1
|
Burclaff J. Transcriptional regulation of metabolism in the intestinal epithelium. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2023; 325:G501-G507. [PMID: 37786942 PMCID: PMC10894668 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00147.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial metabolism in the intestine is increasingly known to be important for stem cell maintenance and activity while also affecting weight gain and diseases. This review compiles studies from recent years which describe major transcription factors controlling metabolic activity across the intestinal epithelium as well as transcriptional and epigenetic networks controlling the factors themselves. Recent studies show that transcriptional regulators serve as the link between signals from the microbiota and diet and epithelial metabolism. Studies have advanced this paradigm to identify druggable targets to block weight gain or disease progression in mice. As such, there is great potential that a better understanding of these regulatory networks will improve our knowledge of intestinal physiology and promote discoveries to benefit human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Burclaff
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
- Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chen CW, Zhang L, Dutta R, Niroula A, Miller PG, Gibson CJ, Bick AG, Reyes JM, Lee YT, Tovy A, Gu T, Waldvogel S, Chen YH, Venters BJ, Estève PO, Pradhan S, Keogh MC, Natarajan P, Takahashi K, Sperling AS, Goodell MA. SRCAP mutations drive clonal hematopoiesis through epigenetic and DNA repair dysregulation. Cell Stem Cell 2023; 30:1503-1519.e8. [PMID: 37863054 PMCID: PMC10841682 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Somatic mutations accumulate in all cells with age and can confer a selective advantage, leading to clonal expansion over time. In hematopoietic cells, mutations in a subset of genes regulating DNA repair or epigenetics frequently lead to clonal hematopoiesis (CH). Here, we describe the context and mechanisms that lead to enrichment of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with mutations in SRCAP, which encodes a chromatin remodeler that also influences DNA repair. We show that SRCAP mutations confer a selective advantage in human cells and in mice upon treatment with the anthracycline-class chemotherapeutic doxorubicin and bone marrow transplantation. Furthermore, Srcap mutations lead to a lymphoid-biased expansion, driven by loss of SRCAP-regulated H2A.Z deposition and increased DNA repair. Altogether, we demonstrate that SRCAP operates at the intersection of multiple pathways in stem and progenitor cells, offering a new perspective on the functional impact of genetic variants that promote stem cell competition in the hematopoietic system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Wei Chen
- Interdepartmental Program in Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Linda Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Program in Translational Biology and Molecular Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ravi Dutta
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abhishek Niroula
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Peter G Miller
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Center for Cancer Research and Center for Regenerative Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Alexander G Bick
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jaime M Reyes
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yi-Tang Lee
- Interdepartmental Program in Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ayala Tovy
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tianpeng Gu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sarah Waldvogel
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yi-Hung Chen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Pradeep Natarajan
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Koichi Takahashi
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Adam S Sperling
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Margaret A Goodell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sun M, Tan Z, Lin K, Li X, Zhu J, Zhan L, Zheng H. Advanced Progression for the Heterogeneity and Homeostasis of Intestinal Stem Cells. