is the major genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease, ABCA1 role as a modifier of APOE lipidation is of significance for this disease. Reportedly, Abca1 deficiency in mice expressing human APP accelerates amyloid deposition and behaviour deficits. We used APP/PS1dE9 mice crossed to Apoe and Apoa1 knockout mice to generate Apoe/Apoa1 double-knockout mice. We hypothesized that Apoe/Apoa1 double-knockout mice would mimic the phenotype of APP/Abca1(ko) mice in regards to amyloid plaques and cognitive deficits. Amyloid pathology, peripheral lipoprotein metabolism, cognitive deficits and dendritic morphology of Apoe/Apoa1 double-knockout mice were compared to APP/Abca1(ko), APP/PS1dE9, and single Apoa1 and Apoe knockouts. Contrary to our prediction, the results demonstrate that double deletion of Apoe and Apoa1 ameliorated the amyloid pathology, including amyloid plaques and soluble amyloid. In double knockout mice we show that (125)I-amyloid-β microinjected into the central nervous system cleared at a rate twice faster compared to Abca1 knockout mice. We tested the effect of Apoe, Apoa1 or Abca1 deficiency on spreading of exogenous amyloid-β seeds injected into the brain of young pre-depositing APP mice. The results show that lack of Abca1 augments dissemination of exogenous amyloid significantly more than the lack of Apoe. In the periphery, Apoe/Apoa1 double-knockout mice exhibited substantial atherosclerosis and very high levels of low density lipoproteins compared to APP/PS1dE9 and APP/Abca1(ko). Plasma level of amyloid-β42 measured at several time points for each mouse was significantly higher in Apoe/Apoa1 double-knockout then in APP/Abca1(ko) mice. This result demonstrates that mice with the lowest level of plasma lipoproteins, APP/Abca1(ko), have the lowest level of peripheral amyloid-β. Unexpectedly, and independent of amyloid pathology, the deletion of both apolipoproteins worsened behaviour deficits of double knockout mice and their performance was undistinguishable from those of Abca1 knockout mice. Finally we observed that the dendritic complexity in the CA1 region of hippocampus but not in CA2 is significantly impaired by Apoe/Apoa1 double deletion as well as by lack of ABCA1. IN CONCLUSION (i) plasma lipoproteins may affect amyloid-β clearance from the brain by the 'peripheral sink' mechanism; and (ii) deficiency of brain APOE-containing lipoproteins is of significance for dendritic complexity and cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas F Fitz
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Victor Tapias
- 2 Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Andrea A Cronican
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Emilie L Castranio
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Muzamil Saleem
- 3 Biological Sciences, Bayer School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA
| | - Alexis Y Carter
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Martina Lefterova
- 4 Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Iliya Lefterov
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Radosveta Koldamova
- 1 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Du LY, Chang LYL, Ardiles AO, Tapia-Rojas C, Araya J, Inestrosa NC, Palacios AG, Acosta ML. Alzheimer's Disease-Related Protein Expression in the Retina of Octodon degus. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135499. [PMID: 26267479 PMCID: PMC4534194 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
New studies show that the retina also undergoes pathological changes during the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While transgenic mouse models used in these previous studies have offered insight into this phenomenon, they do not model human sporadic AD, which is the most common form. Recently, the Octodon degus has been established as a sporadic model of AD. Degus display age-related cognitive impairment associated with Aβ aggregates and phosphorylated tau in the brain. Our aim for this study was to examine the expression of AD-related proteins in young, adult and old degus retina using enzyme-linked or fluorescence immunohistochemistry and to quantify the expression using slot blot and western blot assays. Aβ4G8 and Aβ6E10 detected Aβ peptides in some of the young animals but the expression was higher in the adults. Aβ peptides were observed in the inner and outer segment of the photoreceptors, the nerve fiber layer (NFL) and ganglion cell layer (GCL). Expression was higher in the central retinal region than in the retinal periphery. Using an anti-oligomer antibody we detected Aβ oligomer expression in the young, adult and old retina. Immunohistochemical labeling showed small discrete labeling of oligomers in the GCL that did not resemble plaques. Congo red staining did not result in green birefringence in any of the animals analyzed except for one old (84 months) animal. We also investigated expression of tau and phosphorylated tau. Expression was seen at all ages studied and in adults it was more consistently observed in the NFL-GCL. Hyperphosphorylated tau detected with AT8 antibody was significantly higher in the adult retina and it was localized to the GCL. We confirm for the first time that Aβ peptides and phosphorylated tau are expressed in the retina of degus. This is consistent with the proposal that AD biomarkers are present in the eye.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Y. Du
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lily Y-L. Chang
