Mechanical and optical properties of conventional restorative glass-ionomer cements - a systematic review

Titanium dioxide nanotubes applied to conventional glass ionomer cement influence the expression of immunoinflammatory markers: An in vitro study

Objectives

To assess the impact of different concentrations TiO2-nt incorporated into a glass ionomer cement on the proliferation, mitochondrial metabolism, morphology, and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production of cultured fibroblasts (NIH/3T3), whether or not stimulated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS-2 μg/mL, 24 h).

Methods

TiO2-nt was added to KM (Ketac Molar EasyMix™, 3 %, 5 %, 7 % in weight); unblended KM was used as the control. The analyses included: Cell proliferation assay (n = 6; 24/48/72h); Mitochondrial metabolism assay (n = 6; 24/48/72h); Confocal laser microscopy (n = 3; 24/48/72h); Determination of biomarkers (IL-1β/IL-6/IL-10/VEGF/TNF) by using both multiplex technology (n = 6; 12/18 h) and the quantitative real-time PCR assay (q-PCR) (n = 3, 24/72/120 h). The data underwent analysis using both the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests, and by generalized linear models (α = 0.05).

Results

It demonstrated that cell proliferation increased over time, regardless of the presence of TiO2-nt or LPS, and displayed a significant increase at 72 h; mitochondrial metabolism increased (p < 0.05), irrespective of exposure to LPS (p = 0.937); no cell morphology changes were observed; TiO2-nt reverted the impact of KM on the secreted levels of the evaluated proteins and the gene expressions in the presence of LPS (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

TiO2-nt did not adversely affect the biological behavior of fibroblastic cells cultured on GIC discs.

Correlation between fluoride release, surface hardness and diametral tensile strength of restorative glass ionomer cements

Background

The aim of this study was to determine if there is a correlation between fluoride release, surface hardness, and diametral tensile strength of restorative glass ionomer cements (GICs).

Material and Methods

Conventional (Riva Self Cure) and resin-modified (Riva Light Cure) GICs were used. Thirty-four samples (ø 6 x 3 mm) were prepared for each cement. The kinetics of fluoride release (n=4) was evaluated over 28 days using a fluoride-selective electrode (ISE 4010-C00). The analysis of surface hardness (n=10) was performed using a microhardness tester (Shimadzu HMV-2000, Japan) with a Knoop indenter and a load of 25 gf for 30 seconds. The diametral tensile strength test (n=10) was conducted on a universal testing machine at a speed of 0.75 mm/min. Fluoride release data were analyzed by two-way repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test, while independent t-test was used for other analyses (α=0.05).

Results

Overall, the groups showed higher fluoride release until day 7 and a progressive decrease until day 28. On day 1 and day 21, Riva Self Cure showed a higher level of release than Riva Light Cure (p=0.026). Riva Light Cure showed higher diametral tensile strength (p<0.0001) and surface hardness (p=0.034) than Riva Self Cure. A negative correlation was found, indicating that higher fluoride release is associated with lower surface hardness and diametral tensile strength.

Conclusion

Fluoride release and mechanical performance are related properties of GICs, and these properties exhibit different values depending on the type of material. Resin-modified GIC release less fluoride but exhibit better mechanical performance compared to conventional GIC. Key words:Diametral Tensile Strength, Fluoride, Glass Ionomer Cement, Surface Hardness.

Effect of ionizing radiation on the mechanical properties of current fluoride-releasing materials

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of fractional radiation on the mechanical properties of fluoride-releasing materials.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

High-viscosity glass ionomer cement (F9), resin-modified glass ionomer cement (F2), glass hybrid restoration (EQ), and bioactive composite (AC) were divided into 3 subgroups: 0, 35, and 70 Gy fractional radiation doses. The specimens were subjected to surface roughness, Vickers microhardness, and compressive strength tests. The chemical components and morphology of the tested specimens were observed via energy dispersive spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc analysis.

