Human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 and endocrine resistance in hormone-dependent breast cancer

Overexpression of COL11A1 confers tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy and benefits from endocrine agents such as tamoxifen. However, the development of drug resistance in cancerous cells often leads to recurrence, thus limiting the therapeutic benefit. Identification of potential biomarkers that can predict response to tamoxifen and recognize patients who will clinically benefit from this therapy is urgently needed. In this study, we report that high collagen type XI alpha 1 (COL11A1) expression was associated with poor therapeutic response and prognosis in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen. To confirm the role of COL11A1 in the development of tamoxifen resistance, we established MCF-7/COL11A1 and T47D/COL11A1 cell lines, which stably expressed COL11A1. Compared with parental MCF-7 and T47D, MCF-7/COL11A1 and T47D/COL11A1 cells were more resistant to 4-OHT-induced growth inhibition. Moreover, the level of COL11A1 expression was upregulated in tamoxifen-resistant MCF-7/TamR and T47D/TamR cell lines, and depletion of COL11A1 markedly sensitized the cells to 4-OHT in vitro and in vivo. Interestingly, the level of estrogen receptor α (ERα) expression was elevated, probably due to the increased COL11A1 in TamR cells. In addition, knockdown of COL11A1 decreased the expression of ERα and its downstream target genes. Overall, our findings suggest that overexpressed COL11A1 contributes to tamoxifen resistance, and targeting COL11A1 holds great promise for reversing endocrine resistance.

The association between HER2-low status and survival in patients with metastatic breast cancer treated with Cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

The cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6 inhibitors significantly altered the treatment landscape of hormone-positive (HR+), HER2- metastatic breast cancer (MBC). However, biomarkers predicting long-term benefit and early progression are yet to be defined. Several studies suggested the possibility of diminished efficacy in patients with HER2-low disease. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the association between low-level HER2 expression and efficacy outcomes (PFS, OS, ORR) with CDK 4/6 inhibitors.

METHODS

The Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were used to systematically filter the published studies from inception to 08 August 2023 for this systemic review. Studies including MBC patients treated with CDK 4/6 inhibitors and reported survival outcomes according to HER2 expression were included. We performed the meta-analyses with the generic inverse-variance method with a fixed-effects model and used HRs with 95% two-sided CIs as the principal summary measure.

RESULTS

Nine studies encompassing 2705 patients were included in the analyses. In the pooled analysis of nine studies, the risk of progression and/or death was higher in patients with HER2-low tumors compared to HER2-zero (HR: 1.22, 95% CI 1.10-1.35, p < 0.001). In the pooled analysis of five studies, although the median follow-up was short, the risk of death was higher in the HER2-low group compared to the HER2-zero group (HR: 1.22, 95% CI 1.04-1.44, p = 0.010).

CONCLUSION

The available evidence demonstrates a significantly higher risk of progression or death with CDK 4/6 inhibitors in HER2-low tumors. Further research is needed to improve outcomes in patients with HR+-HER2-low tumors.

Prognostic factors and benefit populations of ovarian function suppression in premenopausal HR+/HER2+ early-stage breast cancer patients who received trastuzumab: Evidence from a real-world study with long-term follow-up

BACKGROUND

Hormone receptor-positive (HR+)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive (HER2+) breast cancer exhibits considerable heterogeneity, and it is of great interest whether patients with premenopausal HR+/HER2+ breast cancer treated with trastuzumab can benefit from ovarian function suppression (OFS) therapy similarly to HR+/HER2- breast cancer. Here, we conducted a real-world study in this population to identify both who would derive substantial benefits from the addition of OFS and clinicopathological factors with potential prognostic value.

METHODS

Multicenter data from 253 premenopausal patients with HR+/HER2+ early-stage breast cancer who received trastuzumab from October 2009 to October 2018 were retrospectively included. The Kaplan-Meier method was used for survival analysis, while the log-rank test was used to compare the survival rates. Univariate and multifactor Cox regression analyses were performed to analyze the independent risk factors affecting invasive disease-free survival (IDFS).

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 98.50 months, compared with tamoxifen/toremifene alone, tamoxifen/toremifene/aromatase inhibitors plus OFS demonstrated significant benefits in the overall study population (HR = 0.289, 95% CI: 0.100-0.835, p = 0.022, 8-year IDFS rate: 90.78% vs. 95.54%), especially in the lymph node-positive subgroup and age ≤40 years subgroup. Age ≤40 years, histological grade >2, lymph node involvement, PR ≤50%, and tamoxifen alone were independent prognostic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

For premenopausal HR+ breast cancer patients, HER2 positivity alone is an indication for the addition of OFS in adjuvant endocrine therapy. Age, histological grade, lymph node status, the expression of PR, and OFS treatment were independent prognostic factors in this population.

