Sensory Cortical Activity Is Related to the Selection of a Rhythmic Motor Action Pattern

Coupled Dynamics of Stimulus-Evoked Gustatory Cortical and Basolateral Amygdalar Activity

Gustatory cortical (GC) single-neuron taste responses reflect taste quality and palatability in successive epochs. Ensemble analyses reveal epoch-to-epoch firing-rate changes in these responses to be sudden, coherent transitions. Such nonlinear dynamics suggest that GC is part of a recurrent network, producing these dynamics in concert with other structures. Basolateral amygdala (BLA), which is reciprocally connected to GC and central to hedonic processing, is a strong candidate partner for GC, in that BLA taste responses evolve on the same general clock as GC and because inhibition of activity in the BLA→GC pathway degrades the sharpness of GC transitions. These facts motivate, but do not test, our overarching hypothesis that BLA and GC act as a single, comodulated network during taste processing. Here, we provide just this test of simultaneous (BLA and GC) extracellular taste responses in female rats, probing the multiregional dynamics of activity to directly test whether BLA and GC responses contain coupled dynamics. We show that BLA and GC response magnitudes covary across trials and within single responses, and that changes in BLA-GC local field potential phase coherence are epoch specific. Such classic coherence analyses, however, obscure the most salient facet of BLA-GC coupling: sudden transitions in and out of the epoch known to be involved in driving gaping behavior happen near simultaneously in the two regions, despite huge trial-to-trial variability in transition latencies. This novel form of inter-regional coupling, which we show is easily replicated in model networks, suggests collective processing in a distributed neural network.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT There has been little investigation into real-time communication between brain regions during taste processing, a fact reflecting the dominant belief that taste circuitry is largely feedforward. Here, we perform an in-depth analysis of real-time interactions between GC and BLA in response to passive taste deliveries, using both conventional coherence metrics and a novel methodology that explicitly considers trial-to-trial variability and fast single-trial dynamics in evoked responses. Our results demonstrate that BLA-GC coherence changes as the taste response unfolds, and that BLA and GC specifically couple for the sudden transition into (and out of) the behaviorally relevant neural response epoch, suggesting (although not proving) that: (1) recurrent interactions subserve the function of the dyad as (2) a putative attractor network.

Multisensory integration of orally-sourced gustatory and olfactory inputs to the posterior piriform cortex in awake rats

Flavour refers to the sensory experience of food, which is a combination of sensory inputs sourced from multiple modalities during consumption, including taste and odour. Previous work has demonstrated that orally-sourced taste and odour cues interact to determine perceptual judgements of flavour stimuli, although the underlying cellular- and circuit-level neural mechanisms remain unknown. We recently identified a region of the piriform olfactory cortex in rats that responds to both taste and odour stimuli. Here, we investigated how converging taste and odour inputs to this area interact to affect single neuron responsiveness ensemble coding of flavour identity. To accomplish this, we recorded spiking activity from ensembles of single neurons in the posterior piriform cortex (pPC) in awake, tasting rats while delivering taste solutions, odour solutions and taste + odour mixtures directly into the oral cavity. Our results show that taste and odour inputs evoke highly selective, temporally-overlapping responses in multisensory pPC neurons. Comparing responses to mixtures and their unisensory components revealed that taste and odour inputs interact in a non-linear manner to produce unique response patterns. Taste input enhances trial-by-trial decoding of odour identity from small ensembles of simultaneously recorded neurons. Together, these results demonstrate that taste and odour inputs to pPC interact in complex, non-linear ways to form amodal flavour representations that enhance identity coding. KEY POINTS: Experience of food involves taste and smell, although how information from these different senses is combined by the brain to create our sense of flavour remains unknown. We recorded from small groups of neurons in the olfactory cortex of awake rats while they consumed taste solutions, odour solutions and taste + odour mixtures. Taste and smell solutions evoke highly selective responses. When presented in a mixture, taste and smell inputs interacted to alter responses, resulting in activation of unique sets of neurons that could not be predicted by the component responses. Synergistic interactions increase discriminability of odour representations. The olfactory cortex uses taste and smell to create new information representing multisensory flavour identity.

