Elementary steps of the cross-bridge cycle in fast-twitch fiber types from rabbit skeletal muscles

Mechanisms of Frank-Starling law of the heart and stretch activation in striated muscles may have a common molecular origin

Vertebrate cardiac muscle generates progressively larger systolic force when the end diastolic chamber volume is increased, a property called the "Frank-Starling Law", or "length dependent activation (LDA)". In this mechanism a larger force develops when the sarcomere length (SL) increased, and the overlap between thick and thin filament decreases, indicating increased production of force per unit length of the overlap. To account for this phenomenon at the molecular level, we examined several hypotheses: as the muscle length is increased, (1) lattice spacing decreases, (2) Ca2+ sensitivity increases, (3) titin mediated rearrangement of myosin heads to facilitate actomyosin interaction, (4) increased SL activates cross-bridges (CBs) in the super relaxed state, (5) increased series stiffness at longer SL promotes larger elementary force/CB to account for LDA, and (6) stretch activation (SA) observed in insect muscles and LDA in vertebrate muscles may have similar mechanisms. SA is also known as delayed tension or oscillatory work, and universally observed among insect flight muscles, as well as in vertebrate skeletal and cardiac muscles. The sarcomere stiffness observed in relaxed muscles may significantly contributes to the mechanisms of LDA. In vertebrate striated muscles, the sarcomere stiffness is mainly caused by titin, a single filamentary protein spanning from Z-line to M-line and tightly associated with the myosin thick filament. In insect flight muscles, kettin connects Z-line and the thick filament to stabilize the sarcomere structure. In vertebrate cardiac muscles, titin plays a similar role, and may account for LDA and may constitute a molecular mechanism of Frank-Starling response.

Phosphate has dual roles in cross-bridge kinetics in rabbit psoas single myofibrils

In this study, we aimed to study the role of inorganic phosphate (P_i) in the production of oscillatory work and cross-bridge (CB) kinetics of striated muscle. We applied small-amplitude sinusoidal length oscillations to rabbit psoas single myofibrils and muscle fibers, and the resulting force responses were analyzed during maximal Ca²⁺ activation (pCa 4.65) at 15°C. Three exponential processes, A, B, and C, were identified from the tension transients, which were studied as functions of P_i concentration ([P_i]). In myofibrils, we found that process C, corresponding to phase 2 of step analysis during isometric contraction, is almost a perfect single exponential function compared with skinned fibers, which exhibit distributed rate constants, as described previously. The [P_i] dependence of the apparent rate constants 2πb and 2πc, and that of isometric tension, was studied to characterize the force generation and P_i release steps in the CB cycle, as well as the inhibitory effect of P_i. In contrast to skinned fibers, P_i does not accumulate in the core of myofibrils, allowing sinusoidal analysis to be performed nearly at [P_i] = 0. Process B disappeared as [P_i] approached 0 mM in myofibrils, indicating the significance of the role of P_i rebinding to CBs in the production of oscillatory work (process B). Our results also suggest that P_i competitively inhibits ATP binding to CBs, with an inhibitory dissociation constant of ∼2.6 mM. Finally, we found that the sinusoidal waveform of tension is mostly distorted by second harmonics and that this distortion is closely correlated with production of oscillatory work, indicating that the mechanism of generating force is intrinsically nonlinear. A nonlinear force generation mechanism suggests that the length-dependent intrinsic rate constant is asymmetric upon stretch and release and that there may be a ratchet mechanism involved in the CB cycle.

Exposure to Static and Extremely-Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields and Cellular Free Radicals

This paper summarizes studies on changes in cellular free radical activities from exposure to static and extremely-low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic fields (EMF), particularly magnetic fields. Changes in free radical activities, including levels of cellular reactive oxygen (ROS)/nitrogen (RNS) species and endogenous antioxidant enzymes and compounds that maintain physiological free radical concentrations in cells, is one of the most consistent effects of EMF exposure. These changes have been reported to affect many physiological functions such as DNA damage; immune response; inflammatory response; cell proliferation and differentiation; wound healing; neural electrical activities; and behavior. An important consideration is the effects of EMF-induced changes in free radicals on cell proliferation and differentiation. These cellular processes could affect cancer development and proper growth and development in organisms. On the other hand, they could cause selective killing of cancer cells, for instance, via the generation of the highly cytotoxic hydroxyl free radical by the Fenton Reaction. This provides a possibility of using these electromagnetic fields as a non-invasive and low side-effect cancer therapy. Static- and ELF-EMF probably play important roles in the evolution of living organisms. They are cues used in many critical survival functions, such as foraging, migration, and reproduction. Living organisms can detect and respond immediately to low environmental levels of these fields. Free radical processes are involved in some of these mechanisms. At this time, there is no credible hypothesis or mechanism that can adequately explain all the observed effects of static- and ELF-EMF on free radical processes. We are actually at the impasse that there are more questions than answers.

Nebulin increases thin filament stiffness and force per cross-bridge in slow-twitch soleus muscle fibers

Nebulin stabilizes the thin filament and regulates force generation in skeletal muscle, but its precise role is not understood. Using conditional knockout mice, Kawai et al. demonstrate that nebulin functions to increase the force per cross-bridge in skinned slow-twitch soleus muscle fibers.