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alvaro O. Ardiles
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Cheril Tapia-Rojas
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Joaquin Araya
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Nibaldo C. Inestrosa
- Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Adrian G. Palacios
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Monica L. Acosta
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Yan P, Zhu A, Liao F, Xiao Q, Kraft A, Gonzales E, Perez R, Greenberg SM, Holtzman D, Lee JM. Minocycline reduces spontaneous hemorrhage in mouse models of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 2015; 46:1633-1640. [PMID: 25944329 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.115.008582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a common cause of recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage in the elderly. Previous studies have shown that CAA induces inflammation and expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (gelatinases) in amyloid-laden vessels. Here, we inhibited both using minocycline in CAA mouse models to determine whether spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage could be reduced. METHODS Tg2576 (n=16) and 5xFAD/ApoE4 knockin mice (n=16), aged 17 and 12 months, respectively, were treated with minocycline (50 mg/kg, IP) or saline every other day for 2 months. Brains were extracted and stained with X-34 (to quantify amyloid), Perls' blue (to quantify hemorrhage), and immunostained to examined β-amyloid peptide load, gliosis (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP], Iba-1), and vascular markers of blood-brain barrier integrity (zonula occludins-1 [ZO-1] and collagen IV). Brain extracts were used to quantify mRNA for a variety of inflammatory genes. RESULTS Minocycline treatment significantly reduced hemorrhage frequency in the brains of Tg2576 and 5xFAD/ApoE4 mice relative to the saline-treated mice, without affecting CAA load. Gliosis (GFAP and Iba-1 immunostaining), gelatinase activity, and expression of a variety of inflammatory genes (matrix metalloproteinase-9, NOX4, CD45, S-100b, and Iba-1) were also significantly reduced. Higher levels of microvascular tight junction and basal lamina proteins were found in the brains of minocycline-treated Tg2576 mice relative to saline-treated controls. CONCLUSIONS Minocycline reduced gliosis, inflammatory gene expression, gelatinase activity, and spontaneous hemorrhage in 2 different mouse models of CAA, supporting the importance of matrix metalloproteinase-related and inflammatory pathways in intracerebral hemorrhage pathogenesis. As a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug, minocycline might be considered for clinical trials to test efficacy in preventing CAA-related intracerebral hemorrhage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping Yan
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Alec Zhu
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Fan Liao
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Qingli Xiao
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Andrew Kraft
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Ernie Gonzales
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Ron Perez
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Steven M Greenberg
- Philip Kistler Stroke Research Center, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David Holtzman
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jin-Moo Lee
- Department of Neurology and the Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Contribution of reactive oxygen species to cerebral amyloid angiopathy, vasomotor dysfunction, and microhemorrhage in aged Tg2576 mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E881-90. [PMID: 25675483 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1414930112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is characterized by deposition of amyloid β peptide (Aβ) within walls of cerebral arteries and is an important cause of intracerebral hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, and cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients with and without Alzheimer's Disease (AD). NADPH oxidase-derived oxidative stress plays a key role in soluble Aβ-induced vessel dysfunction, but the mechanisms by which insoluble Aβ in the form of CAA causes cerebrovascular (CV) dysfunction are not clear. Here, we demonstrate evidence that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and, in particular, NADPH oxidase-derived ROS are a key mediator of CAA-induced CV deficits. First, the NADPH oxidase inhibitor, apocynin, and the nonspecific ROS scavenger, tempol, are shown to reduce oxidative stress and improve CV reactivity in aged Tg2576 mice. Second, the observed improvement in CV function is attributed both to a reduction in CAA formation and a decrease in CAA-induced vasomotor impairment. Third, anti-ROS therapy attenuates CAA-related microhemorrhage. A potential mechanism by which ROS contribute to CAA pathogenesis is also identified because apocynin substantially reduces expression levels of ApoE-a factor known to promote CAA formation. In total, these data indicate that ROS are a key contributor to CAA formation, CAA-induced vessel dysfunction, and CAA-related microhemorrhage. Thus, ROS and, in particular, NADPH oxidase-derived ROS are a promising therapeutic target for patients with CAA and AD.