RESULTS

After exposure to fractional radiation, the surface roughness increased in all the groups. F9 had the highest surface roughness, while AC had the lowest surface roughness within the same radiation dose. The Vickers microhardness decreased in F9 and EQ. The AC had the highest compressive strength among all the groups, followed by F2. More cracks and voids were inspected, and no substantial differences in the chemical components were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

After fractional radiation, the surface roughness of all fluoride-releasing materials increased, while the Vickers microhardness of F9 and EQ decreased. However, the compressive strength increased only in F2 and AC.

Clinical Performance of Glass Ionomer Cement in Load-Bearing Restorations: A Systematic Review

Glass ionomer cement (GIC) is a self-adhesive dental restorative material composed of a polyacrylic acid liquid and fluoro-aluminosilicate glass powder. It is commonly used for cementation during dental restoration. This study aimed to systematically review the existing literature regarding the clinical performance of GIC in load-bearing dental restorations. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in EBSCO, PubMed, Embrace, and Cochrane databases. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included in the search, and a broad search technique was used, where inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. After a thorough evaluation, 12 RCTs were extensively reviewed, and whether GIC is suitable for load-bearing restorations was determined. Significant variations in staining surface or margin, color match, translucency, esthetic anatomical form, retention, material fracture, marginal adaptation, surface luster, occlusal contour, wear, and approximal anatomical form indicated the unsuitability of GIC. By contrast, significance differences in patient view and periodontal response indicated that GIC is suitable. No significant differences in postoperative sensitivity, recurrence of caries, or tooth integrity were observed. Nevertheless, the results of the review demonstrated that the clinical performance of GIC is comparable to that of traditional restorative materials with regard to the parameters analyzed. GIC is a suitable restorative material for load-bearing restorations regarding surface margin, esthetic anatomical form, material retention and fracture, marginal adaptation, occlusal contour, wear, and approximal anatomical form. It reduces other parameters, such as postoperative sensitivity, recurrence of caries, and tooth integrity.

Comparison of Antibacterial Activity of Various Additives to Glass Ionomer Restoration: An In Vitro Study

Introduction

Glass-ionomer (GIC) cement was introduced in 1972 as a "new filling material of dentistry". It is bioactive and plays an important role in caries prevention due to its ability to release fluoride into the oral environment and remineralization of dental hard tissues. However, its properties such as moisture sensitivity, wear resistance, and bond strength are not sufficient to inflict the antimicrobial environment. This in vitro study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial property of four different GIC cements against S. mutans and L. acidophilus.

Methodology

This study was conducted on 120 disk-shaped samples (30 for antibacterial activity), which were placed in Petri dishes holding Müeller Hinton agar. Bacterial strains were overhauled in the brain heart infusion culture medium, and by utilizing disposable straps on blood agar medium, 100 ml of the strain inoculum was plated out. Through the diffusion method on the solid medium, the antibacterial activity of GIC was determined.

Results

The antibacterial activity was the highest for Riva silver and chemifill rock for 24 and 72 hours, respectively. For 48 hours, Equia forte and chemifill rock had the highest antibacterial activity, and there was a significant difference between the groups.

Conclusion

Ketac™ molar easymix inhibited the growth of S. mutans and L. acidophilus but had the lowest antibacterial effect compared to other GICs.

In vitro characterization of a novel resin-based restorative material containing alkaline fillers

OBJECTIVE

In this study, a comparative evaluation of the physicochemical properties of Cention N and other direct restorative materials was performed. Three restorative materials-a resin-modified glass ionomer (Fuji II LC), an alkasite-based resinous material (Cention N), and a resin composite (Tetric N Ceram)-were characterized in terms of degree of conversion, Knoop hardness number (KHN) ratio, flexural strength, elastic modulus, water sorption, water solubility, microshear bond strength to dentin, immediate microleakage, and radiopacity.

METHODOLOGY

The microshear bond strength to dentin and microleakage of Cention N were evaluated with and without the application of an adhesive system (Tetric N Bond Universal). A one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze the data in terms of degree of conversion, KHN ratio, water sorption, water solubility, microshear bond strength to dentin, and radiopacity. A two-way ANOVA test (carried out considering the material type and ethanol aging as factors) was used to analyze the data in terms of flexural strength and elastic modulus. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to statistically analyze the data on microleakage. A significance level of α=0.05 was used for all tests.