Nebulin (Neb) is associated with the thin filament in skeletal muscle cells, but its functions are not well understood. For this goal, we study skinned slow-twitch soleus muscle fibers from wild-type (Neb⁺) and conditional Neb knockout (Neb⁻) mice. We characterize cross-bridge (CB) kinetics and the elementary steps of the CB cycle by sinusoidal analysis during full Ca²⁺ activation and observe that Neb increases active tension 1.9-fold, active stiffness 2.7-fold, and rigor stiffness 3.0-fold. The ratio of stiffness during activation and rigor states is 62% in Neb⁺ fibers and 68% in Neb⁻ fibers. These are approximately proportionate to the number of strongly attached CBs during activation. Because the thin filament length is 15% shorter in Neb⁻ fibers than in Neb⁺ fibers, the increase in force per CB in the presence of Neb is ∼1.5 fold. The equilibrium constant of the CB detachment step (K₂), its rate (k₂), and the rate of the reverse force generation step (k₋₄) are larger in Neb⁺ fibers than in Neb⁻ fibers. The rates of the force generation step (k₄) and the reversal detachment step (k₋₂) change in the opposite direction. These effects can be explained by Le Chatelier’s principle: Increased CB strain promotes less force-generating state(s) and/or detached state(s). Further, when CB distributions among the six states are calculated, there is no significant difference in the number of strongly attached CBs between fibers with and without Neb. These results demonstrate that Neb increases force per CB. We also confirm that force is generated by isomerization of actomyosin (AM) from the AM.ADP.Pi state (ADP, adenosine diphophate; Pi, phosphate) to the AM*ADP.Pi state, where the same force is maintained after Pi release to result in the AM*ADP state. We propose that Neb changes the actin (and myosin) conformation for better ionic and hydrophobic/stereospecific AM interaction, and that the effect of Neb is similar to that of tropomyosin.

Prolonged cross-bridge binding triggers muscle dysfunction in a Drosophila model of myosin-based hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

K146N is a dominant mutation in human β-cardiac myosin heavy chain, which causes hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. We examined how Drosophila muscle responds to this mutation and integratively analyzed the biochemical, physiological and mechanical foundations of the disease. ATPase assays, actin motility, and indirect flight muscle mechanics suggest at least two rate constants of the cross-bridge cycle are altered by the mutation: increased myosin attachment to actin and decreased detachment, yielding prolonged binding. This increases isometric force generation, but also resistive force and work absorption during cyclical contractions, resulting in decreased work, power output, flight ability and degeneration of flight muscle sarcomere morphology. Consistent with prolonged cross-bridge binding serving as the mechanistic basis of the disease and with human phenotypes, 146N/+ hearts are hypercontractile with increased tension generation periods, decreased diastolic/systolic diameters and myofibrillar disarray. This suggests that screening mutated Drosophila hearts could rapidly identify hypertrophic cardiomyopathy alleles and treatments.

Myosin is a motor protein that drives the contraction of muscles. Filaments made from myosin molecules slide between filaments of another protein called actin, tugging the edges of the muscle cell inwards. To achieve this, part of each motor protein – called the 'head' – grabs hold of actin and uses energy to pull on the filaments.

Small genetic mutations in the gene for myosin can change the shape of the protein. This can change the way that it interacts with actin, altering the molecular machinery that makes muscles contract. In some cases, gene errors can cause the heart muscle wall to thicken, a condition called hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Mapping the locations of known mutations revealed 'hot spots' on the myosin protein where these errors are likely to cause disease. These include the part of the molecule that swings the myosin heads, and the heads themselves.

It only takes a change to a single letter in the DNA code to thicken the heart wall, but the impact of each possible change is not yet known. Kronert et al. have now genetically modified fruit flies to give them one of the mutations that causes thickening of the heart wall in humans. The mutation, known as K146N, does not appear in one of the well-known 'hot spots'. The experiments revealed that the mutation causes myosin to remain attached to actin for longer than normal. This increased the amount of force the myosin generated, but slowed down actin movement, causing muscle stiffness. This resulted in less power for every cycle of muscle movement, and caused the muscles to degenerate over time. As a result, the flies were less able to use their wings, and their hearts pumped less well.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can cause death in young adults, particularly competitive athletes. Yet studying the disease in humans is challenging. Recreating myosin mutations in fruit flies provides a way to study hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in the laboratory. In the future, extensions to this technique could allow researchers to examine the impact of other mutations. Models like this one could also allow early testing of new drugs or genetic treatments to repair faulty myosin molecules.