Oral SERD, a Novel Endocrine Therapy for Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide, and estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer accounts for a significant proportion of cases. While various treatments are available, endocrine therapies are often the first-line treatment for this type of breast cancer. However, the development of drug resistance poses a significant challenge in managing this disease. ESR1 mutations have been identified as a common mechanism of endocrine therapy resistance in ER+ breast cancer. The first-generation selective estrogen receptor degrader (SERD) fulvestrant has shown some activity against ESR1 mutant tumors. However, due to its poor bioavailability and need for intramuscular injection, it may not be the optimal therapy for patients. Second-generation SERDs were developed to overcome these limitations. These newer drugs have improved oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, making them more convenient and effective for patients. Several oral SERDs are now in phase III trials for early and advanced ER+ breast cancer. This review summarizes the background of oral SERD development, the current status, and future perspectives.

The effects of race and probiotic supplementation on the intestinal microbiota of 10-km open-water swimmers

This study collected the stools of 10-km open-water swimmers after race and probiotic supplementation, and 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomic analysis were performed to clarify their intestinal microbiota characteristics. The findings revealed a relatively high proportion of Firmicutes in all the athletes. Firmicutes in female athletes were significantly higher after probiotic supplementation. The intestinal microbiota of athletes was closely associated with the pathways of exercise against cancer, exercise against aging, exercise for improving cognition, sphingolipid metabolism and endocrine resistance. Future research should focus on the relationship between Firmicutes and Proteobacteria with super class metabolites in athletes. This report initially explored the changes in intestinal microbiota involved in metabolic pathways in athletes after race and after probiotic supplementation and provided a theoretical basis for the further improvement of the monitoring of their physical function after race and selection of nutritional strategies during exercise training.

The Role of the Tumor Microenvironment in Triple-Positive Breast Cancer Progression and Therapeutic Resistance

Breast cancer (BRCA) is a highly heterogeneous systemic disease. It is ranked first globally in the incidence of new cancer cases and has emerged as the primary cause of cancer-related death among females. Among the distinct subtypes of BRCA, triple-positive breast cancer (TPBC) has been associated with increased metastasis and invasiveness, exhibiting greater resistance to endocrine therapy involving trastuzumab. It is now understood that invasion, metastasis, and treatment resistance associated with BRCA progression are not exclusively due to breast tumor cells but are from the intricate interplay between BRCA and its tumor microenvironment (TME). Accordingly, understanding the pathogenesis and evolution of the TPBC microenvironment demands a comprehensive approach. Moreover, addressing BRCA treatment necessitates a holistic consideration of the TME, bearing significant implications for identifying novel targets for anticancer interventions. This review expounds on the relationship between critical cellular components and factors in the TPBC microenvironment and the inception, advancement, and therapeutic resistance of breast cancer to provide perspectives on the latest research on TPBC.

Unraveling Vulnerabilities in Endocrine Therapy-Resistant HER2+/ER+ Breast Cancer

Breast tumors overexpressing human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER2) confer intrinsic resistance to endocrine therapy (ET), and patients with HER2/estrogen receptor-positive (HER2+/ER+) breast cancer (BCa) are less responsive to ET than HER2-/ER+. However, real-world evidence reveals that a large subset of patients with HER2+/ER+ receive ET as monotherapy, positioning this treatment pattern as a clinical challenge. In the present study, we developed and characterized 2 in vitro models of ET-resistant (ETR) HER2+/ER+ BCa to identify possible therapeutic vulnerabilities. To mimic ETR to aromatase inhibitors (AIs), we developed 2 long-term estrogen deprivation (LTED) cell lines from BT-474 (BT474) and MDA-MB-361 (MM361). Growth assays, PAM50 subtyping, and genomic and transcriptomic analyses, followed by validation and functional studies, were used to identify targetable differences between ET-responsive parental and ETR-LTED HER2+/ER+ cells. Compared to their parental cells, MM361 LTEDs grew faster, lost ER, and increased HER2 expression, whereas BT474 LTEDs grew slower and maintained ER and HER2 expression. Both LTED variants had reduced responsiveness to fulvestrant. Whole-genome sequencing of aggressive MM361 LTEDs identified mutations in genes encoding transcription factors and chromatin modifiers. Single-cell RNA sequencing demonstrated a shift towards non-luminal phenotypes, and revealed metabolic remodeling of MM361 LTEDs, with upregulated lipid metabolism and ferroptosis-associated antioxidant genes, including GPX4. Combining a GPX4 inhibitor with anti-HER2 agents induced significant cell death in both MM361 and BT474 LTEDs. The BT474 and MM361 AI-resistant models capture distinct phenotypes of HER2+/ER+ BCa and identify altered lipid metabolism and ferroptosis remodeling as vulnerabilities of this type of ETR BCa.

