Review of 49 neonates with acquired fungal sepsis: further characterization

Fungal Infection Testing in Pediatric Intensive Care Units-A Single Center Experience

Mycoses are diseases caused by fungi that involve different parts of the body and can generate dangerous treatment complications. This study aims to analyze fungal infection epidemiology in intensive care units (Pediatric and Cardiac Surgery Intensive Care Units—PCICU) and the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) in one large pediatric center in the period 2015–2020 compared with 2005. The year 2005 was randomly selected as a historical time reference to notice possible changes. In 2005 and 2015–2020, 23,334 mycological tests were performed in intensive care units. A total of 4628 tests (19.8%) were performed in the intensive care units. Microbiological diagnostics involved mycological and serological testing. Of the 458 children hospitalized in the NICU, positive results in the mycological tests in the studied years were found in 21–27% of the children and out of 1056 PCICU patients, positive results were noticed in 18–29%. In both departments, the main detected pathogen was Candida albicans which is comparable with data published in other centers. Our experience indicates that blood cultures as well as the detection of antifungal antibodies do not add important information to mycological diagnostics. For the years of observation, only a few positive results were detected, even in patients with invasive fungal diseases. To our knowledge, this is one of a few similar studies over recent years and it provides contemporary reports of mycoses in pediatric ICU patients.

Vancomycin Use in Children and Neonates across Three Decades: A Bibliometric Analysis of the Top-Cited Articles

Vancomycin is frequently prescribed in pediatrics, especially in intensive care unit settings, to treat Gram-positive bacterial infections. This work aims to collect the top-cited articles of pediatric and infectious diseases areas to gather the current evidence and gaps of knowledge on the use of vancomycin in these populations. The most relevant journals reported in the "pediatrics" and "infectious diseases" categories of the 2019 edition of Journal Citation Reports were browsed. Articles with more than 30 citations and published over the last three decades were collected. A bibliometric analysis was performed and 115 articles were retrieved. They were published in 21 journals, with a median impact factor of 4.6 (IQR 2.9-5.4). Sixty-eight of them (59.1%) belonged to "infectious diseases" journals. The most relevant topic was "bloodstream/complicated/invasive infections", followed by "antibiotic resistance/MRSA treatment". As for population distribution, 27 articles were on children only and 27 on neonates, most of which were from intensive care unit (ICU) settings. The current literature mainly deals with vancomycin as a treatment for severe infections and antibiotic resistance, especially in neonatal ICU settings. Lately, attention to new dosing strategies in the neonatal and pediatric population has become a sensible topic.

The utility of abdominal ultrasonography in the diagnosis of fungal infections in children: a narrative review

In paediatric patients, ultrasonography is one of the preferred medical imaging modalities due to the lack of ionising radiation. Abdominal ultrasonography can be a useful tool in diagnosing cases of fungal infections but may introduce some risks for further infection in vulnerable patients or cause anxiety and discomfort. The aim of this narrative review is to analyse the utility of abdominal ultrasonography in diagnosing fungal infections in children in terms of its positive hit rates and utility in typical use. Text words and indexed terms related to ‘fungal infection and ultrasonography’ and ‘children’ were searched on MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library and Scopus. Paediatric oncology patients, neonates and generally immunocompromised children were found to be at‐risk groups with increasing susceptibility to risk factors for contracting fungal infections. Abdominal ultrasonography was found to aid in the diagnosis of fungal infection in many cases, but not all patients with the identified risk factors were diagnosed with fungal infections and not all patients diagnosed with fungal infections had identified risk factors. Ultrasonography was found to be overutilised and the current decision process in requesting abdominal ultrasonography in diagnosing fungal infection should be revised. Further study into an effective criterion in requesting abdominal ultrasonography is suggested to reduce the overutilisation of ultrasonography, thus reducing risk of infection and discomfort while also saving time and money.

Diagnostic accuracy of serum (1,3)-beta-d-glucan for neonatal invasive candidiasis: systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Neonatal invasive candidiasis (NIC) is a leading cause of infection-related morbidity and mortality in preterm neonates. Several studies have shown that (1,3)-Beta-d-glucan (BDG) was accurate in detecting invasive fungal infection in adults, but studies in neonates are scarce. The aim was to obtain summary estimates of the accuracy of BDG detection in serum for the diagnosis of NIC.

METHODS

We searched Medline, Embase, Clinicaltrials.gov, and Google Scholar (inception to July 2019). We checked the reference lists of included studies, clinical guidelines, and review articles. We included studies that assessed the accuracy of BDG against a reference standard that defined groups of patients with ordinal levels of NIC probability (e.g. proven, probable, possible) and included fungal blood culture. Participants were neonates suspected of having NIC. The intervention was BDG measurement in serum (Fungitell® assay). We assessed risk of bias and applicability using QUADAS-2. We used bivariate meta-analysis to produce summary estimates of diagnostic accuracy at prespecified positivity thresholds of 80 and 120 pg/mL. This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42018089545).

RESULTS

We included eight studies (465 participants). Of these, two were judged at low overall risk of bias. There was substantial variability across studies in the reference standards used. At a positivity threshold of 80 pg/mL, summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity of BDG were 89% (95% CI: 80-94%) and 60% (53-66%), respectively; summary sensitivity for detecting proven cases of NIC was 99% (93-100%). At a positivity threshold of 120 pg/mL, summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity were 81% (71-88%) and 80% (67-88%), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of high sensitivity, BDG seems promising to rule-out NIC. It might be too early to recommend its use because of the scarcity of reliable clinical data, heterogeneity in case definitions, and unstable accuracy estimates.

Role of serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan assay in early diagnosis of invasive fungal infections in a neonatal intensive care unit

OBJECTIVES

To study the microbiological pattern of late onset neonatal sepsis cultures and to assess the diagnostic performance of serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan level for early diagnosis of invasive fungemia in high-risk infants admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit.

METHODS

A prospective multicenter clinical trial conducted on infants at high risk for invasive fungal infections, with suspected late onset sepsis, admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit at Mansoura University Children's Hospital and Mansoura General Hospital between March 2014 and February 2016.