Molecular determinants of force production in human skeletal muscle fibers: effects of myosin isoform expression and cross-sectional area

Skeletal muscle contractile performance is governed by the properties of its constituent fibers, which are, in turn, determined by the molecular interactions of the myofilament proteins. To define the molecular determinants of contractile function in humans, we measured myofilament mechanics during maximal Ca(2+)-activated and passive isometric conditions in single muscle fibers with homogenous (I and IIA) and mixed (I/IIA and IIA/X) myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms from healthy, young adult male (n = 5) and female (n = 7) volunteers. Fibers containing only MHC II isoforms (IIA and IIA/X) produced higher maximal Ca(2+)-activated forces over the range of cross-sectional areas (CSAs) examined than MHC I fibers, resulting in higher (24-42%) specific forces. The number and/or stiffness of the strongly bound myosin-actin cross bridges increased in the higher force-producing MHC II isoforms and, in all isoforms, better predicted force than CSA. In men and women, cross-bridge kinetics, in terms of myosin attachment time and rate of myosin force production, were independent of CSA, although women had faster (7-15%) kinetics. The relative proportion of cross bridges and/or their stiffness was reduced as fiber size increased, causing a decline in specific force. Results from our examination of molecular mechanisms across the range of physiological CSAs explain the variation in specific force among the different fiber types in human skeletal muscle, which may have relevance to understanding how various physiological and pathophysiological conditions modulate single-fiber and whole muscle contractility.

A re-interpretation of the rate of tension redevelopment (k(TR)) in active muscle

A slackening to zero tension by large length release (~20%) and a restretch of active muscle fibres cause a fall and a redevelopment in tension. According to the model of Brenner (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85(9):3265-3269, 1988), the rate constant of tension redevelopment (k TR) is the sum of attachment and detachment rate constants, hence is limited by the fast reaction. Here we propose a model in which, after restretch, cross-bridges cycle many times by stretching series elastic elements, hence k(TR) is limited by a slow reaction. To set up this model, we made an assumption that the stepping rate (v) decreases linearly with tension (F), which is consistent with the Fenn effect. The distance traveled by a cross-bridge stretches series elastic elements with stiffness σ. With these assumptions, we set up a first order differential equation, which results in an exponential time course with the rate constant k(TR) = ση(0)ν(0)(1 - λ)/F(1), where λ = ν(1)/ν(0), η = step size, the subscript 0 indicates unloaded condition, and the subscript 1 indicate isometric condition. We demonstrate that the ATP hydrolysis rate (=[myosin head]/ν(0)) is proportionate to k(TR) as the ambient temperature is changed, and that the published data fit to this relationship well if λ = 0.28. We conclude that k(TR) is limited by the cross-bridge turnover rate; hence it represents the rate constant of the slowest reaction of the cross-bridge cycle, i.e. the ADP isomerization step before ADP is released.

Age-related slowing of myosin actin cross-bridge kinetics is sex specific and predicts decrements in whole skeletal muscle performance in humans

We hypothesize that age-related skeletal muscle dysfunction and physical disability may be partially explained by alterations in the function of the myosin molecule. To test this hypothesis, skeletal muscle function at the whole muscle, single fiber, and molecular levels was measured in young (21-35 yr) and older (65-75 yr) male and female volunteers with similar physical activity levels. After adjusting for muscle size, older adults had similar knee extensor isometric torque values compared with young, but had lower isokinetic power, most notably in women. At the single-fiber and molecular levels, aging was associated with increased isometric tension, slowed myosin actin cross-bridge kinetics (longer myosin attachment times and reduced rates of myosin force production), greater myofilament lattice stiffness, and reduced phosphorylation of the fast myosin regulatory light chain; however, the age effect was driven primarily by women (i.e., age-by-sex interaction effects). In myosin heavy chain IIA fibers, single-fiber isometric tension and molecular level mechanical and kinetic indexes were correlated with whole muscle isokinetic power output. Collectively, considering that contractile dysfunction scales up through various anatomical levels, our results suggest a potential sex-specific molecular mechanism, reduced cross-bridge kinetics, contributes to the reduced physical capacity with aging in women. Thus these results support our hypothesis that age-related alterations in the myosin molecule contribute to skeletal muscle dysfunction and physical disability and indicate that this effect is stronger in women.

Actomyosin kinetics of pure fast and slow rat myosin isoforms studied by in vitro motility assay approach

An in vitro motility assay approach was used to investigate the mechanisms of the functional differences between myosin isoforms, by studying the effect of MgATP and MgADP on actin sliding velocity (V(f)) of pure slow and fast rat skeletal myosin at different temperatures. The value of V(f) depended on [MgATP] according to Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with an apparent constant (K(m)) of 54.2, 64.4 and 200 μm for the fast isoform and 18.6, 36.5 and 45.5 μM for the slow isoform at 20, 25 and 35°C, respectively. The presence of 2 mM MgADP decreased V(f) and yielded an inhibition constant (K(i)) of 377, 463 and 533 μM for the fast isoform at 20, 25 and 35°C, respectively, and 120 and 355 μM for the slow isoform at 25 and 35°C, respectively. The analysis of K(m) and K(i) suggested that slow and fast isoforms differ in the kinetics limiting V(f). Moreover, the higher sensitivity of the fast myosin isoform to a drop in [MgATP] is consistent with the higher fatigability of fast fibres than slow fibres. From the Michaelis-Menten relation in the absence of MgADP, we calculated the rate of actomyosin dissociation by MgATP (k(+ATP)) and the rate of MgADP release (k(-ADP)). We found values of k(+ATP) of 4.8 × 10(6), 6.5 × 10(6) and 6.6 × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) for the fast isoform and 3.3 × 10(6), 2.9 × 10(6) and 6.7 × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) for the slow isoform and values of k(-ADP) of 263, 420 and 1320 s(-1) for the fast isoform and 62, 107 and 306 s(-1) for the slow isoform at 20, 25 and 35°C, respectively. The results suggest that k(-ADP) could be the major determinant of functional differences between the fast and slow myosin isoforms at physiological temperatures.