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2023; 19:2109-2119. [PMID: 37351833 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-023-10578-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Current understanding of the leucine-rich repeat-containing G protein-coupled receptor 5 (LGR5) in intestinal stem cells (ISCs) is well established, however, the implications of ISC heterogeneity and homeostasis are poorly understood. Prior studies have provided important evidence for the association between heterogeneity of ISC pools with pathogenesis and therapeutic response of malignant disease. Leveraging the advantages of organoids and single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), glandular development has been simulated and cell heterogeneity has been clarified. Based on this research, several potential ISCs were identified, such as LGR5 + p27 + quiescent ISCs, LGR5 + Mex3a + slowly proliferating stem cells, and CLU + reverse stem cells. We also illustrated major factors responsible for ISC homeostasis including metabolism-related (LKB1, TGR5, HMGCS2), inflammation-related (IFB-b, IFN2, TNF), and Wnt signaling-related (CREPT, Mex3a, MTG16) factors. ISCs play complex roles in intestinal tumorigenesis, chemoresistance and occasional relapse of colon cancer, which bear discussion. In this review, we focus on novel technical challenges in ISCs fate drawing upon recent research with the goals of clarifying our understanding of complex ISCs, elucidating the integrated intestinal crypt niche, and creating new opportunities for therapeutic development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minqiong Sun
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhenya Tan
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Keqiong Lin
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiaofei Li
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jicheng Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Li Zhan
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hong Zheng
- Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liu X, Zhang J, Zhou J, Bu G, Zhu W, He H, Sun Q, Yu Z, Xiong W, Wang L, Wu D, Dou C, Yu L, Zhou K, Wang S, Fan Z, Wang T, Hu R, Hu T, Zhang X, Miao Y. Hierarchical Accumulation of Histone Variant H2A.Z Regulates Transcriptional States and Histone Modifications in Early Mammalian Embryos. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2200057. [PMID: 35717671 PMCID: PMC9376818 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202200057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Early embryos undergo extensive epigenetic reprogramming to achieve gamete-to-embryo transition, which involves the loading and removal of histone variant H2A.Z on chromatin. However, how does H2A.Z regulate gene expression and histone modifications during preimplantation development remains unrevealed. Here, by using ultra-low-input native chromatin immunoprecipitation and sequencing, the genome-wide distribution of H2A.Z is delineated in mouse oocytes and early embryos. These landscapes indicate that paternal H2A.Z is removed upon fertilization, followed by unbiased accumulation on parental genomes during zygotic genome activation (ZGA). Remarkably, H2A.Z exhibits hierarchical accumulation as different peak types at promoters: promoters with double H2A.Z peaks are colocalized with H3K4me3 and indicate transcriptional activation; promoters with a single H2A.Z peak are more likely to occupy bivalent marks (H3K4me3+H3K27me3) and indicate development gene suppression; promoters with no H2A.Z accumulation exhibit persisting gene silencing in early embryos. Moreover, H2A.Z depletion changes the enrichment of histone modifications and RNA polymerase II binding at promoters, resulting in abnormal gene expression and developmental arrest during lineage commitment. Furthermore, similar transcription and accumulation patterns between mouse and porcine embryos indicate that a dual role of H2A.Z in regulating the epigenome required for proper gene expression is conserved during mammalian preimplantation development.
Collapse
|
5
|
Dijkwel Y, Tremethick DJ. The Role of the Histone Variant H2A.Z in Metazoan Development. J Dev Biol 2022; 10:jdb10030028. [PMID: 35893123 PMCID: PMC9326617 DOI: 10.3390/jdb10030028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
During the emergence and radiation of complex multicellular eukaryotes from unicellular ancestors, transcriptional systems evolved by becoming more complex to provide the basis for this morphological diversity. The way eukaryotic genomes are packaged into a highly complex structure, known as chromatin, underpins this evolution of transcriptional regulation. Chromatin structure is controlled by a variety of different epigenetic mechanisms, including the major mechanism for altering the biochemical makeup of the nucleosome by replacing core histones with their variant forms. The histone H2A variant H2A.Z is particularly important in early metazoan development because, without it, embryos cease to develop and die. However, H2A.Z is also required for many differentiation steps beyond the stage that H2A.Z-knockout embryos die. H2A.Z can facilitate the activation and repression of genes that are important for pluripotency and differentiation, and acts through a variety of different molecular mechanisms that depend upon its modification status, its interaction with histone and nonhistone partners, and where it is deposited within the genome. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge about the different mechanisms by which H2A.Z regulates chromatin function at various developmental stages and the chromatin remodeling complexes that determine when and where H2A.Z is deposited.