Collapse
|
36
|
Esiri M, Chance S, Joachim C, Warden D, Smallwood A, Sloan C, Christie S, Wilcock G, Smith AD. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy, subcortical white matter disease and dementia: literature review and study in OPTIMA. Brain Pathol 2015; 25:51-62. [PMID: 25521177 PMCID: PMC8028928 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is of increasing clinical and research interest as the ability to detect it and its consequences by neuroimaging in living subjects has advanced. There is also increasing interest in understanding its possible role in the development of intracerebral hemorrhage, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia. In this article, the literature on this subject is reviewed and novel findings relating CAA to subcortical white matter damage in 224 subjects in the Oxford project to Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA) are reported. The relationship between CAA and subcortical tissue damage in the OPTIMA subjects was found to be critically dependent on ApoE genotype, there being a positive relationship between measures of CAA and subcortical small vessel disease in ApoEε4 carriers and a significant negative relationship in ApoEε2 carriers. These findings draw attention, as have many other studies, to the importance of ApoE genotype as a major risk factor not only for dementia but also for damage to blood vessels in the aging brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Esiri
- Neuropathology DepartmentNuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Steven Chance
- Neuropathology DepartmentNuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Catharine Joachim
- Neuropathology DepartmentNuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Donald Warden
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | | | - Carolyn Sloan
- Neuropathology DepartmentNuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Sharon Christie
- Nuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesOPTIMAUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Gordon Wilcock
- Nuffield Department of Clinical NeurosciencesOPTIMAUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Bachmeier C, Shackleton B, Ojo J, Paris D, Mullan M, Crawford F. Apolipoprotein E isoform-specific effects on lipoprotein receptor processing. Neuromolecular Med 2014; 16:686-96. [PMID: 25015123 PMCID: PMC4280344 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-014-8318-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent findings indicate an isoform-specific role for apolipoprotein E (apoE) in the elimination of beta-amyloid (Aβ) from the brain. ApoE is closely associated with various lipoprotein receptors, which contribute to Aβ brain removal via metabolic clearance or transit across the blood–brain barrier (BBB). These receptors are subject to ectodomain shedding at the cell surface, which alters endocytic transport and mitigates Aβ elimination. To further understand the manner in which apoE influences Aβ brain clearance, these studies investigated the effect of apoE on lipoprotein receptor shedding. Consistent with prior reports, we observed an increased shedding of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and the LDLR-related protein 1 (LRP1) following Aβ exposure in human brain endothelial cells. When Aβ was co-treated with each apoE isoform, there was a reduction in Aβ-induced shedding with apoE2 and apoE3, while lipoprotein receptor shedding in the presence of apoE4 remained increased. Likewise, intracranial administration of Aβ to apoE-targeted replacement mice (expressing the human apoE isoforms) resulted in an isoform-dependent effect on lipoprotein receptor shedding in the brain (apoE4 > apoE3 > apoE2). Moreover, these results show a strong inverse correlation with our prior work in apoE transgenic mice in which apoE4 animals showed reduced Aβ clearance across the BBB compared to apoE3 animals. Based on these results, apoE4 appears less efficient than other apoE isoforms in regulating lipoprotein receptor shedding, which may explain the differential effects of these isoforms in removing Aβ from the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Corbin Bachmeier
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| | - Ben Shackleton
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| | - Joseph Ojo
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| | - Daniel Paris
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| | - Michael Mullan
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| | - Fiona Crawford
- The Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, Florida 34243, USA
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Pankiewicz JE, Guridi M, Kim J, Asuni AA, Sanchez S, Sullivan PM, Holtzman DM, Sadowski MJ. Blocking the apoE/Aβ interaction ameliorates Aβ-related pathology in APOE ε2 and ε4 targeted replacement Alzheimer model mice. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2014; 2:75. [PMID: 24972680 PMCID: PMC4174325 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-014-0075-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the brain is essential to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Carriers of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele demonstrate greatly increased AD risk and enhanced brain Aβ deposition. In contrast, APOE ε2 allele carries show reduced AD risk, later age of disease onset, and lesser Aβ accumulation. However, it remains elusive whether the apoE2 isoform exerts truly protective effect against Aβ pathology or apoE2 plays deleterious role albeit less pronounced than the apoE4 isoform. Here, we characterized APPSW/PS1dE9/APOE ε2-TR (APP/E2) and APPSW/PS1dE9/APOE ε4-TR (APP/E4) mice, with targeted replacement (TR) of the murine Apoe for human ε2 or ε4 alleles, and used these models to investigate effects of pharmacological inhibition of the apoE/Aβ interaction on Aβ deposition and neuritic degeneration. APP/E2 and APP/E4 mice replicate differential effect of human apoE isoforms on Aβ pathology with APP/E4 mice showing a several-fold greater load of Aβ plaques, insoluble brain Aβ levels, Aβ oligomers, and density of neuritic plaques than APP/E2 mice. Furthermore, APP/E4 mice, but not APP/E2 mice, exhibit memory impairment on object recognition and radial arm maze tests. Between the age of 6 and 10 months APP/E2 and APP/E4 mice received treatment with Aβ12-28P, a non-toxic, synthetic peptide homologous to the apoE binding motif within the Aβ sequence, which competitively blocks the apoE/Aβ interaction. In both lines, the treatment significantly reduced brain Aβ accumulation, co-accumulation of apoE within Aβ plaques, and neuritic degeneration, and prevented memory deficit in APP/E4 mice. These results indicate that both apoE2 and apoE4 isoforms contribute to Aβ deposition and future therapies targeting the apoE/Aβ interaction could produce favorable outcome in APOE ε2 and ε4 allele carriers.