ATP binding and cross-bridge detachment steps during full Ca²⁺ activation: comparison of myofibril and muscle fibre mechanics by sinusoidal analysis

Single myofibrils 50–60 μm length and 2–3 μm diameter were isolated from rabbit psoas muscle fibres, and cross-bridge kinetics were studied by small perturbations of the length (∼0.2%) over a range of 15 frequencies (1–250 Hz). The experiments were performed at 15◦C in the presence of 0.05–10 mM MgATP, 8mM phosphate (Pi), 200 mM ionic strength with KAc (acetate), pCa 4.35–4.65, and pH 7.0. Two exponential processes, B and C, were resolved in tension transients. Their apparent rate constants (2πb and 2πc) increased as the [MgATP] was raised from 0.05 mM to 1mM, and then reached saturation at [MgATP] ≥ 1. Given that these rate constants were similar (c/b ∼1.7) at [Pi] ≥ 4 mM, they were combined to achieve an accurate estimate of the kinetic constants: their sum and product were analysed as functions of [MgATP]. These analyses yielded K1 =2.91 ± 0.31 mM −1, k2 =288 ± 36 s−1, and k−2 =10 ± 21 s−1 (±95% confidence limit, n =13 preparations), based on the cross-bridge model: AM+ATP ↔ (step 1) AM.ATP ↔ (step 2) A+M.ATP, where K1 is the ATP association constant (step 1), k2 is the rate constant of the cross-bridge detachment (step 2), and k−2 is the rate constant of its reversal step. These kinetic constants are respectively comparable to those observed in single fibres from rabbit psoas (K1 =2.35 ± 0.31 mM −1, k2 =243 ± 22 s−1, and k−2 =6 ± 14 s−1; n =8 preparations) when analysed by the same methods and under the same experimental conditions. These values are respectively not significantly different from those obtained in myofibrils, indicating that the same kinetic constants can be deduced from myofibril and muscle fibre studies, in terms of ATP binding and cross-bridge detachments steps. The fact that K1 in myofibrils is 1.2 times that in fibres (P≈0.05) may be explained by a small concentration gradient of ATP, ADP and/or Pi in single fibres.

Fiber Types in Mammalian Skeletal Muscles

Mammalian skeletal muscle comprises different fiber types, whose identity is first established during embryonic development by intrinsic myogenic control mechanisms and is later modulated by neural and hormonal factors. The relative proportion of the different fiber types varies strikingly between species, and in humans shows significant variability between individuals. Myosin heavy chain isoforms, whose complete inventory and expression pattern are now available, provide a useful marker for fiber types, both for the four major forms present in trunk and limb muscles and the minor forms present in head and neck muscles. However, muscle fiber diversity involves all functional muscle cell compartments, including membrane excitation, excitation-contraction coupling, contractile machinery, cytoskeleton scaffold, and energy supply systems. Variations within each compartment are limited by the need of matching fiber type properties between different compartments. Nerve activity is a major control mechanism of the fiber type profile, and multiple signaling pathways are implicated in activity-dependent changes of muscle fibers. The characterization of these pathways is raising increasing interest in clinical medicine, given the potentially beneficial effects of muscle fiber type switching in the prevention and treatment of metabolic diseases.

The influence of myosin converter and relay domains on cross-bridge kinetics of Drosophila indirect flight muscle

We are investigating the influence of the converter and relay domains on elementary rate constants of the actomyosin cross-bridge cycle. The converter and relay domains vary between Drosophila myosin heavy chain isoforms due to alternative mRNA splicing. Previously, we found that separate insertions of embryonic myosin isoform (EMB) versions of these domains into the indirect flight muscle (IFM) myosin isoform (IFI) both decreased Drosophila IFM power and slowed muscle kinetics. To determine cross-bridge mechanisms behind the changes, we employed sinusoidal analysis while varying phosphate and MgATP concentrations in skinned Drosophila IFM fibers. Based on a six-state cross-bridge model, the EMB converter decreased myosin rate constants associated with actin attachment and work production, k(4), but increased rates related to cross-bridge detachment and work absorption, k(2). In contrast, the EMB relay domain had little influence on kinetics, because only k(4) decreased. The main alteration was mechanical, in that work production amplitude decreased. That both domains decreased k(4) supports the hypothesis that these domains are critical to lever-arm-mediated force generation. Neither domain significantly influenced MgATP affinity. Our modeling suggests the converter domain is responsible for the difference in rate-limiting cross-bridge steps between EMB and IFI myosin--i.e., a myosin isomerization associated with MgADP release for EMB and Pi release for IFI.