RESULTS

A total of 77 newborn infants with high risk of invasive fungal infection were classified based on blood culture into three groups: no fungemia (41 neonates with proven bacterial sepsis), suspected fungemia (25 neonates with negative blood culture), and definite fungemia group (11 neonates with culture-proven Candida). The growing organisms were Klebsiella spp. (14/54); Escherichia coli (12/54); Staphylococcus spp. (12/54; coagulase-negative Staphylococcus [9/54]; Staphylococcus aureus [3/54]); Pseudomonas aerouginosa (3/54); and Proteus spp. (2/54). Moreover, 11/54 presented Candida. Serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan concentration was significantly lower in the no fungemia group when compared with the definite fungemia group. The best cut-off value of (1,3)-β-d-glucan was 99pg/mL with sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy of 63.6%, 95.1%, 77.8%, 90.7%, and 88.5%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

(1,3)-β-d-glucan assay has a limited sensitivity with excellent specificity and negative predictive value, which allow its use as an aid in exclusion of invasive neonatal fungal infection. Accurate diagnosis and therapeutic decisions should be based on combining (1,3)-β-d-glucan assay with other clinical, radiological, and microbiological findings.

Epidemiology of Invasive Fungal Infections at Two Tertiary Care Neonatal Intensive Care Units Over a 12-Year Period (2000-2011)

We conducted a retrospective review of 168 patients with invasive fungal infections from January 2000 to December 2011 in 2 neonatal intensive care units. Patients with Candida bloodstream infection (BSI, n = 152) were further analyzed. C albicans was the most common species overall (47%); however, there was an increase in non–albicans sp from 2006 to 2011. Candida BSI clearance rates were lower in extremely low birth weight infants (77% vs 93%, P = .01) and in patients with C albicans infections (77% vs 91%, P = .01). Clearance rates improved from 2000 to 2005 (70% - 90%) to 2006 to 2011 (86% -100%). Combination antifungal use increased during the later years (73% vs 49%, P < .05) and in patients with end-organ dissemination (83% vs 54%, P < .05). We concluded that extremely low birth weight infants and C albicans infection are factors associated with nonclearance of Candida BSI. Successful clearance of Candida BSI improved in 2006 to 2011, perhaps due to increase in non–albicans species and the use of combination antifungals.

Fatal Neonatal Peritoneal Candidiasis Mimicking Mucormycosis-A Case Report and Review of Literature

Candida species have been implicated as significant contributors to morbidity in the neonatal period and are associated with 25-50% of mortality in invasive neonatal candidiasis. Peritoneal candidiasis, being paucisymptomatic, cannot often be correctly identified in a preterm neonate. The correct approach to diagnosis of neonatal peritoneal candidiasis is taking into account the epidemiology along with a strong clinical suspicion and appropriate timely diagnostic interventions. We report a case of fatal neonatal peritoneal candidiasis which was misdiagnosed as mucormycosis.

Integrated measures for prevention of invasive Candida infections in preterm infants in a Chinese neonatal intensive care unit

BACKGROUND

The increasing incidence of invasive Candida infections (ICIs) in preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of Xinhua Hospital aroused our concern. We undertook a retrospective study to evaluate the efficacy of different preventive measures for ICI in preterm infants.

METHODS

Preterm infants with gestational age (GA) <33 weeks admitted between 2010 and 2013 were divided into 3 groups according to the preventive measures applied in different periods: the control group (CG), fluconazole group (FG), and integrated measures group (IMG). We analyzed the incidence of ICI and distribution of fungal pathogens in these 3 groups, and also evaluated the efficiency of various measures in preventing ICIs in preterm infants.

RESULTS

The study sample comprised 261 preterm infants born at <33 weeks GA, including 94 in the CG, 99 in the FG, and 68 in the IMG. The differences among the groups were not significant at baseline. ICI developed in 41 of the 261 infants (15.7%). The incidence of ICI varied significantly among the groups: 22.3% in the CG (21/94), 18.2% in the FG (18/99), and only 2.9% in the IMG (2/68) (P = .003). ICI was less frequent in the IMG compared with the CG (P <.001) and the FG (P = .003).

CONCLUSIONS

The integrated measures approach is meaningful for the prevention of ICIs in preterm infants in NICUs with many patients but inadequate medical resources in some developing countries.

The epidemiology and diagnosis of invasive candidiasis among premature infants

Invasive candidiasis is a leading infectious cause of morbidity and mortality in premature infants. Improved recognition of modifiable risk factors and antifungal prophylaxis has contributed to the recent decline in the incidence of this infection among infants. Invasive candidiasis typically occurs in the first 6 weeks of life and presents with nonspecific signs of sepsis. Definitive diagnosis relies on the growth of Candida in blood culture or cultures from other normally sterile sites, but this may identify fewer than half of cases. Improved diagnostics are needed to guide the initiation of antifungal therapy in premature infants.

Invasive candidiasis and candidaemia in neonates and children: update on current guidelines

Invasive candidiasis (IC) and candidaemia are leading causes of infectious morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised paediatric patients and those admitted to intensive care units. Despite improvements in diagnosis, prevention and treatment, both mortality rates and the economic burden of disease still remain high. To address this issue, several international societies and organisations have proposed guidelines for the management of IC/candidaemia in both neonates and children. In this article, we review current recommendations of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the European Conference on Infection in Leukaemia, the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases and the German Speaking Mycological Society/Paul-Ehrlich Society for Chemotherapy for the management and prevention of IC/candidaemia in children and neonates.

Clinical and laboratory factors that predict death in very low birth weight infants presenting with late-onset sepsis

BACKGROUND

Late-onset sepsis (LOS) in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The ability to predict mortality in infants with LOS based on clinical and laboratory factors at presentation of illness remains limited.

OBJECTIVES

To identify predictors of sepsis-associated mortality from a composite risk profile that includes demographic data, category of infecting organism, clinical and laboratory data at onset of illness.

STUDY DESIGN

Data were collected from VLBW infants with at least 1 episode of LOS admitted to Yale Neonatal Intensive Care Unit from 1989 through 2007. Episodes were categorized as Gram-positive, Gram-negative or fungal. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to compare and contrast different types of infections and to assess independent risk factors for death.

RESULTS

Four hundred twenty-four cases of LOS were identified in 424 VLBW infants. Of these, 262 (62%) were categorized as Gram-positive, 126 (30%) as Gram-negative and 36 (8%) as fungal. Multivariate analyses revealed that infants with Gram-positive infections had significantly lower odds of death compared to those with Gram-negative (adjusted odds ratio: 0.17; 95% confidence interval: 0.08-0.36) or fungal LOS (adjusted odds ratio: 0.22; 95% confidence interval: 0.07-0.64). Need for intubation, initiation of pressors, hypoglycemia and thrombocytopenia as presenting laboratory signs of infection and necrotizing enterocolitis were independent risk factors for sepsis-related death.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified presenting clinical and laboratory factors, including category of infecting organism, which predict the increased risk of LOS-related death. This information can be useful in estimating prognosis shortly after the onset of disease.