The role of the tumor microenvironment in endocrine therapy resistance in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer

Endocrine therapy is the prominent strategy for the treatment of hormone-positive breast cancers. The emergence of resistance to endocrine therapy is a major health concern among hormone-positive breast cancer patients. Resistance to endocrine therapy demands the design of newer therapeutic strategies. The understanding of underlying molecular mechanisms of endocrine resistance, components of the tumor microenvironment (TME), and interaction of resistant breast cancer cells with the cellular/acellular components of the intratumoral environment are essential to formulate new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of endocrine therapy-resistant breast cancers. In the first half of the article, we have discussed the general mechanisms (including mutations in estrogen receptor gene, reregulated activation of signaling pathways, epigenetic changes, and cell cycle alteration) responsible for endocrine therapy resistance in hormone-positive breast cancers. In the latter half, we have emphasized the precise role of cellular (cancer-associated fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer stem cells) and acellular components (collagen, fibronectin, and laminin) of TME in the development of endocrine resistance in hormone-positive breast cancers. In sum, the article provides an overview of the relationship between endocrine resistance and TME in hormone-positive breast cancers.

The trichotomy of HER2 expression confers new insights into the understanding and managing for breast cancer stratified by HER2 status

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a tyrosine kinase receptor that plays a carcinogenic role in breast cancer (BC) through gene amplification, mutation, or overexpression. Traditional methods of HER2 detection were divided into positive (immunohistochemistry (IHC) 3+/fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) amplification) and negative (IHC 2+/FISH-, IHC 1+, IHC 0) according to the dichotomy method. Anti-HER2-targeted therapies, such as trastuzumab and pertuzumab, have significantly improved the prognosis of HER2-positive patients. However, up to 75% to 85% of patients remain HER2-negative. In recent years, with the rapid development of molecular biology, gene detection technology, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, researchers have actively explored the clinicopathological characteristics, molecular biological characteristics, treatment methods, and HER2 detection methods of HER2-low/zero breast cancer. With the clinical efficacy of new anti-HER2 targeted drugs, accurate classification of breast cancer is very important for the treatment choice. Therefore, the following review summarizes the necessity of developing HER2 detection methods, and the clinicopathological and drug treatment characteristics of patients with HER2-low/zero, to light the dawn of the treatment of breast cancer patients with HER2-low/zero expression.

Resistance to hormone therapy in breast cancer cells promotes autophagy and EGFR signaling pathway

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths for women worldwide. Endocrine therapies represent the cornerstone for hormone-dependent breast cancer treatment. However, in many cases, endocrine resistance is induced with poor prognosis for patients. In the current study, we have developed MCF-7 cell lines resistant to fulvestrant (MCF-7Fulv) and tamoxifen (MCF-7Tam) aiming at investigating mechanisms underlying resistance. Both resistant cell lines exerted lower proliferation capacity in two-dimensional (2-D) cultures but retain estrogen receptor α (ERα) expression and proliferate independent of the presence of estrogens. The established cell lines tend to be more aggressive exhibiting advanced capacity to form colonies, increased expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and heterodimerization of ERBB family receptors and activation of EGFR downstream pathways like MEK/ERK1/2 and PI3K/AKT. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors tested against resistant MCF-7Fulv and MCF-7Tam cells showed moderate efficacy to inhibit cell proliferation, except for lapatinib, which concomitantly inhibits both EGFR and HER2 receptors and strongly reduced cell proliferation. Furthermore, increased autophagy was observed in resistant MCF-7Fulv and MCF-7Tam cells as shown by the presence of autophagosomes and increased Beclin-1 levels. The increased autophagy in resistant cells is not associated with increased apoptosis, suggesting a cytoprotective role for autophagy that may favor cells' survival and aggressiveness. Thus, by exploiting those underlying mechanisms, new targets could be established to overcome endocrine resistance.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The development of resistance to hormone therapy caused by both fulvestrant and tamoxifen promotes autophagy with concomitant apoptosis evasion, rendering cells capable of surviving and growing. The fact that resistance also triggers ERBB family signaling pathways, which are poorly inhibited by tyrosine kinase inhibitors might attribute to cells' aggressiveness. It is obvious that the development of endocrine therapy resistance involves a complex interplay between deregulated ERBB signaling and autophagy that may be considered in clinical practice.