Chronic heart failure decreases cross-bridge kinetics in single skeletal muscle fibres from humans

Skeletal muscle function is impaired in heart failure patients due, in part, to loss of myofibrillar protein content, in particular myosin. In the present study, we utilized small-amplitude sinusoidal analysis for the first time in single human skeletal muscle fibres to measure muscle mechanics, including cross-bridge kinetics, to determine if heart failure further impairs contractile performance by altering myofibrillar protein function. Patients with chronic heart failure (n = 9) and controls (n = 6) were recruited of similar age and physical activity to diminish the potentially confounding effects of ageing and muscle disuse. Patients showed decreased cross-bridge kinetics in myosin heavy chain (MHC) I and IIA fibres, partially due to increased myosin attachment time (t(on)). The increased t(on) compensated for myosin protein loss previously found in heart failure patients by increasing the fraction of the total cycle time myosin is bound to actin, resulting in a similar number of strongly bound cross-bridges in patients and controls. Accordingly, isometric tension did not differ between patients and controls in MHC I or IIA fibres. Patients also had decreased calcium sensitivity in MHC IIA fibres and alterations in the viscoelastic properties of the lattice structure of MHC I and IIA fibres. Collectively, these results show that heart failure alters skeletal muscle contraction at the level of the myosin-actin cross-bridge, leading to changes in muscle mechanics which could contribute to impaired muscle function. Additionally, we uncovered a unique kinetic property of MHC I fibres, a potential indication of two distinct populations of cross-bridges, which may have important physiological consequences.

Tropomyosin period 3 is essential for enhancement of isometric tension in thin filament-reconstituted bovine myocardium

Tropomyosin (Tm) consists of 7 quasiequivalent repeats known as "periods," and its specific function may be associated with these periods. To test the hypothesis that either period 2 or 3 promotes force generation by inducing a positive allosteric effect on actin, we reconstituted the thin filament with mutant Tm in which either period 2 (Delta2Tm) or period 3 (Delta3Tm) was deleted. We then studied: isometric tension, stiffness, 6 kinetic constants, and the pCa-tension relationship. N-terminal acetylation of Tm did not cause any differences. The isometric tension in Delta2Tm remained unchanged, and was reduced to approximately 60% in Delta3Tm. Although the kinetic constants underwent small changes, the occupancy of strongly attached cross-bridges was not much different. The Hill factor (cooperativity) did not differ significantly between Delta2Tm (1.79 +/- 0.19) and the control (1.73 +/- 0.21), or Delta3Tm (1.35 +/- 0.22) and the control. In contrast, pCa(50) decreased slightly in Delta2Tm (5.11 +/- 0.07), and increased significantly in Delta3Tm (5.57 +/- 0.09) compared to the control (5.28 +/- 0.04). These results demonstrate that, when ions are present at physiological concentrations in the muscle fiber system, period 3 (but not period 2) is essential for the positive allosteric effect that enhances the interaction between actin and myosin, and increases isometric force of each cross-bridge.

Motor protein function in skeletal muscle-a multiple scale approach to contractility

We present an approach to skeletal muscle contractility and its regulation over different scales ranging from biomechanical studies in intact muscle fibers down to the motility and interaction of single motor protein molecules. At each scale, shortening velocities as a measure for weak cross-bridge cycling rates are extracted and compared. Experimental approaches include transmitted light microscopy, second harmonic generation imaging of contracting myofibrils, and fluorescence microscopy of single molecule motility. Each method yields image sequences that are analyzed with automated image processing algorithms to extract the contraction velocity. Using this approach, we show how to isolate the contribution of the motor proteins actin and myosin and their modulation by regulatory proteins from the concerted action of electro-mechanical activation on a more complex cellular scale. The advantage of this approach is that averaged contraction velocities can be determined on the different scales ranging from isolated motor proteins to sarcomere levels in myofibrils and myofibril arrays within the cellular architecture. Our results show that maximum shortening velocities during in situ electrical activation of sarcomere contraction in intact single muscle cells can substantially deviate from sliding velocities obtained in oriented in vitro motility assays of isolated motor proteins showing that biophysical contraction kinetics not simply translate linearly between contractility scales. To adequately resolve the very fast initial mechanical activation kinetics of shortening at each scale, it was necessary to implement high-speed imaging techniques. In the case of intact fibers and single molecule motility, we achieved a major increase in temporal resolution up to frame rates of 200-1000 fps using CMOS image sensor technology. The data we obtained at this unprecedented temporal resolution and the parameters extracted can be used to validate results obtained from computational models of motor protein interaction and skeletal muscle contractility in health and muscle disease. Our approach is feasible to explain the possible underlying mechanisms that contribute to different shortening velocities at different scales and complexities.