Collapse
|
6
|
Rees WD, Telkar N, Lin DTS, Wong MQ, Poloni C, Fathi A, Kobor M, Zachos NC, Steiner TS. An in vitro chronic damage model impairs inflammatory and regenerative responses in human colonoid monolayers. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110283. [PMID: 35045294 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute damage to the intestinal epithelium can be repaired via de-differentiation of mature intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) to a stem-like state, but there is a lack of knowledge on how intestinal stem cells function after chronic injury, such as in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We developed a chronic-injury model in human colonoid monolayers by repeated rounds of air-liquid interface and submerged culture. We use this model to understand how chronic intestinal damage affects the ability of IECs to (1) respond to microbial stimulation, using the Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) agonist FliC and (2) regenerate and protect the epithelium from further damage. Repeated rounds of damage impair the ability of IECs to regrow and respond to TLR stimulation. We also identify mRNA expression and DNA methylation changes in genes associated with IBD and colon cancer. This methodology results in a human model of recurrent IEC injury like that which occurs in IBD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William D Rees
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada; Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Nikita Telkar
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada; BC Cancer Agency, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - David T S Lin
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada
| | - May Q Wong
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada
| | - Chad Poloni
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada
| | - Ayda Fathi
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada
| | - Michael Kobor
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada
| | - Nicholas C Zachos
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Theodore S Steiner
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Rm. C328 HP East, VGH, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3J5, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rees WD, Tandun R, Yau E, Zachos NC, Steiner TS. Regenerative Intestinal Stem Cells Induced by Acute and Chronic Injury: The Saving Grace of the Epithelium? Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:583919. [PMID: 33282867 PMCID: PMC7688923 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.583919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium is replenished every 3-4 days through an orderly process that maintains important secretory and absorptive functions while preserving a continuous mucosal barrier. Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) derive from a stable population of intestinal stem cells (ISCs) that reside in the basal crypts. When intestinal injury reaches the crypts and damages IECs, a mechanism to replace them is needed. Recent research has highlighted the existence of distinct populations of acute and chronic damage-associated ISCs and their roles in maintaining homeostasis in several intestinal perturbation models. What remains unknown is how the damage-associated regenerative ISC population functions in the setting of chronic inflammation, as opposed to acute injury. What long-term consequences result from persistent inflammation and other cellular insults to the ISC niche? What particular "regenerative" cell types provide the most efficacious restorative properties? Which differentiated IECs maintain the ability to de-differentiate and restore the ISC niche? This review will cover the latest research on damage-associated regenerative ISCs and epigenetic factors that determine ISC fate, as well as provide opinions on future studies that need to be undertaken to understand the repercussions of the emergence of these cells, their contribution to relapses in inflammatory bowel disease, and their potential use in therapeutics for chronic intestinal diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William D Rees
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Rene Tandun
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Enoch Yau
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nicholas C Zachos
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Theodore S Steiner
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ye B, Yang L, Qian G, Liu B, Zhu X, Zhu P, Ma J, Xie W, Li H, Lu T, Wang Y, Wang S, Du Y, Wang Z, Jiang J, Li J, Fan D, Meng S, Wu J, Tian Y, Fan Z. The chromatin remodeler SRCAP promotes self-renewal of intestinal stem cells. EMBO J 2020; 39:e103786. [PMID: 32449550 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2019103786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells (ISCs) exhibit self-renewal and differentiation features under homeostatic conditions, but the mechanisms controlling Lgr5 + ISC self-renewal remain elusive. Here, we show that the chromatin remodeler SRCAP is highly expressed in mouse intestinal epithelium and ISCs. Srcap deletion impairs both self-renewal of ISCs and intestinal epithelial regeneration. Mechanistically, SRCAP recruits the transcriptional regulator REST to the Prdm16 promoter and induces expression of this transcription factor. By activating PPARδ expression, Prdm16 in turn initiates PPARδ signaling, which sustains ISC stemness. Rest or Prdm16 deficiency abrogates the self-renewal capacity of ISCs as well as intestinal epithelial regeneration. Collectively, these data show that the SRCAP-REST-Prdm16-PPARδ axis is required for self-renewal maintenance of Lgr5 + ISCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Buqing Ye
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liuliu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guomin Qian
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Benyu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pingping Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Ma
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, THU-PKU Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, THU-PKU Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Huimu Li
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tianku Lu
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shuo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Du
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhimin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Andrology, Genome Tagging Project (GTP) Center, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinsong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Andrology, Genome Tagging Project (GTP) Center, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongdong Fan
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shu Meng
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiayi Wu
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Tian
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zusen Fan
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity of CAS, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|