Collapse
|
39
|
Stukas S, Freeman L, Lee M, Wilkinson A, Ossoli A, Vaisman B, Demosky S, Chan J, Hirsch-Reinshagen V, Remaley AT, Wellington CL. LCAT deficiency does not impair amyloid metabolism in APP/PS1 mice. J Lipid Res 2014; 55:1721-9. [PMID: 24950691 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m049940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A key step in plasma HDL maturation from discoidal to spherical particles is the esterification of cholesterol to cholesteryl ester, which is catalyzed by LCAT. HDL-like lipoproteins in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are also spherical, whereas nascent lipoprotein particles secreted from astrocytes are discoidal, suggesting that LCAT may play a similar role in the CNS. In plasma, apoA-I is the main LCAT activator, while in the CNS, it is believed to be apoE. apoE is directly involved in the pathological progression of Alzheimer's disease, including facilitating β-amyloid (Aβ) clearance from the brain, a function that requires its lipidation by ABCA1. However, whether apoE particle maturation by LCAT is also required for Aβ clearance is unknown. Here we characterized the impact of LCAT deficiency on CNS lipoprotein metabolism and amyloid pathology. Deletion of LCAT from APP/PS1 mice resulted in a pronounced decrease of apoA-I in plasma that was paralleled by decreased apoA-I levels in CSF and brain tissue, whereas apoE levels were unaffected. Furthermore, LCAT deficiency did not increase Aβ or amyloid in APP/PS1 LCAT(-/-) mice. Finally, LCAT expression and plasma activity were unaffected by age or the onset of Alzheimer's-like pathology in APP/PS1 mice. Taken together, these results suggest that apoE-containing discoidal HDLs do not require LCAT-dependent maturation to mediate efficient Aβ clearance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Stukas
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Lita Freeman
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1508
| | - Michael Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Anna Wilkinson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Alice Ossoli
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1508
| | - Boris Vaisman
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1508
| | | | - Jeniffer Chan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Veronica Hirsch-Reinshagen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | | | - Cheryl L Wellington
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Lathe R, Sapronova A, Kotelevtsev Y. Atherosclerosis and Alzheimer--diseases with a common cause? Inflammation, oxysterols, vasculature. BMC Geriatr 2014; 14:36. [PMID: 24656052 PMCID: PMC3994432 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2318-14-36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aging is accompanied by increasing vulnerability to pathologies such as atherosclerosis (ATH) and Alzheimer disease (AD). Are these different pathologies, or different presentations with a similar underlying pathoetiology? DISCUSSION Both ATH and AD involve inflammation, macrophage infiltration, and occlusion of the vasculature. Allelic variants in common genes including APOE predispose to both diseases. In both there is strong evidence of disease association with viral and bacterial pathogens including herpes simplex and Chlamydophila. Furthermore, ablation of components of the immune system (or of bone marrow-derived macrophages alone) in animal models restricts disease development in both cases, arguing that both are accentuated by inflammatory/immune pathways. We discuss that amyloid β, a distinguishing feature of AD, also plays a key role in ATH. Several drugs, at least in mouse models, are effective in preventing the development of both ATH and AD. Given similar age-dependence, genetic underpinnings, involvement of the vasculature, association with infection, Aβ involvement, the central role of macrophages, and drug overlap, we conclude that the two conditions reflect different manifestations of a common pathoetiology. MECHANISM Infection and inflammation selectively induce the expression of cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H). Acutely, the production of 'immunosterol' 25-hydroxycholesterol (25OHC) defends against enveloped viruses. We present evidence that chronic macrophage CH25H upregulation leads to catalyzed esterification of sterols via 25OHC-driven allosteric activation of ACAT (acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase/SOAT), intracellular accumulation of cholesteryl esters and lipid droplets, vascular occlusion, and overt disease. SUMMARY We postulate that AD and ATH are both caused by chronic immunologic challenge that induces CH25H expression and protection against particular infectious agents, but at the expense of longer-term pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lathe
- State University of Pushchino, Prospekt Nauki, Pushchino 142290, Moscow Region, Russia
- Pushchino Branch of the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290 Moscow Region, Russia
- Pieta Research, PO Box 27069, Edinburgh EH10 5YW, UK