Unraveling Vulnerabilities in Endocrine Therapy-Resistant HER2+/ER+ Breast Cancer

Background

Breast tumors overexpressing human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER2) confer intrinsic resistance to endocrine therapy (ET), and patients with HER2/ estrogen receptor-positive (HER2+/HR+) breast cancer (BCa) are less responsive to ET than HER2-/ER+. However, real-world evidence reveals that a large subset of HER2+/ER+ patients receive ET as monotherapy, positioning this treatment pattern as a clinical challenge. In the present study, we developed and characterized two distinct in vitro models of ET-resistant (ETR) HER2+/ER+ BCa to identify possible therapeutic vulnerabilities.

Methods

To mimic ETR to aromatase inhibitors (AI), we developed two long-term estrogen-deprived (LTED) cell lines from BT-474 (BT474) and MDA-MB-361 (MM361). Growth assays, PAM50 molecular subtyping, genomic and transcriptomic analyses, followed by validation and functional studies, were used to identify targetable differences between ET-responsive parental and ETR-LTED HER2+/ER+ cells.

Results

Compared to their parental cells, MM361 LTEDs grew faster, lost ER, and increased HER2 expression, whereas BT474 LTEDs grew slower and maintained ER and HER2 expression. Both LTED variants had reduced responsiveness to fulvestrant. Whole-genome sequencing of the more aggressive MM361 LTED model system identified exonic mutations in genes encoding transcription factors and chromatin modifiers. Single-cell RNA sequencing demonstrated a shift towards non-luminal phenotypes, and revealed metabolic remodeling of MM361 LTEDs, with upregulated lipid metabolism and antioxidant genes associated with ferroptosis, including GPX4. Combining the GPX4 inhibitor RSL3 with anti-HER2 agents induced significant cell death in both the MM361 and BT474 LTEDs.

Conclusions

The BT474 and MM361 AI-resistant models capture distinct phenotypes of HER2+/ER+ BCa and identify altered lipid metabolism and ferroptosis remodeling as vulnerabilities of this type of ETR BCa.

The role of DYNLT3 in breast cancer proliferation, migration, and invasion via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

PURPOSE

DYNLT3 is identified as an age-related gene. Nevertheless, the specific mechanism of its carcinogenesis in breast tumor has not been clarified. This research aims to elucidate the role and the underlying molecular pathways of DYNLT3 on breast cancer tumorigenesis.

METHODS

The differential expression of DYNLT3 among breast cancer, breast fibroids, and normal tissues, as well as in various breast cancer cell lines were detected by immunohistochemical staining, real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Additionally, the role of DYNLT3 on cell viability and proliferation were observed through cell counting kit-8, bromodeoxyuridine, and colony formation experiments. Migratory and invasive abilities was envaulted by wound healing and Transwell methods. Apoptotic cells rate was examined by flow cytometry. Furthermore, nude mice xenograft models were established to confirm the role of DYNLT3 in tumor formation in vivo.

RESULTS

DYNLT3 expression was highly rising in both breast cancer tissues and cells. DYNLT3 knockdown obviously suppressed cell growth, migration and invasion, and induced cell apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The overexpression of DYNLT3 exerted the opposite effect in MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, DYNLT3 knockdown inhibited tumor formation in vivo. Mechanistically, an elevation of N-cadherin and vimentin levels and a decline of E-cadherin were observed when DYNLT3 was upregulated, which was reversed when DYNLT3 knockdown was performed.

CONCLUSION

DYNLT3 may function as a tumor-promotor of age-associated breast cancer, which is expected to provide experimental basis for new treatment options.