RESULTS

Fuji II LC was found to have the highest degree of conversion, water sorption, and microleakage, as well as the lowest flexural strength. Cention N had the highest solubility; when used with an adhesive system, it achieved bond strength and microleakage similar to those of the Tetric N Ceram composite. Tetric N Ceram had the highest degree of conversion, KHN ratio, and radiopacity. Conclusion: The properties of Cention N validate its efficacy as an alternative direct restorative material when used in conjunction with an adhesive system.

TiO2 nanotube-based nanotechnology applied to high-viscosity conventional glass-ionomer cement: ultrastructural analyses and physicochemical characterization

This study characterized TiO2 nanotube (TiO2-nt) ultrastructure and morphology, and the physicochemical impact on high-viscosity conventional glass-ionomer cement (GIC). TiO2-nt was synthesized by the alkaline method (n = 3), assessed by scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM), and was added (3%, 5%, 7%-in weight) to KM (Ketac Molar EasyMix™). Analyses included: SEM; Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS); Raman spectroscopy (RAMAN); Setting time with Gillmore needles (ST); Color (Co); Radiopacity (XR); Water sorption (WS); and solubility (SO). Quantitative data were submitted to ANOVA and Tukey's tests (chr = 0.05). External and internal TiO2-nt diameters were 11 ± 2 nm and 6 ± 0 nm, respectively. Data analyses showed: (i) TiO2-nt present into KM matrix, with a concentration-dependent increase of Ti levels into KM, (ii) physical interaction between KM and TiO2-nt, (iii) longer initial ST for the 7% group compared to KM and 3% groups (p ≤ 0.01), (iv) decreased luminosity and yellowness for the 5% and 7% groups, (v) 36% greater radiopacity for the 5% group compared to enamel, dentin, and KM, and (vi) lower SO values for the 5% group, with no significant differences on WS across the groups. TiO2-nt displayed physical interaction with KM matrix, and also modified SO, XR and Co, without affecting ST. This study provides information on the potential impact of TiO2-nt on GIC performance. TiO2-nt may be proposed to boost confidence among dental surgeons in terms of GIC's handling characteristics, success rate and differential diagnostic.

Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity of a Bioactive Restorative Material Versus a Glass-Ionomer Cement on Streptococcus Mutans: In-Vitro Study

BACKGROUND

Dental caries management consists of both preventive and restorative approaches. Pediatric dentists can rely on many techniques and materials to restore decayed teeth, but a high failure rate is still observed, mainly due to secondary caries. New restorative bioactive materials combine the mechanical and aesthetic characteristics of resinous materials with the capability to remineralize and the antimicrobial properties of glass ionomers, thus counteracting the occurrence of secondary caries. The aim of this study was to assess the antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans of a bioactive restorative material (ACTIVA™ BioActive-Restorative™-Pulpdent©) and a glass ionomer cement with silver particles added (Ketac™ Silver-3M©), using agar diffusion assay.

METHODS

Each material was formed into disks of 4 mm in diameter, and four discs of each material were placed on nine agar plates. The analysis was repeated seven times.

RESULTS

Both materials showed statistically significant growth inhibition properties against S. mutans (p < 0.05). The difference in the effectiveness of the two materials was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Both ACTIVA™ and Ketac™ Silver can be recommended since both are similarly effective against S. mutans. However ACTIVA™, given its bioactivity and better aesthetics and mechanical properties compared to GICs, may provide better clinical performance.