Background changing patterns of neonatal fungal sepsis in a developing country

BACKGROUND

Candida albicans is the predominant isolate in many neonatal fungal bloodstream infections (BSIs), so fluconazole is used as empiric antifungal therapy.

AIM

To determine the predominant organisms, antifungal sensitivity patterns, clinical and demographic risk factors and crude mortality rate in neonatal fungal BSI cases.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This is a review of all neonatal fungal BSI cases between January 2007 and December 2011.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients were included in the study. Candida parapsilosis (54.2%) was isolated in majority of the cases, followed by C. albicans (27.1%). Fluconazole resistance was present in 16 of 32 cases of C. parapsilosis versus 1 of 16 cases of C. albicans (P = 0.003). Mortality rate was 45.8%. Surgical problems were present in 55.9%. Death was significantly associated with lower birth weight (P = 0.046) and necrotizing enterocolitis (P = 0.034).

CONCLUSIONS

The increase in neonatal fungal BSI and resistant organisms highlights the need to review use of routine empiric fluconazole and to implement preventive measures.

Candida parapsilosis is a significant neonatal pathogen: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Candida is the third most common cause of late-onset neonatal sepsis in infants born at <1500 g. Candida parapsilosis infections are increasingly reported in preterm neonates in association with indwelling catheters.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed neonatal literature and synthesized data pertaining to percentage of C. parapsilosis infections and mortality by meta-analyses. We also reviewed risk factors, virulence determinants, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and outlined clinical management strategies.

RESULTS

C. parapsilosis infections comprised 33.47% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 30.02, 37.31) of all neonatal Candida infections. C. parapsilosis rates were similar in studies performed before the year 2000, 33.53% (95% CI: 30.06, 37.40) (28 studies), to those after 2000, 27.00% (95% CI: 8.25, 88.37) (8 studies). The mortality due to neonatal C. parapsilosis infections was 10.02% (95% CI: 7.66, 13.12). Geographical variations in C. parapsilosis infections included a low incidence in Europe and higher incidence in North America and Australia. Biofilm formation was a significant virulence determinant and predominant risk factors for C. parapsilosis infections were prematurity, prior colonization and catheterization. Amphotericin B remains the antifungal drug of choice and combination therapy with caspofungin or other echinocandins may be considered in resistant cases.

CONCLUSION

C. parapsilosis is a significant neonatal pathogen, comprises a third of all Candida infections and is associated with 10% mortality. Availability of tools for genetic manipulation of this organism will identify virulence determinants and organism characteristics that may explain predilection for preterm neonates. Strategies to prevent horizontal transmission in the neonatal unit are paramount in decreasing infection rates.

Wide intra- and inter-country variability in drug use and dosage in very-low-birth-weight newborns with severe infections

PURPOSE

To describe the use of ciprofloxacin and fluconazole for the treatment of sepsis in European neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in order to better orient research aimed at acquiring essential knowledge in this critical area.

METHODS

The survey consisted of an online questionnaire for all participating NICUs on treatment schemes employed, rationales behind drug choices and interest in participation in research involving the two drugs.

RESULTS

A total of 189 level II and III NICUs participated in the survey, representing 25 countries, with Italy, UK and France providing the greatest number of centres (54 % of total). Ciprofloxacin is used in 25 % of NICUs that responded, although the indications for administering it vary between centres and the dosage ranges vary considerably, with 25 % of NICUs giving ≤10 mg/kg/day and another 25 % giving ≥21 mg/kg/day. Factors given as affecting the decision to use ciprofloxacin are uncertainty about its safety and pharmacokinetics and level of penetration in the cerebrospinal fluid. Among the 70 % of responding units that use fluconazole to treat fungal infection, 45 % administer 6 mg/kg unit doses while 33 % administer 12 mg/kg; 41 % of NICUs use a 24-h interval between administrations while 20 % wait 72 h. Among the responding NICUs, 57 % were willing to participate in a project on ciprofloxacin and 59 % would consider participating in a randomized controlled trial evaluating fluconazole versus micafungin.

CONCLUSIONS

Great variability in therapies exists within and between countries. Numerous centres are interested in participating in research on these drugs, highlighting the need for further knowledge on sepsis treatment and European centres' interest in off-patent medicine research.

Empiric antifungal therapy and outcomes in extremely low birth weight infants with invasive candidiasis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of empiric antifungal therapy for invasive candidiasis on subsequent outcomes in premature infants.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a cohort study of infants with a birth weight ≤ 1000 g receiving care at Neonatal Research Network sites. All infants had at least one positive culture for Candida. Empiric antifungal therapy was defined as receipt of a systemic antifungal on the day of or the day before the first positive culture for Candida was drawn. We created Cox proportional hazards and logistic regression models stratified on propensity score quartiles to determine the effect of empiric antifungal therapy on survival, time to clearance of infection, retinopathy of prematurity, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, end-organ damage, and neurodevelopmental impairment (NDI).

RESULTS

A total of 136 infants developed invasive candidiasis. The incidence of death or NDI was lower in infants who received empiric antifungal therapy (19 of 38; 50%) compared with those who had not (55 of 86; 64%; OR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.08-0.86). There was no significant difference between the groups for any single outcome or other combined outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Empiric antifungal therapy was associated with increased survival without NDI. A prospective randomized trial of this strategy is warranted.

Neonatal candidiasis: results of an 8 year study

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the risk factors, demographic features, treatment and clinical outcome associated with candidemia in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) within an 8 year period.

METHODS

The data of infants who were diagnosed as having candidemia, were evaluated.

RESULTS

Between January 2000 and December 2007, a total of 28 candidemia episodes were identified in 28 infants. A 1.1% candidemia incidence was documented in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The species most frequently causing candidemia were Candida parapsilosis (57.1%), followed by C. albicans (42.9%). The main predisposing factors for candidemia with C. parapsilosis included presence of maternal pre-eclampsia, prematurity, prolonged mechanical ventilation, prolonged total parenteral nutrition and presence of jaundice. Retinopathy of prematurity and bronchopulmonary dysplasia were the most frequently seen underlying illnesses in infants with C. parapsilosis. In the present study, 13 infants (46.4%) had evidence of organ dissemination. The mortality rate was 42.8% in infants with candidemia. Mean leukocyte counts and mean C-reactive protein were significantly higher in neonates who died compared with those who survived.