Mechanistic role of movement and strain sensitivity in muscle contraction

Tension generation can be studied by applying step perturbations to contracting muscle fibers and subdividing the mechanical response into exponential phases. The de novo tension-generating isomerization is associated with one of these phases. Earlier work has shown that a temperature jump perturbs the equilibrium constant directly to increase tension. Here, we show that a length jump functions quite differently. A step release (relative movement of thick and thin filaments) appears to release a steric constraint on an ensemble of noncompetent postphosphate release actomyosin cross-bridges, enabling them to generate tension, a concentration jump in effect. Structural studies [Taylor KA, et al. (1999) Tomographic 3D reconstruction of quick-frozen, Ca(2+)-activated contracting insect flight muscle. Cell 99:421-431] that map to these kinetics indicate that both catalytic and lever arm domains of noncompetent myosin heads change angle on actin, whereas lever arm movement alone mediates the power stroke. Together, these kinetic and structural observations show a 13-nm overall interaction distance of myosin with actin, including a final 4- to 6-nm power stroke when the catalytic domain is fixed on actin. Raising fiber temperature with both perturbation techniques accelerates the forward, but slows the reverse rate constant of tension generation, kinetics akin to the unfolding/folding of small proteins. Decreasing strain, however, causes both forward and reverse rate constants to increase. Despite these changes in rate, the equilibrium constant is strain-insensitive. Activation enthalpy and entropy data show this invariance to be the result of enthalpy-entropy compensation. Reaction amplitudes confirm a strain-invariant equilibrium constant and thus a strain-insensitive ratio of pretension- to tension-generating states as work is done.

Unloaded speed of shortening in voltage-clamped intact skeletal muscle fibers from wt, mdx, and transgenic minidystrophin mice using a novel high-speed acquisition system

Skeletal muscle unloaded shortening has been indirectly determined in the past. Here, we present a novel high-speed optical tracking technique that allows recording of unloaded shortening in single intact, voltage-clamped mammalian skeletal muscle fibers with 2-ms time resolution. L-type Ca(2+) currents were simultaneously recorded. The time course of shortening was biexponential: a fast initial phase, tau(1), and a slower successive phase, tau(2,) with activation energies of 59 kJ/mol and 47 kJ/mol. Maximum unloaded shortening speed, v(u,max), was faster than that derived using other techniques, e.g., approximately 14.0 L(0) s(-1) at 30 degrees C. Our technique also allowed direct determination of shortening acceleration. We applied our technique to single fibers from C57 wild-type, dystrophic mdx, and minidystrophin-expressing mice to test whether unloaded shortening was affected in the pathophysiological mechanism of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. v(u,max) and a(u,max) values were not significantly different in the three strains, whereas tau(1) and tau(2) were increased in mdx fibers. The results were complemented by myosin heavy and light chain (MLC) determinations that showed the same myosin heavy chain IIA profiles in the interossei muscles from the different strains. In mdx muscle, MLC-1f was significantly increased and MLC-2f and MLC-3f somewhat reduced. Fast initial active shortening seems almost unaffected in mdx muscle.

Force transients and minimum cross-bridge models in muscular contraction

Two- and three-state cross-bridge models are considered and examined with respect to their ability to predict three distinct phases of the force transients that occur in response to step change in muscle fiber length. Particular attention is paid to satisfying the Le Châtelier-Brown Principle. This analysis shows that the two-state model can account for phases 1 and 2 of a force transient, but is barely adequate to account for phase 3 (delayed force) unless a stretch results in a sudden increase in the number of cross-bridges in the detached state. The three-state model (A-->B-->C-->A) makes it possible to account for all three phases if we assume that the A-->B transition is fast (corresponding to phase 2), the B-->A transition is of intermediate speed (corresponding to phase 3), and the C-->A transition is slow; in such a scenario, states A and C can support or generate force (high force states) but state B cannot (detached, or low-force state). This model involves at least one ratchet mechanism. In this model, force can be generated by either of two transitions: B-->A or B-->C. To determine which of these is the major force-generating step that consumes ATP and transduces energy, we examine the effects of ATP, ADP, and phosphate (Pi) on force transients. In doing so, we demonstrate that the fast transition (phase 2) is associated with the nucleotide-binding step, and that the intermediate-speed transition (phase 3) is associated with the Pi-release step. To account for all the effects of ligands, it is necessary to expand the three-state model into a six-state model that includes three ligand-bound states. The slowest phase of a force transient (phase 4) cannot be explained by any of the models described unless an additional mechanism is introduced. Here we suggest a role of series compliance to account for this phase, and propose a model that correlates the slowest step of the cross-bridge cycle (transition C-->A) to: phase 4 of step analysis, the rate constant k(tr) of the quick-release and restretch experiment, and the rate constant k(act) for force development time course following Ca(2+) activation.