Dental Luting Cements: An Updated Comprehensive Review

The cementation of indirect restoration is one of the most important steps in prosthetic and restorative dentistry. Cementation aims to bond the prosthetic restoration to the prepared enamel or enamel and dentine. Successful cementation protocols prevent biofilm formation at the margin between tooth and restoration and minimize mechanical and biological complications. With the advancements in dental cements, they have been modified to be versatile in terms of handling, curing, and bond strengths. This review presents updates on dental cements, focusing on the composition, properties, advantages, limitations, and indications of the various cements available. Currently, dental restorations are made from various biomaterials, and depending on each clinical case, an appropriate luting material will be selected. There is no luting material that can be universally used. Therefore, it is important to distinguish the physical, mechanical, and biological properties of luting materials in order to identify the best options for each case. Nowadays, the most commonly used dental cements are glass-ionomer and resin cement. The type, shade, thickness of resin cement and the shade of the ceramic, all together, have a tangible influence on the final restoration color. Surface treatments of the restoration increase the microtensile bond strength. Hence, the proper surface treatment protocol of both the substrate and restoration surfaces is needed before cementation. Additionally, the manufacturer's instructions for the thin cement-layer thickness are important for the long-term success of the restoration.

Comparative evaluation of net setting time and radiopacity in Fuji II (GC-Japan) restorative glass ionomer and Iranian glass ionomer

Background

Comparing the net setting time and radiopacity of an Iranian glass ionomer cement (GIC) and Fuji II (GC, Japan) according to ISO 9917-1:2007 standard.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental/in vitro study, for both tests, we prepared 20 samples of Fuji II glass ionomer (self-cure restorative glass ionomer, batch number: 1608031, GC Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) and Iranian glass ionomer (Ava Tajhiz Dandan-Iran) at P/L of 2/7:1. Then, to determine the net setting time, we prepared a metal mold with dimensions of 10 mm in length, 8 mm in width, and 5 mm in height. Ninety seconds after mixing, the surface of the sample was subjected to the indenter, and the net setting time was recorded as the time elapsed between the end of the mixing and the time needle stopped making a complete circular indentation. To determine radiopacity, the specimens were poured into a mold with a diameter of 15 mm and thickness of 1 mm. Samples and a step wedge were irradiated with X-rays. Particle size analysis and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis were also done for both cements. Test results were investigated with SPSS and through independent t-test (P < 0.05).

Results

The mean value of net setting time for Fuji II was 4.83 min and for the Iranian Glass ionomer was 3.83 min (P < 0.05). The mean value of radiopacity for Fuji II was 2.3 mmAL and for Iranian Glass ionomer was 1.9 mmAl (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Net setting time and radiopacity of the glass ionomers were within the range of ISO 9917-1:2007. If all properties of the Iranian cement are set appropriately in future investigations, we propose to use it instead of Fuji II GIC. This has the additional benefit of being cost-efficient as Iranian cement costs less than Fuji II cement.

Effects of Protective Surface Coating on Fluoride Release and Recharge of Recent Uncoated High-Viscosity Glass Ionomer Cement

The ability to release and recharge fluoride is a property of glass ionomer cement materials, which is an advantage for patients with a high caries risk. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the amount of released and recharged fluoride in recent uncoated high-viscosity glass ionomer cement (KetacTM Universal AplicapTM) with different surface coatings and at different time points. In total, 135 cylindrical-shaped specimens were equally divided into the following three groups: KetacTM Universal AplicapTM, KetacTM Molar AplicapTM, and KetacTM Fil Plus AplicapTM. The different coatings performed on each group were as follows: uncoated, coated with KetacTM Glaze, and coated with G-Coat PlusTM. The amounts of released and recharged fluoride were measured at 24 h and at weeks 1, 2, 3, and 4. The recharging agent was a 1.23% APF gel. KetacTM Universal AplicapTM showed the highest released fluoride at all time points and the highest recharged fluoride at weeks 1, 2, and 3. Both the KetacTM Glaze- and G-Coat PlusTM-coated specimens presented significantly lower released and recharged fluoride ions than the uncoated group at all time points (p < 0.001). Coating with G-Coat PlusTM significantly decreased the released and recharged fluoride compared to the coating with KetacTM Glaze at almost all time points (p < 0.05), except for weeks 1 and 2. The application of coating agents reduced the amount of released and recharged fluoride by the KetacTM Universal AplicapTM.