CONCLUSION

Candida parapsilosis (57.1%) was the leading causative organism, followed by C. albicans (42.9%) in infants. The rate of organ dissemination in the present cases was high. The mortality rate was 42.8% in infants with candidemia.

The use of antifungal therapy in neonatal intensive care

Invasive fungal infections remain a significant cause of infection-related mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. Central nervous system involvement is the hallmark of neonatal candidiasis, differentiating the disease's impact on young infants from that among all other patient populations. Over the past decade, the number of antifungal agents in development has grown, but most are not labeled for use in newborns. We summarize the findings of several antifungal studies that have been completed to date, emphasizing those including infant populations. We conclude that more studies are required for antifungals to be used safely and effectively in infants.

Patient isolation measures for infants with candida colonization or infection for preventing or reducing transmission of candida in neonatal units

BACKGROUND

Candida is a common nosocomial infection and is associated with increased healthcare costs. In neonates, candida infection is associated with high mortality and morbidity and is transmitted by direct and indirect contact. Patient isolation measures, i.e. single room isolation or cohorting, are usually recommended for infections that spread by contact.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of patient isolation measures (single room isolation and/or cohorting) for infants with candida colonization or infection as an adjunct to routine infection control measures on the transmission of candida to other infants in the neonatal unit.

SEARCH METHODS

Relevant trials in any language were searched in the following databases in July 2011: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL, The Cochrane Library, Issue 2, 2011), MEDLINE, BIOSIS, EMBASE and CINAHL. Proceedings of the Pediatric Academic Societies (from 1987) and ongoing trials were searched.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Types of studies: Cluster randomized trials (where clusters may be defined by hospital, ward, or other subunits of the hospital).

TYPES OF PARTICIPANTS

Neonatal units caring for infants colonized or infected with Candida. Types of interventions: A policy of patient isolation measures (single room isolation or cohorting of infants with Candida colonization or infection) compared to routine isolation measures.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The standard methods of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group (CNRG) were used to identify studies and to assess the methodological quality of eligible cluster-randomized trials. Infection rates and colonization rates were to be expressed as rate ratios for each trial and if appropriate for meta-analysis, the generic inverse variance method in RevMan was to be used.

MAIN RESULTS

No eligible trials were identified.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The review found no evidence to either support or refute the use of patient isolation measures (single room isolation or cohorting) in neonates with candida colonization or infection.Despite the evidence for transmission of candida by contact and evidence of cross-infection by health care workers, no standard policy of patient isolation measures beyond routine infection control measures exists in the neonatal unit. There is an urgent need to research the role of patient isolation measures for preventing transmission of candida in the neonatal unit. Well designed trials randomizing clusters of units or hospitals to a type of patient isolation method intervention are needed.

Outcomes of neonatal candidiasis: the impact of delayed initiation of antifungal therapy

Objective/Methods. To determine the outcomes of invasive neonatal candidiasis before institution of routine antifungal prophylaxis, we conducted a retrospective review of cases of invasive candidiasis in newborns in a referral-based neonatal intensive care unit located in a single tertiary academic center between January 1998 and December 2002. Results. Sixty-three newborns with invasive neonatal candidiasis were identified. Overall mortality rate was 35%. Virtually every infant had a central venous catheter (CVC), required mechanical ventilation and previous administration of antibacterial agents. Delayed institution of antifungal therapy was associated with increased mortality. In addition, length of hospitalization, duration of prior antibacterial therapy, mechanical ventilation, and CVC use, as well as evidence of end-organ disease, were associated with an adverse outcome. Conclusions. Reliance on available laboratory tools in cases of invasive neonatal candidiasis can result in delayed diagnosis and increased mortality. A risk-factor-based approach to empirical treatment could be justified in this setting.

Role of probiotics in the prevention of the enteric colonization by Candida in preterm newborns: incidence of late-onset sepsis and neurological outcome

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of probiotics in the prevention of gastrointestinal colonization by Candida species, of late-onset sepsis and neurological outcome in preterm newborns.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective study was conducted in 249 preterms who were subdivided into three groups: one group (n=83) was supplemented with Lactobacillus (L.) reuteri, one group with L. rhamnosus (n=83) and the other with no supplementation (n=83). The fungal colonization in the gastrointestinal tract, the late onset of sepsis and clinical parameters were recorded. A neurological structured assessment was further performed at 1 year of age.

RESULT

Candida stool colonization was significantly higher (P<0.01) in the control group than in the groups treated with probiotics. The L. reuteri group presented a significantly higher reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms than did the L. rhamnosus and control groups. Infants treated with probiotics showed a statistically significant lower incidence of abnormal neurological outcome than did the control group.

CONCLUSION

The use of both probiotics seems to be effective in the prevention of gastrointestinal colonization by Candida, in the protection from late-onset sepis and in reducing abnormal neurological outcomes in preterms.

Clinical microbiology of neonatal candidiasis in Hungary

The occurrence of Candida spp. was investigated during a three-year period in two neonatal intensive care units, Budapest, Hungary. The species distribution among the 41 analysed cases was the following: C. albicans (30/41, 73%), C. parapsilosis (10/41, 24%) and C. glabrata (1/41, 3%). All of the isolates were susceptible to the tested drugs. There was a significant difference in the birth weight, the gestational age <30 weeks and the occurrence of caesarean section between the C. albicans and the C. parapsilosis groups of the cases. Respiratory tract colonization was the same (76-77%) in the extremely low birth weight (ELBW) and the very low birth weight (VLBW) groups. Comparing the ELBW, VLBW, and >1500 g birth weight groups, significant difference was found in the parenteral nutrition, the gestation weeks <36 or <30, the polymicrobial infection and the transfusion. The ratio of C. albicans, C. parapsilosis and C. glabrata was 9:7:1 in ELBW group; 6:3:0 in VLBW group and 15:1:0 in >1500 g group. The mortality rate for C. parapsilosis was higher than for C. albicans.

The changing spectrum of neonatal infectious disease

To understand the changing spectrum of neonatal infectious disease, one must first be familiar with the history, the variety of organisms and the progression of change of neonatal infections over the years. As progressively more immature neonates are surviving, the spectrum of infectious disease has changed in response to current medical practice responsible for this success and to selective pressures on the microorganisms. The surviving very low birth weight infants are at a significant risk for contracting infections from this expanding repertoire of pathogens. Microorganisms once thought seemingly benign and nonpathogenic are now commonly accepted as pathogens and are among the most likely organisms to cause infections in this extremely vulnerable patient population. When considering the possible identity of infecting organisms and attempting to tailor specific therapies to decrease unwanted consequences, one must consider the level of maturity and the age of neonate, as well as the intensity of care necessary for a successful outcome. This brief review focuses primarily on the changing spectrum of bacterial and fungal infections and will not substantially address viral infections.