Two-state model of acto-myosin attachment-detachment predicts C-process of sinusoidal analysis

The force response of activated striated muscle to length perturbations includes the so-called C-process, which has been considered the frequency domain representation of the fast single-exponential force decay after a length step (phases 1 and 2). The underlying molecular mechanisms of this phenomenon, however, are still the subject of various hypotheses. In this study, we derived analytical expressions and created a corresponding computer model to describe the consequences of independent acto-myosin cross-bridges characterized solely by 1), intermittent periods of attachment (t(att)) and detachment (t(det)), whose values are stochastically governed by independent probability density functions; and 2), a finite Hookian stiffness (k(stiff)) effective only during periods of attachment. The computer-simulated force response of 20,000 (N) cross-bridges making up a half-sarcomere (F(hs)(t)) to sinusoidal length perturbations (L(hs)(t)) was predicted by the analytical expression in the frequency domain, (F(hs)(omega)/L(hs)(omega))=(t(att)/t(cycle))Nk(stiff)(iomega/(t(att)(-1)+iomega)), where t(att) = mean value of t(att), t(cycle) = mean value of t(att) + t(det), k(stiff) = mean stiffness, and omega = 2pi x frequency of perturbation. The simulated force response due to a length step (L(hs)) was furthermore predicted by the analytical expression in the time domain, F(hs)(t)=(t(att)/t(cycle))Nk(stiff)L(hs)e(-t/t(att)). The forms of these analytically derived expressions are consistent with expressions historically used to describe these specific characteristics of a force response and suggest that the cycling of acto-myosin cross-bridges and their associated stiffnesses are responsible for the C-process and for phases 1 and 2. The rate constant 2pic, i.e., the frequency parameter of the historically defined C-process, is shown here to be equal to t(att)(-1). Experimental results from activated cardiac muscle examined at different temperatures and containing predominately alpha- or beta-myosin heavy chain isoforms were found to be consistent with the above interpretation.

Mathematical simulation of muscle cross-bridge cycle and force-velocity relationship

Muscle contraction underlies many essential functions such as breathing, heart beating, locomotion, regulation of blood pressure, and airway resistance. Active shortening of muscle is the result of cycling of myosin cross-bridges that leads to sliding of myosin filaments relative to actin filaments. In this study, we have developed a computer program that allows us to alter the rates of transitions between any cross-bridge-states in a stochastic cycle. The cross-bridge states within the cycle are divided into six attached (between myosin cross-bridges and actin filaments) states and one detached state. The population of cross-bridges in each of the states is determined by the transition rates throughout the cycle; differential equations describing the transitions are set up as a cyclic matrix. A method for rapidly obtaining steady-state exact solutions for the cyclic matrix has been developed to reduce computation time and avoid the divergence problem associated with numerical solutions. In the seven-state model, two power strokes are assumed for each cross-bridge cycle, one before the release of inorganic phosphate, and one after. The characteristic hyperbolic force-velocity relationship observed in muscle contraction can be reproduced by the model. Deviation from the single hyperbolic behavior at low velocities can be mimicked by allowing the rate of cross-bridge-attachment to vary with velocity. The effects of [ATP], [ADP], and [P(i)] are simulated by changing transition rates between specific states. The model has revealed new insights on how the force-velocity characteristics are related to the state transitions in the cross-bridge cycle.

An exceptionally fast actomyosin reaction powers insect flight muscle

Insects, as a group, have been remarkably successful in adapting to a great range of physical and biological environments, in large part because of their ability to fly. The evolution of flight in small insects was accompanied by striking adaptations of the thoracic musculature that enabled very high wing beat frequencies. At the cellular and protein filament level, a stretch activation mechanism evolved that allowed high-oscillatory work to be achieved at very high frequencies as contraction and nerve stimulus became asynchronous. At the molecular level, critical adaptations occurred within the motor protein myosin II, because its elementary interactions with actin set the speed of sarcomere contraction. Here, we show that the key myosin enzymatic adaptations required for powering the very fast flight muscles in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster include the highest measured detachment rate of myosin from actin (forward rate constant, 3,698 s(-1)), an exceptionally weak affinity of MgATP for myosin (association constant, 0.2 mM(-1)), and a unique rate-limiting step in the cross-bridge cycle at the point of inorganic phosphate release. The latter adaptations are constraints imposed by the overriding requirement for exceptionally fast release of the hydrolytic product MgADP. Otherwise, as in Drosophila embryonic muscle and other slow muscle types, a step associated with MgADP release limits muscle contraction speed by delaying the detachment of myosin from actin.

Use of thin filament reconstituted muscle fibres to probe the mechanism of force generation

The technique of selective removal of the thin filament by gelsolin in bovine cardiac muscle fibres, and reconstitution of the thin filament from isolated proteins is reviewed, and papers that used reconstituted preparations are discussed. By comparing the results obtained in the absence/presence of regulatory proteins tropomyosin (Tm) and troponin (Tn), it is concluded that the role of Tm and Tn in force generation is not only to expose the binding site of actin to myosin, but also to modify actin for better stereospecific and hydrophobic interaction with myosin. This conclusion is further supported by experiments that used a truncated Tm mutant and the temperature study of reconstituted fibres. The conclusion is consistent with the hypothesis that there are three states in the thin filament: blocked state, closed state, and open state. Tm is the major player to produce these effects, with Tn playing the role of Ca2+ sensing and signal transmission mechanism. Experiments that changed the number of negative charges at the N-terminal finger of actin demonstrates that this part of actin is essential to promote the strong interaction between actin and myosin molecules, in addition to the well-known weak interaction that positions the myosin head at the active site of actin prior to force generation.