| | - Alexandra Sapronova
- State University of Pushchino, Prospekt Nauki, Pushchino 142290, Moscow Region, Russia
- Pushchino Branch of the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290 Moscow Region, Russia
- Optical Research Group, Laboratory of Evolutionary Biophysics of Development, Institute of Developmental Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Yuri Kotelevtsev
- State University of Pushchino, Prospekt Nauki, Pushchino 142290, Moscow Region, Russia
- Pushchino Branch of the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290 Moscow Region, Russia
- Biomedical Centre for Research Education and Innovation (CREI), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Skolkovo 143025, Russia
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Little France, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Klohs J, Rudin M, Shimshek DR, Beckmann N. Imaging of cerebrovascular pathology in animal models of Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:32. [PMID: 24659966 PMCID: PMC3952109 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular pathology may interact with neurodegeneration and thus aggravate cognitive decline. As the relationship between these two processes is poorly understood, research has been increasingly focused on understanding the link between cerebrovascular alterations and AD. This has at last been spurred by the engineering of transgenic animals, which display pathological features of AD and develop cerebral amyloid angiopathy to various degrees. Transgenic models are versatile for investigating the role of amyloid deposition and vascular dysfunction, and for evaluating novel therapeutic concepts. In addition, research has benefited from the development of novel imaging techniques, which are capable of characterizing vascular pathology in vivo. They provide vascular structural read-outs and have the ability to assess the functional consequences of vascular dysfunction as well as to visualize and monitor the molecular processes underlying these pathological alterations. This article focusses on recent in vivo small animal imaging studies addressing vascular aspects related to AD. With the technical advances of imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance, nuclear and microscopic imaging, molecular, functional and structural information related to vascular pathology can now be visualized in vivo in small rodents. Imaging vascular and parenchymal amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition as well as Aβ transport pathways have been shown to be useful to characterize their dynamics and to elucidate their role in the development of cerebral amyloid angiopathy and AD. Structural and functional imaging read-outs have been employed to describe the deleterious affects of Aβ on vessel morphology, hemodynamics and vascular integrity. More recent imaging studies have also addressed how inflammatory processes partake in the pathogenesis of the disease. Moreover, imaging can be pivotal in the search for novel therapies targeting the vasculature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Rudin
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Derya R Shimshek
- Autoimmunity, Transplantation and Inflammation/Neuroinflammation Department, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- Analytical Sciences and Imaging, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
APOE-ε2 and APOE-ε4 correlate with increased amyloid accumulation in cerebral vasculature. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2013; 72:708-15. [PMID: 23771217 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e31829a25b9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The APOE-ε4 allele correlates with increased risk of Alzheimer disease (AD) and increased parenchymal amyloid plaques. We tested how the APOE genotype correlated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) by analyzing 371 brains for parenchymal and meningeal CAA in 4 brain regions (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital neocortex). The overall severity of CAA was highest in the occipital lobe. APOE-ε4/4 brains (n = 22) had the highest levels of CAA across regions. In the occipital lobe, nearly all APOE-ε4/4 cases were scored with the highest level of CAA (meninges, 95% of cases; parenchyma, 81%). In this brain region as in others, APOE-ε3/4 brains (n = 115) showed consistently less CAA than APOE-ε4/4 brains (meninges, 43%; parenchyma, 43%). APOE-ε3/3 brains (n = 182) showed even less CAA (meninges, 19%; parenchyma, 19%). Interestingly, APOE-ε2/3 cases (n = 42) had more CAA than APOE-ε3/3 (meninges, 44%; parenchyma, 32%), despite a reduced risk for AD in the APOE-ε2/3 individuals. APOE-ε4/4 brains also had the fewest regions without CAA, whereas APOE-ε3/3 brains had the most. Ordinal regression analyses demonstrated significant impacts of APOE-ε2 and APOE-ε4 on CAA at least in some brain regions. These data demonstrate that APOE genotype correlations with Aβ deposition in CAA only incompletely correspond to other AD-linked brain pathologies.