LiCl-induced sickness modulates rat gustatory cortical responses

Gustatory cortex (GC), a structure deeply involved in the making of consumption decisions, presumably performs this function by integrating information about taste, experiences, and internal states related to the animal's health, such as illness. Here, we investigated this assertion, examining whether illness is represented in GC activity, and how this representation impacts taste responses and behavior. We recorded GC single-neuron activity and local field potentials (LFPs) from healthy rats and rats made ill (via LiCl injection). We show (consistent with the extant literature) that the onset of illness-related behaviors arises contemporaneously with alterations in 7 to 12 Hz LFP power at approximately 12 min following injection. This process was accompanied by reductions in single-neuron taste response magnitudes and discriminability, and with enhancements in palatability-relatedness-a result reflecting the collapse of responses toward a simple "good-bad" code visible in the entire sample, but focused on a specific subset of GC neurons. Overall, our data show that a state (illness) that profoundly reduces consumption changes basic properties of the sensory cortical response to tastes, in a manner that can easily explain illness' impact on consumption.

Perturbation of amygdala-cortical projections reduces ensemble coherence of palatability coding in gustatory cortex

Taste palatability is centrally involved in consumption decisions-we ingest foods that taste good and reject those that don't. Gustatory cortex (GC) and basolateral amygdala (BLA) almost certainly work together to mediate palatability-driven behavior, but the precise nature of their interplay during taste decision-making is still unknown. To probe this issue, we discretely perturbed (with optogenetics) activity in rats' BLA→GC axons during taste deliveries. This perturbation strongly altered GC taste responses, but while the perturbation itself was tonic (2.5 s), the alterations were not-changes preferentially aligned with the onset times of previously-described taste response epochs, and reduced evidence of palatability-related activity in the 'late-epoch' of the responses without reducing the amount of taste identity information available in the 'middle epoch.' Finally, BLA→GC perturbations changed behavior-linked taste response dynamics themselves, distinctively diminishing the abruptness of ensemble transitions into the late epoch. These results suggest that BLA 'organizes' behavior-related GC taste dynamics.

The brain and behavioral correlates of motor-related analgesia (MRA)

The human motor system has the capacity to act as an internal form of analgesia. Since the discovery of the potential influence of motor systems on analgesia in rodent models, clinical applications of targeting the motor system for analgesia have been implemented. However, a neurobiological basis for motor activation's effects on analgesia is not well defined. Motor-related analgesia (MRA) is a phenomenon wherein a decrease in pain symptoms can be achieved through either indirect or direct activation of the motor axis. To date, research has focused on (a) evaluating the pain-motor interaction as one focused on the acute protection from painful stimuli; (b) motor cortex stimulation for chronic pain; or (c) exercise as a method of improving chronic pain in animal and human models. This review evaluates (1) current knowledge surrounding how pain interferes with canonical neurological performance throughout the motor axis; and (2) the physiological basis for motor-related analgesia as a means to reduce pain symptom loads for patients. A proposal for future research directions is provided.

Dynamic Representation of Taste-Related Decisions in the Gustatory Insular Cortex of Mice

Research over the past decade has established the gustatory insular cortex (GC) as a model for studying howprimary sensory cortices integrate sensory,affective, and cognitive signals. This integration occurs through time-varyingpatterns of neural activity. Selective silencing of GC activity during specific temporal windows provided evidence forGC’s role in mediating taste palatability and expectation. Recent results also suggest that this areamay play a role in decision making. However, existing data are limited to GC involvement in controlling the timing of stereotyped, orofacial reactions to aversive tastants during consumption. Here,we present electrophysiological, chemogenetic, and optogenetic results demonstrating the key role of GCin the executionof a taste-guided, reward-directed decision-making task. Mice were trained in a two-alternative choice task, in which they had to associate tastants sampled from a central spout with different actions (i.e., licking either a left or a right spout). Stimulus sampling and action were separated by a delay period. Electrophysiological recordings revealed chemosensory processing during the sampling period and the emergence of task-related, cognitive signals during the delay period. Chemogenetic silencing of GCimpaired task performance. Optogenetic silencing of GC allowed us to tease apart the contribution of activity during sampling and delay periods. Although silencing during the sampling period had no effect, silencing during the delay period significantly impacted behavioral performance, demonstrating the importance of the cognitive signals processed by GC in driving decision making. Altogether, our data highlight a novel role ofGCin controlling taste-guided, reward-directed choices and actions.