Myosin heavy chain isoform composition and stretch activation kinetics in single fibres of Xenopus laevis iliofibularis muscle

Skeletal muscle is composed of specialized fibre types that enable it to fulfil complex and variable functional needs. Muscle fibres of Xenopus laevis, a frog formerly classified as a toad, were the first to be typed based on a combination of physiological, morphological, histochemical and biochemical characteristics. Currently the most widely accepted criterion for muscle fibre typing is the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform composition because it is assumed that variations of this protein are the most important contributors to functional diversity. Yet this criterion has not been used for classification of Xenopus fibres due to the lack of an effective protocol for MHC isoform analysis. In the present study we aimed to resolve and visualize electrophoretically the MHC isoforms expressed in the iliofibularis muscle of Xenopus laevis, to define their functional identity and to classify the fibres based on their MHC isoform composition. Using a SDS-PAGE protocol that proved successful with mammalian muscle MHC isoforms, we were able to detect five MHC isoforms in Xenopus iliofibularis muscle. The kinetics of stretch-induced force transients (stretch activation) produced by a fibre was strongly correlated with its MHC isoform content indicating that the five MHC isoforms confer different kinetics characteristics. Hybrid fibre types containing two MHC isoforms exhibited stretch activation kinetics parameters that were intermediate between those of the corresponding pure fibre types. These results clearly show that the MHC isoforms expressed in Xenopus muscle are functionally different thereby validating the idea that MHC isoform composition is the most reliable criterion for vertebrate skeletal muscle fibre type classification. Thus, our results lay the foundation for the unequivocal classification of the muscle fibres in the Xenopus iliofibularis muscle and for gaining further insights into skeletal muscle fibre diversity.

Fine-tuning of cross-bridge kinetics in cardiac muscle of rat and mouse by myosin light chain isoforms

Cross-bridge kinetics underlying stretch-induced force transients was studied in cardiac muscle strips with different myosin heavy chain (MHC) and myosin light chain (MLC) isoforms. The force transients were induced by stepwise stretches of maximally Ca(2+)-activated skinned muscle strips. The MHC and MLC isoforms were analyzed by electrophoreses after the mechanical experiments. Muscle strips of euthyroid rats and mice exclusively containing alpha-MHC were used. In addition, muscle strips of hyper- and hypothyroid rats containing different combinations of MHC and MLC isoforms were used. The thyroid hormone is known to alter the expression of MHC but not of MLC isoforms. In muscle strips containing exclusively alpha-MHC, atrial MLC isoforms (all atria of rats and mice) were associated with about 30% faster kinetics than ventricular MLC isoforms (ventricles of hyperthyroid rats and some muscle strips of ventricles of euthyroid rats and mice). On the other hand, in muscle strips containing exclusively ventricular MLC isoforms, alpha-MHC (ventricles of hyperthyroid rats) was associated with about 2.6 times faster kinetics than beta-MHC (ventricles of hypothyroid rats). We conclude that the MLC isoforms fine-tune cross-bridge kinetics, which underlies stretch-induced force transients, whereas the MHC isoforms mainly determine this kinetics. The effect of MLC isoforms on the cross-bridge kinetics may partially contribute to the faster twitch contraction in atria than in ventricles. Furthermore, it may play a role in various cardiomyopathies where atrial MLC isoforms are partially expressed in ventricles or ventricular MLC isoforms are partially expressed in atria.

Dependence of cross-bridge kinetics on myosin light chain isoforms in rabbit and rat skeletal muscle fibres

Cross-bridge kinetics underlying stretch-induced force transients was studied in fibres with different myosin light chain (MLC) isoforms from skeletal muscles of rabbit and rat. The force transients were induced by stepwise stretches (< 0.3% of fibre length) applied on maximally Ca2+-activated skinned fibres. Fast fibre types IIB, IID (or IIX) and IIA and the slow fibre type I containing the myosin heavy chain isoforms MHC-IIb, MHC-IId (or MHC-IIx), MHC-IIa and MHC-I, respectively, were investigated. The MLC isoform content varied within fibre types. Fast fibre types contained the fast regulatory MLC isoform MLC2f and different proportions of the fast alkali MLC isoforms MLC1f and MLC3f. Type I fibres contained the slow regulatory MLC isoform MLC2s and the slow alkali MLC isoform MLC1s. Slow MLC isoforms were also present in several type IIA fibres. The kinetics of force transients differed by a factor of about 30 between fibre types (order from fastest to slowest kinetics: IIB > IID > IIA >> I). The kinetics of the force transients was not dependent on the relative content of MLC1f and MLC3f. Type IIA fibres containing fast and slow MLC isoforms were about 1.2 times slower than type IIA fibres containing only fast MLC isoforms. We conclude that while the cross-bridge kinetics is mainly determined by the MHC isoforms present, it is affected by fast and slow MLC isoforms but not by the relative content of MLC1f and MLC3f. Thus, the physiological role of fast and slow MLC isoforms in type IIA fibres is a fine-tuning of the cross-bridge kinetics.