Strategies to prevent invasive candidal infection in extremely preterm infants

The highest incidence of invasive candidal infection (ICI) occurs in extremely preterm infants (<1000 g birth weight and <or=27 weeks' gestation). In this population, ICI has high mortality, leads to significant neurodevelopmental impairment, and results in increased length of hospital stay and costs. Randomized clinical trials in infants of less than 1000 g birth weight have demonstrated that ICI is decreased 88% by antifungal prophylaxis with fluconazole compared to 54% by nystatin prophylaxis from retrospective studies. Fluconazole is more efficacious than nystatin prophylaxis in infants weighing less than 1000 g, is less expense, requires less frequent dosing (twice weekly intravenous [IV] dosing), and can be given when infants are not feeding. While antifungal prophylaxis is inexpensive, cost-effective, and easy to administer, yet has not been instituted universally despite A-1 evidence from single and multicenter studies demonstrating efficacy and safety. Debate is ongoing over whether empiric therapy or improved infection control practices are superior to prophylaxis, whether prophylaxis should be instituted only in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) with a relatively high ICI rate, and whether fluconazole prophylaxis is safe or risks emergence of resistance. To date, azole resistance has not emerged with targeted treatment of high-risk infants for the duration of IV catheter use. Empiric therapy for suspected ICI and standardized therapy for candidemia, including central venous catheter removal, may decrease mortality; however, these approaches still risk neurodevelopmental impairment in ICI survivors. Infection control practices have not been subjected to prospective or randomized trials to demonstrate efficacy in reducing fungal infections. Evidence is presented in this article from clinical trials demonstrating efficacy and safety of antifungal prophylaxis in preventing ICI in preterm infants. The greatest impact of antifungal prophylaxis preventing ICI and decreasing Candida-related mortality and neurodevelopmental impairment would be achieved with a universal approach in all NICUs.

In vitro activity of isavuconazole against 140 reference fungal strains and 165 clinically isolated yeasts from Japan

The in vitro susceptibilities of 140 laboratory reference strains of fungi, including type strains, and 165 clinical yeast isolates from Japan towards isavuconazole compared with fluconazole (FLC), itraconazole (ITC), voriconazole and amphotericin B were measured. Broth microdilution methods based on Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) methods were used for yeasts, and RPMI-MOPS medium semi-solidified with 0.2% low-melting-point agarose based on CLSI guidelines was used for moulds. The range of isavuconazole minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) was 0.0004-0.21 mg/L for Candida albicans, 0.0036-0.4 mg/L for Candida glabrata, 0.023-0.058 mg/L for Candida krusei, 0.0026-0.032 mg/L for Cryptococcus neoformans, 0.1-0.39mg/L for Aspergillus fumigatus and 0.2-0.39 mg/L for Aspergillus terreus. Isavuconazole was as active as ITC against the dimorphic true pathogenic fungi, with a range of MICs from <0.0004 mg/L to 0.0063 mg/L for Blastomyces dermatitidis and Histoplasma capsulatum. It was also active against uncommon dematiaceous fungi such as Exophiala spp. and Phialophora spp. as well as against dermatophytic species. Isavuconazole showed very good in vitro antifungal activity with a broad spectrum, including against FLC-resistant Candida spp., Aspergillus spp. and uncommon opportunistic fungal species. This is the first report of the in vitro susceptibility of Japanese clinical yeast isolates to isavuconazole. No cross-resistance was found to isavuconazole amongst FLC-resistant strains.

Challenging issues in neonatal candidiasis

In an era of quality improvement and 'getting to zero (infections and/or related mortality),' neonatal candidiasis is ripe for evidence-based initiatives. Knowledge of each institution's invasive Candida infection (ICI) incidence and infection-related mortality is critical to evaluate disease burden and effective interventions. Evidenced-based interventions include: antifungal prophylaxis, starting with appropriate dosing, and prompt removal of central venous catheters (CVC). There is A-I evidence supporting antifungal prophylaxis with fluconazole, and it should be considered in every neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The literature supports targeting infants <1000 g and/or <or=27 weeks, because this group has high infection-related mortality and neurodevelopmental impairment in 57% of survivors. Antifungal prophylaxis has been shown to nearly eliminate infection-related mortality. Interventions start with prenatal initiatives, with women being treated for vaginal candidiasis, especially with preterm labor or complications. Targeting modifiable risk factors, including restriction policies for use of third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, carbapenems, H2-antagonists, proton pump inhibitors, and postnatal steroids; guidelines for CVC care and removal; and feeding practices, with promotion of early feedings and breast milk, may also reduce risk. A few studies have emerged on empiric antifungal therapy with sepsis evaluations for preterm infants <1500 g and other high-risk patients that have shown favorable effects of eliminating mortality, but these have not been compared to appropriate antifungal therapy and central line removal. Further study of empiric therapy, prospective treatment studies with higher targeted dosing of amphotericin B preparations, fluconazole, and new antifungals with prompt CVC removal may contribute to a 100% survival rate for those infants >1000 g and >or=28 weeks not receiving antifungal prophylaxis. Evaluation of ICI incidence and mortality by gestational age and birth week should be followed in each NICU, to evaluate infection control and prevention.

Peripherally inserted central catheters and the incidence of candidal sepsis in VLBW and ELBW infants: is sepsis increased?

BACKGROUND

Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) have been widely used in neonatal clinics. However, the complications such as infection after PICC treatment are also confronting neonatologists especially in developing countries. This study was undertaken to investigate whether PICCs is a safe treatment for very low birth weight (VLBW) infants and extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants.

METHODS

Fifty-nine VLBW and ELBW infants receiving PICCs and 89 VLBW and ELBW infants receiving peripheral intravenous catheters (PIVCs) were included in this study. The incidence of sepsis and mortality were compared retrospectively between the two groups.

RESULTS

There was no difference in the total sepsis incidence and mortality between the PICCs and PIVCs groups (P=0.11 and P=0.61 respectively). However, the candidal sepsis incidence was higher in the PICCs group than in the PIVCs group [6/59 (10.2%) vs 2/89 (2.2%); P=0.044 (Exat Sig. 1-sided), OR=4.93, 95% CI 0.96-25.3].

