Psychosocial Adjustment in School-age Girls With a Family History of Breast Cancer

“I’m walking on eggshells”: challenges faced by mothers with breast cancer in interacting with adolescent daughters

Background

With breast cancer becoming the most diagnosed cancer in the world, the number of breast cancer-afflicted mothers with adolescent daughters is also rising. Further, adolescent daughters’ mothers serve as role models for in identity formation processes, especially concerning gender and sexuality. Nevertheless, breast cancer threats mother’s health, including such a key symbol of her womanhood—the breast—which may adversely affect the development of an adolescent daughter’s own sense of personal identity and womanhood. However, few researchers and practitioners have paid attention to mother-daughter interactions in the context of breast cancer. Therefore, this study aimed to uncover the nuances of the interactive challenges with adolescent daughters from breast cancer-afflicted mothers’ perspective.

Methods

We conducted a qualitative study following the sample saturation principle, collecting data through semi-structured interviews with 21 breast cancer patients who met the inclusion criteria. We utilized thematic analysis and partially integrated the Foucauldian discourse approach to analyze the data.

Results

Three major themes emerged from the data: (1) mothers are lost in chaos (inability to handle the shock of cancer, feelings of powerlessness about the uncertainty of their life span, and confusion about how to respond to daughter’s curiosity); (2) mothers struggle to maintain balance (torn between protecting daughters and letting them be independent, and making a tough choice between being a mother or a patient); and (3) mothers are immersed in guilt (increasing daughters’ risk of cancer, influencing daughters’ development, and imposing burdens on daughters).

Conclusions

Our research explored the interactive experience of breast cancer-afflicted mothers and adolescent daughters. The insights uncovered by this study will help mothers enhance interaction with their daughters and assist health practitioners in devising interventions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12905-022-01872-1.

Prepubertal Internalizing Symptoms and Timing of Puberty Onset in Girls

Stressful environments have been associated with earlier menarche. We hypothesized that anxiety, and possibly other internalizing symptoms, are also associated with earlier puberty in girls. The Lessons in Epidemiology and Genetics of Adult Cancer From Youth (LEGACY) Girls Study (2011-2016) included 1,040 girls aged 6-13 years at recruitment whose growth and development were assessed every 6 months. Prepubertal maternal reports of daughter's internalizing symptoms were available for breast onset (n = 447), pubic hair onset (n = 456), and menarche (n = 681). Using Cox proportional hazard regression, we estimated prospective hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the relationship between 1 standard deviation of the percentiles of prepubertal anxiety, depression, and somatization symptoms and the timing of each pubertal outcome. Multivariable models included age, race/ethnicity, study center, maternal education, body mass index percentile, and family history of breast cancer. Additional models included maternal self-reported anxiety. A 1-standard deviation increase in maternally reported anxiety in girls at baseline was associated with earlier subsequent onset of breast (hazard ratio (HR) = 1.22, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.09, 1.36) and pubic hair (HR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.30) development, but not menarche (HR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.83, 1.07). The association of anxiety with earlier breast development persisted after adjustment for maternal anxiety. Increased anxiety in young girls may indicate risk for earlier pubertal onset.

Self-care behaviors in high-risk women for breast cancer: A randomized clinical trial using health belief model education

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in Iranian women. The number of people with this disease is increasing across the world. Positive family history is one of the risk factors for developing breast cancer. However, early detection is the main method to fight this disease. This study was conducted to examine the effect of education based on the health belief model (HBM) on self-care behaviors among first-degree relatives of patients with breast cancer.

METHODS

This clinical trial was conducted in 2016 on 80 women in Tehran city, Iran. Data were collected using a three-part questionnaire regarding demographic data, the HBM, and self-care behaviors. The educational program based on the HBM was held in 4 ninety-minute training sessions through lectures, group discussions, question and answer, image presentations, and PowerPoint presentations. The questionnaires were completed before and 2 months following the intervention by intervention and control groups. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics through the SPSS16 software.

RESULTS

The mean score of the HBM constructs before the intervention in the groups had no statistically significant differences (P > 0.05). Eight weeks after the intervention, the mean score of the constructs of the HBM in the intervention group significantly increased and a statistically significant increase in the mean score of self-care in the intervention group compared to the preintervention was found, so that the self-care behavior score in the intervention group was 0.69 ± 0.09 before the intervention and was changed to 0.74 ± 0.09 after the intervention (P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that education based on the HBM was effective in promoting self-care behaviors among first-degree relatives of breast cancer patients. Therefore, education based on HBM may have an important implication for breast cancer prevention in Iran.