Collapse
|
43
|
Lin AL, Zheng W, Halloran JJ, Burbank RR, Hussong SA, Hart MJ, Javors M, Shih YYI, Muir E, Solano Fonseca R, Strong R, Richardson AG, Lechleiter JD, Fox PT, Galvan V. Chronic rapamycin restores brain vascular integrity and function through NO synthase activation and improves memory in symptomatic mice modeling Alzheimer's disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2013; 33:1412-21. [PMID: 23801246 PMCID: PMC3764385 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Vascular pathology is a major feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias. We recently showed that chronic administration of the target-of-rapamycin (TOR) inhibitor rapamycin, which extends lifespan and delays aging, halts the progression of AD-like disease in transgenic human (h)APP mice modeling AD when administered before disease onset. Here we demonstrate that chronic reduction of TOR activity by rapamycin treatment started after disease onset restored cerebral blood flow (CBF) and brain vascular density, reduced cerebral amyloid angiopathy and microhemorrhages, decreased amyloid burden, and improved cognitive function in symptomatic hAPP (AD) mice. Like acetylcholine (ACh), a potent vasodilator, acute rapamycin treatment induced the phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS) and NO release in brain endothelium. Administration of the NOS inhibitor L-NG-Nitroarginine methyl ester reversed vasodilation as well as the protective effects of rapamycin on CBF and vasculature integrity, indicating that rapamycin preserves vascular density and CBF in AD mouse brains through NOS activation. Taken together, our data suggest that chronic reduction of TOR activity by rapamycin blocked the progression of AD-like cognitive and histopathological deficits by preserving brain vascular integrity and function. Drugs that inhibit the TOR pathway may have promise as a therapy for AD and possibly for vascular dementias.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ai-Ling Lin
- Research Imaging Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Raslan AA, Kee Y. Tackling neurodegenerative diseases: animal models of Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Genes Genomics 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-013-0116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
45
|
Drug pipeline in neurodegeneration based on transgenic mice models of Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2013; 12:116-40. [PMID: 22982398 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most important neurodegenerative disorders, bringing about huge medical and social burden in the elderly worldwide. Many aspects of its pathogenesis have remained unclear and no effective treatment exists for it. Within the past 20 years, various mice models harboring AD-related human mutations have been produced. These models imitate diverse AD-related pathologies and have been used for basic and therapeutic investigations in AD. In this regard, there are a wide variety of preclinical trials of potential therapeutic modalities using AD mice models which are of paramount importance for future clinical trials and applications. This review summarizes more than 140 substances and treatment modalities being used in transgenic AD mice models from 2001 to 2011. We also discuss advantages and disadvantages of each model to be used in therapeutic development for AD.