CONCLUSION

Placement and indwelling of PICCs are a potential risk factor for candidal sepsis among VLBW and ELBW infants.

Recent Advances in the Detection of Neonatal Candidiasis

Neonatal candidiasis is serious and often fatal. Blood culture, the standard for diagnosis, has a sensitivity of 50% or less, and isolate speciation and susceptibility takes several days. This review explores recent advances in Candida detection using various diagnostic strategies.

Nephrotoxicity associated with amphotericin B deoxycholate in neonates

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of nephrotoxicity in neonates receiving amphotericin B deoxycholate (amphoB) is not well-defined. While some studies report a lack of toxicity, others claim a frequency as high as 85%.

METHODS

We reviewed medical records of all infants < or = 90 days of age in the neonatal intensive care unit who received at least 3 doses of amphoB between January 1990 and December 2004. A standardized form was used to collect demographic, therapeutic, microbiologic, and laboratory data for each patient. Nephrotoxicity was defined as a rise in serum creatinine (SCr) of at least 0.4 mg/dL any time during amphoB therapy.

RESULTS

A total of 92 infants met entry criteria. Median gestational age was 26 (range: 23-41) weeks and median birth weight was 863 (range: 546-4000) grams. Overall, 15 (16%) infants experienced nephrotoxicity, and 16 (17%) developed hypokalemia (<3.0 mmol/L). There were no differences between infants who did or did not develop nephrotoxicity in terms of gestational age, birth weight, gender, underlying medical conditions, or use of other potentially nephrotoxic medications. AmphoB exposure and duration of therapy were similar between infants who developed nephrotoxicity and those who did not, with a mean cumulative dose of 13.5 +/- 9.6 mg/kg and duration of 16.3 +/- 10.4 days. With the exception of 1 infant, the elevated SCr values resolved in all infants by the end of amphoB therapy.

CONCLUSION

AmphoB administration does not appear to be associated with lasting measurable nephrotoxicity in neonates. Because of changes in serum creatinine and potassium, renal function and potassium levels should be monitored closely in infants receiving amphoB.

[Manifestations of systemic mycoses and related infections in the central nervous system]

In daily practice mycotic infections of the CNS have become more and more frequent. The main causes are the wide-ranging use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressive, cytostatic drugs and antibiotics, the spreading of AIDS, the increasing number of surviving immature newborns. To illustrate the diagnostic difficulties, the authors report several cases.

CASE REPORTS

1. Multifocal hemorrhagic infarcts of the brain, caused by generalized aspergillosis in mantle cell malignant lymphoma. 2. Cerebral microabscesses, caused by systemic candidiasis in a premature infant. 3. Fatal actinomycosis, mimicking a space occupying tumour in the thigh and with an abscess in the brain, radiologically indicated as a metastasis. The cause of death was actinomycotic pneumonia. 4. A successfully treated and recovered patient with recurrent pneumonia and multiplex brain abscesses, caused by filamentous microorganism of a Nocardia species revealed by histological examination of the neurosurgical specimen.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

We have to be aware for the development of the mycotic and related infections of endangered patients. Aspergillosis and candidiasis play the most significant role in the involvement of the central nervous system. Actinomycosis and nocardiosis are more sensitive to treatment, so their diagnosis is of life-saving importance. The therapeutic chances of high risk patients with aspergillosis and candidiasis will be definitively better, if the infection is recognized and appropriately treated before the involvement of the CNS.

Epidemiology of neonatal sepsis in South Korea

BACKGROUND

Neonatal sepsis is a severe clinical syndrome characterized by systemic signs of infection, shock and system organ failure; diagnosis is confirmed on positive culture from a normally sterile site(s). There are few reports comparing incidence, mortality, and risk factors between clinically diagnosed sepsis and that confirmed by culture.

METHODS

All infants diagnosed with early- (within first 72 h after birth) or late-onset (72 h-4 weeks after birth) neonatal sepsis between 1997 and 1999 from four neonatal centers in South Korea, were investigated.

RESULTS

The estimated incidence rate of neonatal sepsis during the 3 years was 30.5 per 1000 live births for clinical sepsis and 6.1 per 1000 live births for sepsis with positive culture, with case-fatality rates of 4.7% and 2.2%, respectively. When only early-onset sepsis was considered, the incidence and fatality rates were 25.1 per 1000 live births and 6.1% for clinical sepsis, and 4.3 per 1000 live births and 2.5% for culture-confirmed sepsis, respectively. For the 179 patients (185 causative organisms) of proven sepsis, Staphylococcus spp. including S. aureus were the most frequent isolates. In early-onset clinical sepsis, having very low birthweight (<or=1500 g), a low Apgar score at 5 min (<or=7), and being male were related to higher rates of case-fatality (relative risk: 11.3, 6.8 and 2.5, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical sepsis was more common than culture-confirmed sepsis and had a higher case-fatality rate. It seems prudent to take rapid and decisive steps toward better management of the high-risk group whether the sepsis is clinically diagnosed or culture confirmed.

Neonatal Candida spp. infections: an update

Candida-related morbidity and mortality have increased in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in the last 20 years. Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) in preterm infants are associated with high severity, high attributable mortality, substantial morbidity and poor outcomes owing to the frequent association with late neurodevelopmental impairment and retinopathy of prematurity in the survivors. Preterm very-low birth weight infants in NICUs have a specific, increased risk for IFIs, mainly because up to 60% of them may become colonized during their first month of life. Prevention of Candida colonization and infection is the key in these settings of unique patients, and solid data have recently been added to the very first promising results obtained in the early 2000’s with administation of fluconazole. In a multicenter randomized trial, this azole caused a striking reduction in the incidences of Candida spp. colonization (from 33 to 9%) and infection (from 13.2 to 3.2%), with no occurrence of significant side-effects and no signs of selective resistance during the 15-month study period. New guidelines incorporating the recent multicenter results are urgently needed.