Cancer genetic health communication in families tested for hereditary breast/ovarian cancer risk: a qualitative investigation of impact on children's genetic health literacy and psychosocial adjustment

Children's literacy about the genetics of late-onset hereditary breast/ovarian cancer (HBOC) often develops through conversations with parents about BRCA gene testing and adults' cancer diagnoses. These conversations may promote early understanding of HBOC, but the long-term impact on children's psychosocial adjustment remains unclear. We investigated cancer genetic health communication in BRCA-tested families to consider benefits, risks, and moderating influences on children's understanding and well-being. Adolescent and young adult children (ages 12-24) of mothers who underwent BRCA testing 1+ years previously completed qualitative interviews that were transcribed, coded (intercoder K ≥ .70), and content-analyzed (N = 34). Children readily recalled conversations about BRCA testing and HBOC (100%) that they considered important (94%), but implications for children were ambiguous and obfuscated their concerns. Psychosocial impacts were muted, multifaceted, and displayed a range of favorable (82%), neutral (71%), and unfavorable (59%) response-frequently co-occurring within the same child over different aspects (e.g., medical, concern for self and others). Children verbalized active (50%) and avoidant (38%) coping strategies: about 1:5 endorsed transient thoughts about vulnerability to HBOC, 1:3 had not further considered it, and all reported specific actions they had or would undertake to remain healthy (e.g., diet/exercise). A majority (94%) of children had or would consider genetic testing for themselves, usually later in life (59%). Long-term outcomes highlighted benefits (awareness of HBOC, psychological hardiness, healthier lifestyle behaviors), as well as some psychosocial concerns that could be managed through interventions promoting genetic health literacy.

Association of Prepubertal and Adolescent Androgen Concentrations With Timing of Breast Development and Family History of Breast Cancer

IMPORTANCE

Early breast development is a risk factor for breast cancer, and girls with a breast cancer family history (BCFH) experience breast development earlier than girls without a BCFH.

OBJECTIVES

To assess whether prepubertal androgen concentrations are associated with timing of breast development (analysis 1) and to compare serum androgen concentrations in girls with and without a BCFH (analysis 2).

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Prospective cohort study of 104 girls aged 6 to 13 years at baseline using data collected between August 16, 2011, and March 24, 2016, from the Lessons in Epidemiology and Genetics of Adult Cancer From Youth (LEGACY) Girls Study, New York site.

EXPOSURES

Analysis 1 included serum concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, androstenedione, and testosterone (free and total) measured before breast development and divided at the median into high and low categories. Analysis 2 included the degree of BCFH: first-degree was defined as having a mother with breast cancer and second-degree was defined as having a grandmother or aunt with breast cancer.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Analysis 1 included age at onset of breast development measured using the Pubertal Development Scale (scores range from 1-4; scores ≥2 indicate breast development), and analysis 2 included serum androgen concentrations. We also assessed breast cancer-specific distress using the 8-item Child Impact of Events Scale.

RESULTS

Our analyses included 36 girls for the prospective model, 92 girls for the cross-sectional model, and 104 girls for the longitudinal model. Of the 104 girls, the mean (SD) age at baseline was 10.3 (2.5) years, and 41 (39.4%) were non-Hispanic white, 41 (39.4%) were Hispanic, 13 (12.5%) were non-Hispanic black, and 9 (8.7%) were other race/ethnicity. Forty-two girls (40.4%) had a positive BCFH. Girls with prepubertal androstenedione concentrations above the median began breast development 1.5 years earlier than girls with concentrations below the median (Weibull survival model-estimated median age, 9.4 [95% CI, 9.0-9.8] years vs 10.9 [95% CI, 10.4-11.5] years; P = .001). Similar patterns were observed for dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (1.1 years earlier: age, 9.6 [95% CI, 9.1-10.1] years vs 10.7 [95% CI, 10.2-11.3] years; P = .009), total testosterone (1.4 years earlier: age, 9.5 [95% CI, 9.1-9.9] years vs 10.9 [95% CI, 10.4-11.5] years; P = .001), and free testosterone (1.1 years earlier: age, 9.7 [95% CI, 9.2-10.1] years vs 10.8 [95% CI, 10.2-11.4] years; P = .01). Compared with girls without BCFH, girls with a first-degree BCFH, but not a second-degree BCFH, had 240% higher androstenedione concentrations (geometric means: no BCFH, 0.49 ng/mL vs first-degree BCFH, 1.8 ng/mL vs second-degree, 1.6 ng/mL; P = .01), 10% higher total testosterone concentrations (12.7 ng/dL vs 14.0 ng/dL vs 13.7 ng/dL; P = .01), and 92% higher free testosterone concentrations (1.3 pg/mL vs 2.5 pg/mL vs 0.3 pg/mL; P = .14). The dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate concentration did not differ between BCFH-positive and BCFH-negative girls but was elevated in girls with breast cancer-specific distress.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Our findings suggest that androgen concentrations may differ between girls with and without a BCFH and that elevated hormone concentrations during adolescence may be another factor to help explain the familial clustering of breast cancer.

Preventative Health and Risk Behaviors Among Adolescent Girls With and Without Family Histories of Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

To compare health behaviors (smoking, alcohol use, fruit and vegetable intake, and exercise frequency) and breast self-exam (BSE) between girls with breast cancer family history (BCFH+) and without (BCFH-) and assess associates of behaviors across all girls.