Flavonoids target different molecules of autophagic and metastatic pathways in cancer cells

Despite the success of cancer therapy, it has encountered a major obstacle due to the complicated nature of cancer, namely resistance. The recurrence and metastasis of cancer occur when anti-cancer therapeutic agents fail to eradicate all cancer cells. Cancer therapy aims to find the best agent that targets all cancer cells, including those sensitive or resistant to treatment. Flavonoids, natural products from our diet, show anti-cancer effects in different studies. They can inhibit metastasis and the recurrence of cancers. This review discusses metastasis, autophagy, anoikis in cancer cells, and their dynamic relationship. We present evidence that flavonoids can block metastasis and induce cell death in cancer cells. Our research suggests that flavonoids can serve as potential therapeutic agents in cancer therapy.

HER2DX genomic test in HER2-positive/hormone receptor-positive breast cancer treated with neoadjuvant trastuzumab and pertuzumab: A correlative analysis from the PerELISA trial

Background

HER2DX is a prognostic and predictive assay in early-stage HER2-positive breast cancer based on clinical features and the expression of 4 gene signatures (immune, proliferation, luminal differentiation and HER2 amplicon), including ERBB2 mRNA levels. Here, we evaluated the ability of HER2DX to predict efficacy of a de-escalated, chemotherapy-free neoadjuvant regimen in HER2-positive/hormone receptor-positive breast cancer.

Methods

HER2DX was evaluated on pre-treatment tumour samples from the PerELISA phase II study focused on postmenopausal patients with operable HER2-positive/hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. Patients received 2-weeks of letrozole, and then underwent a re-biopsy for Ki67 evaluation. Patients with endocrine therapy sensitive disease (ESD) (i.e., >20.0% Ki67 relative reduction at week 2) continued letrozole and 5 cycles of trastuzumab and pertuzumab. Primary aim was to test the ability of HER2DX risk-score, HER2DX pCR score and HER2DX ERBB2 mRNA score (as continuous variables and group categories) to predict pathological complete response (pCR) in patients with ESD. Logistic regression and receiver–operator curve (ROC) analysis assessed associations of HER2DX scores with pCR and ESD.

Findings

HER2DX was evaluated in 55 patients (86.0%) enrolled in PerELISA and 40 patients (73.0%) had ESD. The pCR rate in patients with ESD was 22.5% (9/40). In this group, HER2DX pCR score and HER2DX ERBB2 mRNA score were significantly associated with pCR (p = 0.008 and p = 0.003, univariate logistic regression model; area under ROC [AUC] = 0.803 and 0.896). The pCR rate in low, medium, and high HER2DX pCR score groups was 7.7% (2/26), 46.2% (6/13) and 100.0% (1/1), respectively. The pCR rate in low, medium, and high HER2DX ERBB2 score groups was 0.0% (0/12), 7.7% (1/13) and 53.3% (8/15), respectively. HER2DX pCR score was also significantly associated with Ki-67 response following 2-weeks of letrozole (p = 0.002, univariate logistic regression model; AUC = 0.775). The rate of ESD in low, medium, and high HER2DX pCR score groups was 89.7% (26/29), 65.0% (13/20) and 16.7% (1/6), respectively.

Interpretation

HER2DX predicts response following neoadjuvant letrozole in combination with dual HER2 blockade with trastuzumab and pertuzumab in early-stage HER2-positive/hormone receptor-positive breast cancer.

Funding

This study received funding from Reveal Genomics.

Novel Therapies and Strategies to Overcome Resistance to Anti-HER2-Targeted Drugs

The prognosis and quality of life of HER2 breast cancer patients have significantly improved due to the crucial clinical benefit of various anti-HER2 targeted therapies. However, HER2 tumors can possess or develop several resistance mechanisms to these treatments, thus leaving patients with a limited set of additional therapeutic options. Fortunately, to overcome this problem, in recent years, multiple different and complementary approaches have been developed (such as antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs)) that are in clinical or preclinical stages. In this review, we focus on emerging strategies other than on ADCs that are either aimed at directly target the HER2 receptor (i.e., novel tyrosine kinase inhibitors) or subsequent intracellular signaling (e.g., PI3K/AKT/mTOR, CDK4/6 inhibitors, etc.), as well as on innovative approaches designed to attack other potential tumor weaknesses (such as immunotherapy, autophagy blockade, or targeting of other genes within the HER2 amplicon). Moreover, relevant technical advances such as anti-HER2 nanotherapies and immunotoxins are also discussed. In brief, this review summarizes the impact of novel therapeutic approaches on current and future clinical management of aggressive HER2 breast tumors.