Antifungal agents in neonates: issues and recommendations

Fungal infections are responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality in the neonatal period, particularly among premature neonates. Four classes of antifungal agents are commonly used in the treatment of fungal infections in pediatric patients: polyene macrolides, fluorinated pyrimidines, triazoles, and echinocandins. Due to the paucity of pediatric data, many recommendations for the use of antifungal agents in this population are derived from the experience in adults. The purpose of this article was to review the published data on fungal infections and antifungal agents, with a focus on neonatal patients, and to provide an overview of the differences in antifungal pharmacology in neonates compared with adults. Pharmacokinetic data suggest dosing differences in children versus adult patients with some antifungals, but not all agents have been fully evaluated. The available pharmacokinetic data on the amphotericin B deoxycholate formulation in neonates exhibit considerable variability; nevertheless, the dosage regimen suggested in the neonatal population is similar to that used in adults. More pharmacokinetic information is available on the liposomal and lipid complex preparations of amphotericin B and fluconazole, and it supports their use in neonates; however, the optimal dosage and duration of therapy is difficult to establish. All amphotericin-B formulations, frequently used in combination with flucytosine, are useful for treating disseminated fungal infections and Candida meningitis in neonates. Fluconazole, with potent in vitro activity against Cryptococcus neoformans and almost all Candida spp., has been used in neonates with invasive candidiasis at dosages of 6 mg/kg/day, and for antifungal prophylaxis in high-risk neonates. There are limited data on itraconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole use in neonates. Caspofungin, which is active against Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp., requires higher doses in children relative to adults, and dosing is best accomplished based on body surface area. Micafungin shows a clear trend toward lower levels in the smallest patients. There are no data on the use of other new antifungal drugs (ravuconazole and anidulafungin) in neonates. In summary, the initial data suggest dosage differences in neonates for some antifungal agents, although the newer agents have not been fully tested for optimal administration in these patients.

Experience with the Platelia Candida ELISA for the diagnosis of invasive candidosis in neonatal patients

This preliminary study evaluated the use of the Platelia Candida antigen kit for the diagnosis of invasive candidosis in 70 of 184 pre-term infants admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit between March 2004 and March 2006. The frequency of confirmed candidaemia was 6.5%. The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 94.4% and 94.2%, respectively, with a positive predictive value of 85% and a negative predictive value of 98%. These results suggest that the inclusion of regular serological surveillance for mannanaemia in some pre-term infants would complement blood cultures for the early detection of candidosis.

Risk factors for early sepsis in very low birth weight neonates with respiratory distress syndrome

AIM

To identify maternal and neonatal factors that increase suspicion of early sepsis in Very Low Birth Weight neonates with respiratory distress syndrome.

METHODS

The cohort included 282 neonates born at Soroka Medical Centre 1996-2000. Definitions of 'high' and 'low'-suspicion groups for early sepsis were based on comparison between neonates with early sepsis and the remaining cohort. Univariate analysis and logistic regression were used to compare between groups.

RESULTS

The incidence of early sepsis in the cohort was 1.8%, and 94% received antibiotics following delivery. Comparing with the remaining cohort, the five neonates with early sepsis had increased incidence of positive maternal cultures, use of antenatal antibiotics, lower 1 min Apgar scores and tendency to leucopenia. A 'low-suspicion' group comprised 38% of the cohort and did not include any neonates with early sepsis. This group were more frequently treated with antenatal steroids and delivered by Caesarean section compared to the 'high-suspicion' group, but otherwise there were no clinical and laboratory differences.

CONCLUSION

Although the incidence of early sepsis is low almost all neonates received antibiotics. A 'low-suspicion' group was defined and the role of antibiotic treatment in this group needs to be determined.

Selective fluconazole prophylaxis in high-risk babies to reduce invasive fungal infection

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the impact of selective fluconazole prophylaxis on incidence of invasive fungal infection and emergence of fluconazole resistance in neonatal intensive care.

DESIGN

Retrospective study of very low birthweight (VLBW) babies (<1500 g birth weight) admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in the period 1 year before and after the implementation of an antifungal prophylaxis guideline.

PATIENTS

VLBW babies with an additional risk factor: colonisation of Candida species from surface sites with a central venous catheter; third generation cephalosporin treatment; or total duration of antibiotic treatment >10 days. Fluconazole protocol: Fluconazole 6 mg/kg for 3 weeks. Dose interval is every 72 h during the first 2 weeks of life. Thereafter, dose interval is reduced to every 48 h until 3 weeks old when daily fluconazole is given. Fluconazole is administered orally when enteral feeding achieved.

RESULTS

121 and 107 VLBW babies were admitted to the NICU in the year before and after the guideline was implemented, respectively. Data were available in 110 and 102 charts. 33/110 and 31/102 babies were eligible for fluconazole prophylaxis in the period before and after guideline implementation. 6/33 babies eligible for prophylaxis developed culture proven Candida sepsis before compared with no (0/31) babies after the guideline was implemented (p = 0.03). One baby (1/31) did develop probable Candida sepsis in the post guideline implementation period. During both study periods all Candida isolates remained fully susceptible to fluconazole.

CONCLUSIONS

Selective antifungal prophylaxis has reduced invasive fungal sepsis in one NICU without evidence of fluconazole resistance emerging.

Patient isolation measures for infants with candida colonization or infection for preventing or reducing transmission of candida in neonatal units

BACKGROUND

Candida is one of the most common nosocomial infections in the intensive care setting worldwide and is associated with increased healthcare costs. In neonates, candida infection is associated with high mortality and morbidity. Candida is transmitted by direct and indirect contact. Routine infection control measures that include standard precautions are routinely employed to prevent spread of nosocomial infections. Patient isolation measures, i.e. single room isolation or cohorting, are usually recommended for infections spread by contact.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of patient isolation measures (single room isolation and/or cohorting) for infants with candida colonization or infection as an adjunct to routine infection control measures on the transmission of candida to other infants in the neonatal unit.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Relevant trials in any language were searched in the following databases in Jan 2007: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL, The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2006), MEDLINE (1966 - Jan 2007) and PREMEDLINE, EMBASE (1980 - Jan 2007), CINAHL (1982 - Jan 2007). Proceedings of the Pediatric Academic Societies (American Pediatric Society, Society for Pediatric Research) and the European Society for Pediatric Research (1987 - Jan 2007) were also searched in Jan 2007. Authors or other experts were contacted for more information on relevant published or unpublished trials. Additional searches were also made in the reference lists of relevant journal articles and in the reviewer's personal files.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Types of studies: Cluster randomized trials (where clusters may be defined by hospital, ward, or other subunits of the hospital).

TYPES OF PARTICIPANTS

Neonatal units caring for infants colonized or infected with candida. Types of interventions: A policy of patient isolation measures (single room isolation or cohorting of infants with candida colonization or infection) compared to routine isolation measures.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The standard methods of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group (CNRG) were to be used to identify studies and to assess the methodological quality of eligible trials. The statistical package (RevMan 4.2) provided by the Cochrane Collaboration was to be used. In cluster-randomized trials, if the unit of analysis of the trial was the cluster (not individuals) and analysis took into account the correlation between clusters, the inverse variance method was to be used for meta-analysis. If this was not the case, a narrative synthesis was to be made without meta-analysis. Infection rates and colonization rates were to be expressed as rate ratios for each trial and if appropriate for meta-analysis, the generic inverse variance method in RevMan was to be used.