Conventional and Resin-Modified Glass Ionomer Cement Surface Characteristics after Acidic Challenges

The aim of the present study was to assess by atomic force microscopy (AFM) the surface roughness of a traditional glass ionomer cement- GIC (Fuji IX GP, GC Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) and a resin modified glass ionomer cement- RMGIC (Vitremer, 3M ESPE, St. Paul, MN, USA) after different immersion regimes on some acidic drinks. Sixteen cylindrical samples having the height of 5 mm and the thickness of 2 mm were obtained from each material and they were divided into two groups: Group I (Fuji IX samples) and Group II (Vitremer samples). Specimens of each group were then randomly divided into 4 subgroups: subgroup A (control)—15 samples were kept in artificial saliva and in the other three subgroups, each having 15 samples the samples were immersed in Coca-Cola (subgroup B), Cappy lemonade and mint (subgroup C) and Fuzetea (subgroup D) for 7 days (subgroups A1–D1), 14 days (subgroups A2–D2), and 21 days (subgroups A3–D3). AFM qualitative and quantitative surface evaluation (mean value of surface roughness parameter, Sa) of each sample was performed. The highest surface roughness was determined when both materials were submerged 14 days in acidic drinks. Traditional GIC was more affected by acidic environment when comparing to RMGIC.

Mechanical Properties of the Modified Denture Base Materials and Polymerization Methods: A Systematic Review

Amidst growing technological advancements, newer denture base materials and polymerization methods have been introduced. During fabrication, certain mechanical properties are vital for the clinical longevity of the denture base. This systematic review aimed to explore the effect of newer denture base materials and/or polymerization methods on the mechanical properties of the denture base. An electronic database search of English peer-reviewed published papers was conducted using related keywords from 1 January 2011, up until 31 December 2021. This systematic review was based on guidelines proposed by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). The search identified 579 papers. However, the inclusion criteria recognized 22 papers for eligibility. The risk of bias was moderate in all studies except in two where it was observed as low. Heat cure polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and compression moulding using a water bath is still a widely used base material and polymerization technique, respectively. However, chemically modified PMMA using monomers, oligomers, copolymers and cross-linking agents may have a promising result. Although chemically modified PMMA resin might enhance the mechanical properties of denture base material, no clear inferences can be drawn about the superiority of any polymerization method other than the conventional compression moulding technique.

Genetic polymorphisms and protein levels in vocal fold leukoplakia: a systematic review

Vocal fold leukoplakia (VFL) has a risk of malignant transformation. Therefore, patients can have symptoms such as dysphonia, vocal strain, difficulty breathing, and dysphagia. Additionally, there is a genetic predisposition that can be associated with genetic polymorphisms. We aimed to evaluate the influence of genetic polymorphisms and protein levels in the etiology of VFL. Our study followed the PRISMA checklist and was registered on PROSPERO database. The questions were: "Are genetic polymorphisms involved in the etiology of VFL? Are protein levels altered in patients with VFL?". Eligibility criteria were case control studies that compared the presence of polymorphisms or/and protein levels of subjects diagnosed with VFL and healthy controls. Of the 905 articles retrieved, five articles with a total of 1038 participants were included in this study. The C allele of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP)-819 T/C IL-10, A allele of the SNP -592 A/C IL-10, CT genotype of the SNP rs11886868 C/T BCL11A, GG genotype of the SNP rs4671393 A/G BCL11A, LL genotype, and L allele of (GT)n repeat polymorphisms of the HO-1 were risk factors for VFL development. Nevertheless, there was a lack of association between VFL and the -1082 A/G IL-10, rs14024 CK-1, and -309 T/G Mdm2 SNPs. The concentrations of the MDM2, BCL11A, and HO-1 proteins were modified, while IL-10 levels were normally expressed in these subjects. In conclusion, most markers evaluated in this review could be potential indicators to develop effective therapies, avoiding a malignant transformation of the lesion.