Relying on behavioral electrophysiology and neural manipulations, Vincis, Chen, et al. demonstrate that neurons in the gustatory cortex (GC) encode perceptual and cognitive signals important for tasteguided choices. These data demonstrate a novel role of GC as a key area for sensorimotor transformations related to gustatory perceptual decision making.

Single and population coding of taste in the gustatory cortex of awake mice

Electrophysiological analysis has revealed much about the broad coding and neural ensemble dynamics that characterize gustatory cortical (GC) taste processing in awake rats and about how these dynamics relate to behavior. With regard to mice, however, data concerning cortical taste coding have largely been restricted to imaging, a technique that reveals average levels of neural responsiveness but that (currently) lacks the temporal sensitivity necessary for evaluation of fast response dynamics; furthermore, the few extant studies have thus far failed to provide consensus on basic features of coding. We have recorded the spiking activity of ensembles of GC neurons while presenting representatives of the basic taste modalities (sweet, salty, sour, and bitter) to awake mice. Our first central result is the identification of similarities between rat and mouse taste processing: most mouse GC neurons (~66%) responded distinctly to multiple (3-4) tastes; temporal coding analyses further reveal, for the first time, that single mouse GC neurons sequentially code taste identity and palatability, the latter responses emerging ~0.5 s after the former, with whole GC ensembles transitioning suddenly and coherently from coding taste identity to coding taste palatability. The second finding is that spatial location plays very little role in any aspect of taste responses: neither between- (anterior-posterior) nor within-mouse (dorsal-ventral) mapping revealed anatomic regions with narrow or temporally simple taste responses. These data confirm recent results showing that mouse cortical taste responses are not "gustotopic" but also go beyond these imaging results to show that mice process tastes through time.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Here, we analyzed taste-related spiking activity in awake mouse gustatory cortical (GC) neural ensembles, revealing deep similarities between mouse cortical taste processing and that repeatedly demonstrated in rat: mouse GC ensembles code multiple aspects of taste in a coarse-coded, time-varying manner that is essentially invariant across the spatial extent of GC. These data demonstrate that, contrary to some reports, cortical network processing is distributed, rather than being separated out into spatial subregion.

Impact of precisely-timed inhibition of gustatory cortex on taste behavior depends on single-trial ensemble dynamics

Sensation and action are necessarily coupled during stimulus perception - while tasting, for instance, perception happens while an animal decides to expel or swallow the substance in the mouth (the former via a behavior known as 'gaping'). Taste responses in the rodent gustatory cortex (GC) span this sensorimotor divide, progressing through firing-rate epochs that culminate in the emergence of action-related firing. Population analyses reveal this emergence to be a sudden, coherent and variably-timed ensemble transition that reliably precedes gaping onset by 0.2-0.3s. Here, we tested whether this transition drives gaping, by delivering 0.5s GC perturbations in tasting trials. Perturbations significantly delayed gaping, but only when they preceded the action-related transition - thus, the same perturbation impacted behavior or not, depending on the transition latency in that particular trial. Our results suggest a distributed attractor network model of taste processing, and a dynamical role for cortex in driving motor behavior.

Recognizing Taste: Coding Patterns Along the Neural Axis in Mammals

The gustatory system encodes information about chemical identity, nutritional value, and concentration of sensory stimuli before transmitting the signal from taste buds to central neurons that process and transform the signal. Deciphering the coding logic for taste quality requires examining responses at each level along the neural axis-from peripheral sensory organs to gustatory cortex. From the earliest single-fiber recordings, it was clear that some afferent neurons respond uniquely and others to stimuli of multiple qualities. There is frequently a "best stimulus" for a given neuron, leading to the suggestion that taste exhibits "labeled line coding." In the extreme, a strict "labeled line" requires neurons and pathways dedicated to single qualities (e.g., sweet, bitter, etc.). At the other end of the spectrum, "across-fiber," "combinatorial," or "ensemble" coding requires minimal specific information to be imparted by a single neuron. Instead, taste quality information is encoded by simultaneous activity in ensembles of afferent fibers. Further, "temporal coding" models have proposed that certain features of taste quality may be embedded in the cadence of impulse activity. Taste receptor proteins are often expressed in nonoverlapping sets of cells in taste buds apparently supporting "labeled lines." Yet, taste buds include both narrowly and broadly tuned cells. As gustatory signals proceed to the hindbrain and on to higher centers, coding becomes more distributed and temporal patterns of activity become important. Here, we present the conundrum of taste coding in the light of current electrophysiological and imaging techniques at several levels of the gustatory processing pathway.