METHODS

A total of 208 BCFH+ girls (11-19 years old), with first- or second-degree relatives with breast cancer or a mother with a BRCA1/2 mutation, and 112 BCFH- peers reported their health behaviors, beliefs, and psychosocial function.

RESULTS

Despite higher BCFH+ girls' greater perceived breast cancer risk, there were no differences between BCFH+ and BCFH- girls on diet, exercise, alcohol initiation, or BSE. BCFH+ girls were slightly more likely to report trying cigarettes (11% vs. 5%, p = .04). In multivariable models with all girls, categorical associations with behaviors included the following: developmental and demographic factors with smoking, alcohol, diet, and exercise; family breast cancer history and experience with smoking, alcohol, and diet; psychosocial factors with smoking; girls perceptions of cancer controllability and mother support for health behaviors with alcohol, diet, exercise, and BSE; and mother behaviors with diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent girls from BCFH+ families reported similar health behaviors to BCFH- peers, signaling that they are not translating their higher perceived risk into cancer control behaviors. Both uncontrollable (i.e., breast cancer experiences) and modifiable factors relate to health behaviors and warrant further investigation. Results indicate that interventions with teens and parents that target modifiable variables such as controllability perceptions, maternal modeling, and communication may relate to better health behaviors and reduced future breast cancer risk.

Please Test My Child for a Cancer Gene, but Don't Tell Her

A 38-year-old woman is diagnosed with Li-Fraumeni syndrome, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that predisposes to a variety of cancers. The woman has an 11-year-old daughter. The geneticist recommends that the child be tested for the Li-Fraumeni genetic variant. The mother is concerned about the impact of testing and diagnosis on Karen's psychological well-being. She describes Karen as "highly strung" and as "a worrier." The child has been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder and is managed by a psychologist for counseling. The child is otherwise well. The mother requests that testing be done without disclosing it to the child by adding the test on to routine blood work done for another reason and requests that the results only be revealed if they are positive. Experts in genetics, law, and bioethics discuss whether it is permissible to test the child without her knowledge or assent.

The Precision Medicine Nation

The United States' ambitious Precision Medicine Initiative proposes to accelerate exponentially the adoption of precision medicine, an approach to health care that tailors disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention to individual variability in genes, environment, and lifestyle. It aims to achieve this by creating a cohort of volunteers for precision medicine research, accelerating biomedical research innovation, and adopting policies geared toward patients' empowerment. As strategies to implement the PMI are formulated, critical consideration of the initiative's ethical and sociopolitical dimensions is needed. Drawing on scholarship of nationalism and democracy, we discuss the PMI's construction of what we term "genomic citizenship"; the possible normative obligations arising therefrom; and the ethical, legal, and social challenges that will ensue. Although the PMI is a work in progress, discussion of the existing and emerging issues can facilitate the development of policies, structures, and procedures that can maximize the initiative's ability to produce equitable and socially sensitive outcomes. Our analysis can also be applied to other population-based, precision medicine research programs.

Psychosocial Adjustment and Perceived Risk Among Adolescent Girls From Families With BRCA1/2 or Breast Cancer History

PURPOSE

To evaluate the impact of breast cancer family history and maternal BRCA1/2 mutation on the psychosocial adjustment and perceived risk in girls age 11 to 19 years old.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Girls age 11 to 19 years old with one or more relatives with breast cancer or a familial BRCA1/2 mutation (breast cancer family history [BCFH] positive, n = 208; n = 69 with BRCA1/2-positive mother), peers (BCFH negative, n = 112), and their mothers completed assessments of psychosocial adjustment, breast cancer-specific distress, and perceived risk of breast cancer.

RESULTS

General psychosocial adjustment did not differ significantly between BCFH-positive and BCFH-negative girls, either by self-report or mother report, except for higher self-esteem among BCFH-positive girls (P = .01). BCFH-positive girls had higher breast cancer-specific distress than BCFH-negative girls (P < .001), but girls from BRCA1/2-positive families did not differ from other BCFH-positive peers. BCFH-positive girls were more likely to report themselves at increased self-risk for breast cancer in adulthood than BCFH-negative peers (74% v 33%, respectively; P ≤ .001). Girls from BRCA1/2-positive families were more likely than other BCFH-positive and BCFH-negative peers to report themselves at increased risk (P < .001). In all groups, perceived risk of breast cancer was associated with older age. Higher breast cancer-specific distress among adolescent girls was associated with higher self-perceived risk of breast cancer and higher maternal breast cancer-specific distress.

CONCLUSION

Adolescent girls from BRCA1/2-positive and breast cancer families have higher self-esteem and do not have poorer psychosocial adjustment than peers. However, they do experience greater breast cancer-specific distress and perceived risk of breast cancer, particularly among older girls. Understanding the impact is important to optimize responses to growing up in families at familial and genetic risk for breast cancer, particularly given the debate over the genetic testing of children for cancer susceptibility in adulthood.