Bond Strength of Self-Adhesive Flowable Composites and Glass Ionomer Cements to Primary Teeth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of In Vitro Studies

Background: Conventional composites are largely used in pediatric restorative dentistry and demonstrate successful clinical outcomes. However, the need for simplification of operative steps in young or uncooperative children demands reliable alternatives. Therefore, the aim of the present systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the in vitro bond strength of glass ionomer cements (GICs) and self-adhesive flowable composites (SFCs) on deciduous teeth. Methods: A comprehensive literature search according to the PRISMA checklist was manually and electronically performed by two independent reviewers through the following databases: MEDLINE/PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Embase, to include in vitro studies comparing GICs and SFCs bond strength values of restorations on primary teeth. In addition, three groups of meta-analyses were conducted using random-effects models. Results: Three articles meeting the inclusion criteria were selected and subjected to both qualitative and quantitative assessment. No statistically significant difference was found between SFC versus GIC; however, both groups significantly differed with conventional flowable composites (CFs). Conclusions: Despite the absence of significant difference in bond strength values, SFCs may be considered a valid alternative to GICs in the restoration of deciduous teeth, although CFs proved better in vitro performances.

Color Stability and Translucency of Polymer-Infiltrated Ceramic-Network Materials—A Systematic Review of the Literature

This systematic review aimed to compile information and report the color stability and translucency of polymer-infiltrated ceramic-network (PICN) materials for suitable clinical applications in dentistry. Original peer-reviewed articles in electronic databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched to identify relevant papers published between January 2013 and August 2020. The published papers were only in the English language and limited to in vitro studies, and experimental reports were considered. The data from nine studies were considered when reviewing the color stability and translucency of PICN in comparison to other commonly used restorative materials. Among the included studies, color stability assessment was performed in five studies, and the other four studies were involved in the combined assessment of both color stability and translucency. PICN materials are a comparatively newer class of restorative materials and are recommended to overcome the drawbacks of ceramics and resin composites. The outcomes of previous laboratory studies still do not provide convincing results regarding the optical properties of PICN materials. However, with existing sources and evidence, PICN materials exhibit less color stability than ceramics do but better color stability compared to that of resin nanoceramics (RNC) and resin composites. The translucency of PICN materials is low compared to that of ceramics, nanoceramics, and resin composites.

Shear bond strength analysis and marginal gap evaluation of restoration–tooth interface of aesthetic restorations after simulated Co-60 gamma irradiation

Background:

Radiotherapy to the head and neck region may cause considerable radiotherapy-induced changes in the surrounding tissues. These changes are oral mucositis, hyposalivation, dental caries, osteoradionecrosis, trismus and overall impact on patients’ quality of life. Tooth-coloured synthetic materials, unlike metallic restoration, did not influence radiation dose distribution. However, their exposure to a gamma radiation therapeutic dose during treatment might cause structural and compositional changes that alter their mechanical and physical properties.

Aim:

This study intends to evaluate the effect of Co 60 gamma rays on shear bond strength and marginal adaptation of already restored tooth surfaces, to help in material selection before the onset of radiotherapy.

Materials and methods:

Hundred freshly extracted human permanent mandibular molar teeth collected and stored in a 0·2% thymol solution for disinfection and were randomly divided into two groups of 50 each, to be tested for the shear bond strength of restoration to dentin and the marginal gap at tooth–restoration interface, respectively.

Results:

ANOVA showed a significant effect of both radiotherapy (F = 40·33, p < 0·001) and restorations (134·00, p < 0·001) on the marginal gap at the interface. In the without radiotherapy group, the mean marginal gap was least in Group Z250, and in with radiation, Bulk Fill has the least mean marginal gap. The mean shear bond strength was comparatively higher for all restorations without radiation than with radiation (p < 0·001).

Findings:

Gamma radiation affects the physical or mechanical properties of tooth structure and the tooth restorative interface. Composites seem to be good restorative material when placed before the onset of radiotherapy in head and neck cancer patients.