Interaction of Taste and Place Coding in the Hippocampus

An animal's survival depends on finding food and the memory of food and contexts are often linked. Given that the hippocampus is required for spatial and contextual memory, it is reasonable to expect related coding of space and food stimuli in hippocampal neurons. However, relatively little is known about how the hippocampus responds to tastes, the most central sensory property of food. In this study, we examined the taste-evoked responses and spatial firing properties of single units in the dorsal CA1 hippocampal region as male rats received a battery of taste stimuli differing in both chemical composition and palatability within a specific spatial context. We identified a subset of hippocampal neurons that responded to tastes, some of which were place cells. These taste and place responses had a distinct interaction: taste-responsive cells tended to have less spatially specific firing fields and place cells only responded to tastes delivered inside their place field. Like neurons in the amygdala and lateral hypothalamus, hippocampal neurons discriminated between tastes predominantly on the basis of palatability, with taste selectivity emerging concurrently with palatability-relatedness; these responses did not reflect movement or arousal. However, hippocampal taste responses emerged several hundred milliseconds later than responses in other parts of the taste system, suggesting that the hippocampus does not influence real-time taste decisions, instead associating the hedonic value of tastes with a particular context. This incorporation of taste responses into existing hippocampal maps could be one way that animals use past experience to locate food sources.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Finding food is essential for animals' survival and taste and context memory are often linked. Although hippocampal responses to space and contexts have been well characterized, little is known about how the hippocampus responds to tastes. Here, we identified a subset of hippocampal neurons that discriminated between tastes based on palatability. Cells with stronger taste responses typically had weaker spatial responses and taste responses were confined to place cells' firing fields. Hippocampal taste responses emerged later than in other parts of the taste system, suggesting that the hippocampus does not influence taste decisions, but rather associates the hedonic value of tastes consumed within a particular context. This could be one way that animals use past experience to locate food sources.

Retronasal Odor Perception Requires Taste Cortex, but Orthonasal Does Not

Smells can arise from a source external to the body and stimulate the olfactory epithelium upon inhalation through the nares (orthonasal olfaction). Alternatively, smells may arise from inside the mouth during consumption, stimulating the epithelium upon exhalation (retronasal olfaction). Both ortho- and retronasal olfaction produce highly salient percepts, but the two percepts have very different behavioral implications. Here, we use optogenetic manipulation in the context of a flavor preference learning paradigm to investigate differences in the neural circuits that process information in these two submodalities of olfaction. Our findings support a view in which retronasal, but not orthonasal, odors share processing circuitry commonly associated with taste. First, our behavioral results reveal that retronasal odors induce rapid preference learning and have a potentiating effect on orthonasal preference learning. Second, we demonstrate that inactivation of the insular gustatory cortex selectively impairs expression of retronasal preferences. Thus, orally sourced (retronasal) olfactory input is processed by a brain region responsible for taste processing, whereas externally sourced (orthonasal) olfactory input is not.

Heterogeneity of neuronal responses in the nucleus of the solitary tract suggests sensorimotor integration in the neural code for taste

Theories of neural coding in the taste system typically rely exclusively on data gleaned from taste-responsive cells. However, even in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), the first stage of central processing, neurons with taste selectivity coexist with neurons whose activity is linked to motor behavior related to ingestion. We recorded from a large ( n = 324) sample of NTS neurons recorded in awake rats, examining both their taste selectivity and the association of their activity with licking. All subjects were implanted with a bundle of microelectrodes aimed at the NTS and allowed to recover. Following moderate water deprivation, rats were placed in an experimental chamber where tastants or artificial saliva (AS) were delivered from a lick spout. Electrophysiological responses were recorded, and waveforms from single cells were isolated offline. Results showed that only a minority of NTS cells responded to taste stimuli as determined by conventional firing-rate measures. In contrast, most cells, including taste-responsive cells, tracked the lick pattern, as evidenced by significant lick coherence in the 5- to 7-Hz range. Several quantitative measures of taste selectivity and lick relatedness showed that the population formed a continuum, ranging from cells dominated by taste responses to those dominated by lick relatedness. Moreover, even neurons whose responses were highly correlated with lick activity could convey substantial information about taste quality. In all, data point to a blurred boundary between taste-dominated and lick-related cells in NTS, suggesting that information from the taste of food and from the movements it evokes are seamlessly integrated. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neurons in the rostral nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) are known to encode information about taste. However, recordings from awake rats reveal that only a minority of NTS cells respond exclusively to taste stimuli. The majority of neurons track behaviors associated with food consumption, and even strongly lick-related neurons could convey information about taste quality. These findings suggest that the NTS integrates information from both taste and behavior to identify food.