MAIN RESULTS

No eligible trials were identified.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The review found no evidence to either support or refute the use of patient isolation measures (single room isolation or cohorting) in neonates with candida colonization or infection. Despite the evidence for transmission of candida by direct or indirect contact and evidence of cross-infection by health care workers, no standard policy of patient isolation measures beyond routine infection control measures exists in the neonatal unit. There is an urgent need to research the role of patient isolation measures for preventing transmission of candida in the neonatal unit. Cluster randomized trials involving multiple units or hospitals with randomized allocation of one type of patient isolation measure or the other (i.e. single room isolation or cohorting) with careful consideration for determining an appropriate sample size and analysis would be the most appropriate method to research this intervention.

Nosocomial infection in a neonatal intensive care unit: a prospective study in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

We performed a prospective analysis to determine the prevalence of nosocomial infection and associated risk factors in our neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

METHODS

Data were collected prospectively on underlying diagnoses, therapeutic interventions/treatments, infections, and outcomes at 9 am every day from November 2004 through October 2005. Prevalence of nosocomial infection and infection site definitions were according to the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance system of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

RESULTS

Among 528 infants enrolled, 60 (11.4%) had 97 nosocomial infections. The survival rate was 92%. The prevalence of nosocomial infections was 17.5%: bloodstream infection, 4.7%, clinical sepsis, 6.3%, pneumonia, 5.1%, urinary tract infections (UTIs), 0.7%, surgical site infection, 0.7%. Intervention-associated infection rate: central intravascular catheter-associated bloodstream infection, 13.7%, TPN-associated bloodstream infection, 15.8%, ventilator-associated pneumonia, 18.6%, surgical site infection 13.7%, urinary catheter-associated UTI, 17.3%. Cut-off values of onset of central intravascular catheter-associated bloodstream infection and ventilator-associated pneumonia were 6 days and 10 days after intervention, respectively. Patients with a birth weight <1000 g (relative risk, 11.8, 95% confidence interval, 7.66-18.18; P < .001) were at the greatest risk for nosocomial infection.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the high prevalence of nosocomial infections in NICU patients, and the urgent need for a national surveillance and more effective prevention interventions.

Candidal versus bacterial late-onset sepsis in very low birthweight infants in Israel: a national survey

Candidal infections are one of the common causes of late-onset sepsis (LOS) among very low birthweight (VLBW) infants, and are associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to evaluate the perinatal and neonatal risk factors for fungal LOS compared with bacterial LOS in VLBW infants. This was a population-based observational study of VLBW infants in 28 neonatal intensive care units across Israel, with information on 11,830 infants born between 1995 and 2002 from the Israeli National VLBW infant database. The study population comprised 3054 infants with one or more episodes of LOS. Univariate analysis and logistic regression models were used to compare perinatal and neonatal risk factors between infants with fungal sepsis only (N=179) and those with bacterial sepsis only (N=2630). The mean birthweight and gestational age of infants with candidal LOS were significantly lower (940 g; 27.1 weeks) than those in the bacterial LOS group (1027 g; 28.3 weeks) (P<0.001). Logistic regression analysis showed that candidal sepsis, in contrast to bacterial sepsis, was independently associated with decreasing gestational age and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). In addition, BPD only [odds ratio (OR) 1.84; 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.03-3.23] and BPD with postnatal steroid therapy (OR 2.66; 95% CI 1.59-4.46) were independently associated with an increased risk for candidal sepsis.

Prevention and treatment of Candida infections in neonates

Invasive Candia infections have become the third most common cause of late-onset infection among very low birth weight infants in most neonatal intensive care units. Significant risk factors include birth weight less than 1000 g, exposure to more than two antibiotics, third generation cephalosporin exposure, parenteral nutrition including lipid emulsion, central venous catheter, and abdominal surgery. The majority of neonatal Candida infections are caused by C. albicans and C. parapsilosis, although other nonalbicans species are being reported more frequently. Standard therapy has been amphotericin B; however, successful use of fluconazole as a single agent has also been reported and a small comparison trial demonstrated similar efficacy. The addition of new antifungal agents, including voriconazole and the echinocandins may further improve our ability to effectively treat these infections and possibly reduce the development of complications. Antifungal chemoprophylaxis has been studied in single-center and cohort studies, primarily using fluconazole. Although it is clear that fluconazole prophylaxis decreases the risk of fungal colonization and infection, identification of potential harm, particularly the development of or selection for resistant strains, requires further investigation with multicenter trials before widespread use is recommended outside of the clinical trial setting.

Values of C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, and Staphylococcus-specific PCR in neonatal late-onset sepsis

AIM

To evaluate the predictive value of relevant clinical and laboratory parameters (complete blood count (CBC), C-reactive protein (CRP), procalcitonin (PCT) and Staphylococcus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) in neonates with suspected late-onset sepsis (LOS).

METHODS

NICU neonates were prospectively followed for septic events. One hundred and eleven neonates developed 148 suspected septic events beyond 3 d of age. We recorded the clinical signs and laboratory abnormalities at onset of sepsis, serum CRP and PCT, Staphylococcus-specific PCR, microbiological data, and empiric antimicrobial therapy.

RESULTS

Variables significantly associated with subsequently confirmed LOS included hypotension (relative risk (RR) = 5.6, 95% CI 3.29-9.53), mechanical ventilation (RR = 2.46, 95% CI 1.24-4.86), immature/total neutrophil ratio (I/T) > 0.2 (RR = 5.13, 95% CI 2.54-10.31), CRP > 1.0 mg/dl (RR = 2.85, 95% CI 1.32-6.15), and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) status (RR = 2.13, 95% CI 1.03-4.38). PCT was not significantly associated with LOS. For detection of staphylococcal bacteremia, Staphylococcus-specific PCR showed: sensitivity 57.1%, specificity 94.7%, positive predictive value 53.3%, and negative predictive value 95.4%.

CONCLUSION

Hypotension, mechanical ventilation, I/T > 0.2, CRP > 1.0 mg/dl, and SGA status at onset of sepsis are significant predictors of proven neonatal LOS. Staphylococcus-specific PCR might be of value in ruling out staphylococcal sepsis.