Effects of ionizing radiation on surface properties of current restorative dental materials

To investigate the impact of radiotherapy on surface properties of restorative dental materials. A conventional resin composite-CRC (Aura Enamel), a bulk-fill resin composite-BFRC (Aura Bulk-fill), a conventional glass ionomer cement-CGIC (Riva self cure), and a resin-modified glass ionomer cement-RMGIC (Riva light cure) were tested. Forty disc-shaped samples from each material (8 mm diameter × 2 mm thickness) (n = 10) were produced according to manufacturer directions and then stored in water distilled for 24 h. Surface wettability (water contact angle), Vickers microhardness, and micromorphology through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) before and after exposition to ionizing radiation (60 Gy) were obtained. The data were statistically evaluated using the two-way ANOVA and Tukey posthoc test (p < 0.05). Baseline and post-radiation values of contact angles were statistically similar for CRC, BFRC, and RMGIC, whilst post-radiation values of contact angles were statistically lower than baseline ones for CGIC. Exposition to ionizing radiation statistically increased the microhardness of CRC, and statistically decreased the microhardness of CGIC. The surface micromorphology of all materials was changed post-radiation. Exposure to ionizing radiation negatively affected the conventional glass ionomer tested, while did not alter or improved surface properties testing of the resin composites and the resin-modified glass ionomer cement tested.

Effect of the incorporation of hydroxyapatite on the diametral tensile strength of conventional and hybrid glass ionomer cements

The objective was to evaluate the effect of the incorporation of calcium hydroxyapatite particles (HAp) in the diametral tensile strength of a conventional type II glass ionomer (GC Gold Label 2) and a resin-modified glass ionomer cement (GC Gold Label 2 LC R). Two experimental HAp (E1HAp or E2HAp) were synthesized and characterized using X-ray diffraction and Confocal Raman spectroscopy. Both HAp were added into the powder of a conventional or resin-modified glass ionomer cement at 5 or 10 wt.%. A commercial HAp (CHAp) was used as reference material. For each glass ionomer cement, a group without the incorporation of HAp was used as a control. A universal testing machine was used for the mechanical test. The results were analyzed through a two-way ANOVA test followed by a complementary Tukey test. For all analyzes, the level of significance was set at α = 0.05. The average particle size for E1Hap was 15 µm, E2HAp was 35 μm and for CHAp was 1 µm. For conventional GIC, the addition of 10% E1HAp and 5% CHAp significantly increased the diametral tensile strength values (p ≤ 0.005). On the other hand, for the resin-modified GIC, except for the 5% E2HAp group, all experimental groups significantly reduced the values of diametral tensile strength (p ≤ 0.007). The addition of HAp improved the mechanical properties only for the conventional glass ionomer cement.

Comprehensive characterisation of flexural mechanical properties and a new classification for porosity of 11 contemporary ion-leaching dental restorative materials

The objectives of this study were to evaluate 4 aspects of ion-leaching restorative materials (ILMs): 4-point bending flexural strength (4 PB-FS) and relative mechanical properties; biaxial flexural strength (B-FS) in relation to 4 PB-FS; porosity; and surface morphology. Eleven ILMs were used for the 4-point bending test. Bar-shaped (n = 15) samples were fabricated, stored in distilled water for 7 days. Then 4 PB-FS and the other mechanical properties were determined. Five ILMs were selected for the B-FS test using disk specimens (n = 15). The correlation between 4 PB-FS and B-FS was addressed. After the 4 PB test, 5 randomised fragments from each material were used to make 0.5 mm-thick sections for light microscopy to investigate the degree of porosity using reflected and transmitted lights. Eight ILMs were selected for quantitative analysis of the fractional % pore volume (PV%) due to their relative pore prominence using ImageJ software. One-way ANOVA/Dunnett's T3 was used to test for significance. Resin-based ILMs (RB-ILMs) were ranked first (p < 0.05) for 4 PB-FS values (53.3-110.2 MPa) followed by resin-modified glass-ionomer cements (RMGICs; 30.9-44.3 MPa) and high-viscosity glass-ionomer cements (HVGICs; 12.9-19.6 MPa), respectively. 'Flexural modulus' (4 PB-E) and 'flexural toughness' (4 PB-T) of ILMs varied even though similar 4 PB-FS values were observed. There was a positive correlation (p < 0.001) between 4PB-FS and B-FS (R² = 0.992) with B-FS>4 PB-FS. There was no correlation between PV% and 4 PB-FS. In summary, material type played a major role in 4 PB-FS outcomes, whereas PV% seemed to have a minor effect when evaluating each material group of ILMs. Brittleness/ductility of ILMs was observed when determining 4 PB-E and 4 PB-T relative to 4 PB-FS. When selecting materials for posterior load-bearing dental restorations in high-caries risk patients, RB-ILMs or RMGICs would be more appropriate due to their superior flexural properties compared with recently introduced HVGICs. The decision for each situation will also be dependent on further evidence of the ion-leaching capacity.