A central control circuit for encoding perceived food value

Hunger state can substantially alter the perceived value of a stimulus, even to the extent that the same sensory cue can trigger antagonistic behaviors. How the nervous system uses these graded perceptual shifts to select between opposed motor patterns remains enigmatic. Here, we challenged food-deprived and satiated Lymnaea to choose between two mutually exclusive behaviors, ingestion or egestion, produced by the same feeding central pattern generator. Decoding the underlying neural circuit reveals that the activity of central dopaminergic interneurons defines hunger state and drives network reconfiguration, biasing satiated animals toward the rejection of stimuli deemed palatable by food-deprived ones. By blocking the action of these neurons, satiated animals can be reconfigured to exhibit a hungry animal phenotype. This centralized mechanism occurs in the complete absence of sensory retuning and generalizes across different sensory modalities, allowing food-deprived animals to increase their perception of food value in a stimulus-independent manner to maximize potential calorific intake.

The role of the gustatory cortex in incidental experience-evoked enhancement of later taste learning

The strength of learned associations between pairs of stimuli is affected by multiple factors, the most extensively studied of which is prior experience with the stimuli themselves. In contrast, little data is available regarding how experience with "incidental" stimuli (independent of any conditioning situation) impacts later learning. This lack of research is striking given the importance of incidental experience to survival. We have recently begun to fill this void using conditioned taste aversion (CTA), wherein an animal learns to avoid a taste that has been associated with malaise. We previously demonstrated that incidental exposure to salty and sour tastes (taste preexposure-TPE) enhances aversions learned later to sucrose. Here, we investigate the neurobiology underlying this phenomenon. First, we use immediate early gene (c-Fos) expression to identify gustatory cortex (GC) as a site at which TPE specifically increases the neural activation caused by taste-malaise pairing (i.e., TPE did not change c-Fos induced by either stimulus in isolation). Next, we use site-specific infection with the optical silencer Archaerhodopsin-T to show that GC inactivation during TPE inhibits the expected enhancements of both learning and CTA-related c-Fos expression, a full day later. Thus, we conclude that GC is almost certainly a vital part of the circuit that integrates incidental experience into later associative learning.

Single-neuron responses to intraoral delivery of odor solutions in primary olfactory and gustatory cortex

Smell plays a major role in our perception of food. Odorants released inside the mouth during consumption are combined with taste and texture qualities of a food to guide flavor preference learning and food choice behavior. Here, we built on recent physiological findings that implicated primary sensory cortex in multisensory flavor processing. Specifically, we used extracellular recordings in awake rats to characterize responses of single neurons in primary olfactory (OC) and gustatory cortex (GC) to intraoral delivery of odor solutions and compare odor responses to taste and plain water responses. The data reveal responses to olfactory, oral somatosensory, and gustatory qualities of intraoral stimuli in both OC and GC. Moreover, modality-specific responses overlap in time, indicating temporal convergence of multisensory, flavor-related inputs. The results extend previous work suggesting a role for primary OC in mediating influences of taste on smell that characterize flavor perception and point to an integral role for GC in olfactory processing.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Food perception is inherently multisensory, taking into account taste, smell, and texture qualities. However, the neural mechanisms underlying flavor perception remain unknown. Recording neural activity directly from the rat brain while animals consume multisensory flavor stimuli, we demonstrate that information about odor, taste, and mouthfeel of food converges on primary taste and smell cortex. The results suggest that processing of naturalistic, multisensory information involves an interacting network of primary sensory areas.