Collapse
|
46
|
Park L, Zhou P, Koizumi K, El Jamal S, Previti ML, Van Nostrand WE, Carlson G, Iadecola C. Brain and circulating levels of Aβ1-40 differentially contribute to vasomotor dysfunction in the mouse brain. Stroke 2012. [PMID: 23204056 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.112.670976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Amyloid-β (Aβ), a peptide that accumulates in the brain and circulates in the blood of patients with Alzheimer disease, alters the regulation of cerebral blood flow and may contribute to the brain dysfunction underlying the dementia. However, the contributions of brain and circulating Aβ1-40 to the vascular dysfunction have not been elucidated. METHODS We used transgenic mice overexpressing mutated forms of the amyloid precursor protein in which Aβ1-40 is elevated in blood and brain (Tg-2576) or only in brain (Tg-SwDI). Mice were equipped with a cranial window, and the increase in cerebral blood flow induced by neural activity (whisker stimulation), or by topical application of endothelium-dependent vasodilators, was assessed by laser-Doppler flowmetry. RESULTS The cerebrovascular dysfunction was observed also in Tg-SwDI mice, but despite ≈40% higher levels of brain Aβ1-40, the effect was less marked than in Tg-2576 mice. Intravascular administration of Aβ1-40 elevated plasma Aβ1-40 and enhanced the dysfunction in Tg-SwDI mice, but not in Tg-2576 mice. CONCLUSIONS The results provide evidence that Aβ1-40 acts on distinct luminal and abluminal vascular targets, the deleterious cerebrovascular effects of which are additive. Furthermore, the findings highlight the importance of circulating Aβ1-40 in the cerebrovascular dysfunction and may provide insight into the cerebrovascular alterations in conditions in which elevations in plasma Aβ1-40 occur.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laibaik Park
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 411 E 69th St, KB410, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Cruchaga C, Kauwe JSK, Nowotny P, Bales K, Pickering EH, Mayo K, Bertelsen S, Hinrichs A, Fagan AM, Holtzman DM, Morris JC, Goate AM. Cerebrospinal fluid APOE levels: an endophenotype for genetic studies for Alzheimer's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21:4558-71. [PMID: 22821396 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype is the major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have access to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma APOE protein levels from 641 individuals and genome-wide genotyped data from 570 of these samples. The aim of this study was to test whether CSF or plasma APOE levels could be a useful endophenotype for AD and to identify genetic variants associated with APOE levels. We found that CSF (P = 8.15 × 10(-4)) but not plasma (P = 0.071) APOE protein levels are significantly associated with CSF Aβ(42) levels. We used Mendelian randomization and genetic variants as instrumental variables to confirm that the association of CSF APOE with CSF Aβ(42) levels and clinical dementia rating (CDR) is not because of a reverse causation or confounding effect. In addition the association of CSF APOE with Aβ(42) levels was independent of the APOE ε4 genotype, suggesting that APOE levels in CSF may be a useful endophenotype for AD. We performed a genome-wide association study to identify genetic variants associated with CSF APOE levels: the APOE ε4 genotype was the strongest single-genetic factor associated with CSF APOE protein levels (P = 6.9 × 10(-13)). In aggregate, the Illumina chip single nucleotide polymorphisms explain 72% of the variability in CSF APOE protein levels, whereas the APOE ε4 genotype alone explains 8% of the variability. No other genetic variant reached the genome-wide significance threshold, but nine additional variants exhibited a P-value <10(-6). Pathway mining analysis indicated that these nine additional loci are involved in lipid metabolism (P = 4.49 × 10(-9)).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Cruchaga
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Lalonde R, Fukuchi K, Strazielle C. APP transgenic mice for modelling behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1357-75. [PMID: 22373961 PMCID: PMC3340431 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of gene mutations responsible for autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease has enabled researchers to reproduce in transgenic mice several hallmarks of this disorder, notably Aβ accumulation, though in most cases without neurofibrillary tangles. Mice expressing mutated and wild-type APP as well as C-terminal fragments of APP exhibit variations in exploratory activity reminiscent of behavioural and psychological symptoms of Alzheimer dementia (BPSD). In particular, open-field, spontaneous alternation, and elevated plus-maze tasks as well as aggression are modified in several APP transgenic mice relative to non-transgenic controls. However, depending on the precise murine models, changes in open-field and elevated plus-maze exploration occur in either direction, either increased or decreased relative to controls. It remains to be determined which neurotransmitter changes are responsible for this variability, in particular with respect to GABA, 5HT, and dopamine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Lalonde
- Département de Psychologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Rouen, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan Cedex, France.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Bales KR. The value and limitations of transgenic mouse models used in drug discovery for Alzheimer's disease: an update. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2012; 7:281-97. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.666234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
50
|
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) results from deposition of β-amyloid in the media and adventitia of small arteries and capillaries of the leptomeninges and cerebral cortex and is a major cause of lobar intracerebral hemorrhage and cognitive impairment in the elderly. CAA is associated with a high prevalence of magnetic resonance imaging markers of small vessel disease, including cerebral microbleeds and white matter hyperintensities. Although advanced CAA is present in approximately ¼ of brains with Alzheimer disease (AD), fewer than half of CAA cases meet pathologic criteria for AD. This review will discuss the pathophysiology of CAA and focus on new imaging modalities and laboratory biomarkers that may aid in the clinical diagnosis of individuals with the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anand Viswanathan
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Trials Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|