Consensus on glass-ionomer cement thresholds for restorative indications

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this paper is to present the results of a consensus meeting on the threshold property requirements for the clinical use of conventional glass-ionomer cements (GICs) for restorative indications.

METHODS

Twenty-one experts on GICs evaluated the results of tests on mechanical and optical properties of 18 different brands of restorative GICs: Bioglass R [B], Chemfil Rock [CR], Equia Forte [EF], Gold Label 2 [GL2], Gold Label 9 [GL9], Glass Ionomer Cement II [GI], Ionglass [IG], Ion Z [IZ], Ionomaster [IM], Ionofil Plus [IP], Ionostar Plus [IS], Ketac Molar Easymix [KM], Magic Glass [MG], Maxxion R [MA], Riva Self Cure [R], Vidrion R [V], Vitro Fil [VF] and Vitro Molar [VM]. All experiments were carried out by a team of researchers from Brazil and England following strict protocols, under the same laboratory conditions throughout, and maintaining data integrity.

RESULTS

There was consensus on: determining as primary properties of the material: compressive strength, microhardness, acid erosion and fluoride release, and as secondary properties: contrast ratio and translucency parameter, in order to rank the materials. Seven brands were below the thresholds for restorative indications: IZ, IM, IG, MA, VF, B and MG.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the primary properties adopted as being essential for restorative indications, the conventional restorative GICs that met the thresholds and could be considered suitable as long-term restorative materials were: EF, GI, GL9, KM, IP, GL2, IS, CR, V, VM and R. A decision-making process to select the best GIC must also include results from clinical trials.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides a ranking of GICs that could be considered suitable as long-term restorative materials based on their main properties.

In vitro wear of (resin-coated) high-viscosity glass ionomer cements and glass hybrid restorative systems

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to investigate the volumetric abrasive wear of a high-viscosity glass ionomer cement (hvGIC; Equia Fil) and a glass hybrid restorative system (ghRS; Equia Forte), each being recommended as amalgam alternatives. Both materials were applied with or without their respective resinous coating, and were compared with a conventional GIC (Ketac Fil) and a hybrid composite resin (CR; G-ænial Posterior).

METHODS

78 standardized occlusal Class I cavities were restored with the various materials (n = 13 per group). Before and after chewing simulation (30,000 cycles at 40 N), each sample underwent optical scanning procedures (Omnicam). A comparison of the total wear using a fluorescence-aided identification technique (OraCheck) followed, and differences (α = 5%) between groups were compared by means of MANOVA.

RESULTS

Regarding the wear rates of hvGIC and ghRS, no differences could be observed (p > .050), and this was not affected by the resinous coating. All hvGIC and ghRS restorations showed significantly higher abrasive wear than CR (p < .001), while the conventional GIC displayed a significant underperformance compared with any other material (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Resinous coating of hvGIC or ghRS does not appear to exert an effective long-term protection against advanced abrasive wear. Compared to the conventional GIC showing a considerable substance loss, both hvGIC and ghRS materials revealed an improved abrasion resistance, but clearly failed to meet the excellent values of the CR.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Occlusal loading should be carefully considered when using hvGIC or ghRS as amalgam (or composite resin) alternatives for the restoration of posterior teeth.

Acid Resistance of Glass Ionomer Cement Restorative Materials

In view of the need for aesthetics, restorations of teeth will typically be completed using tooth colored restorative materials. With the advent of biomimetic restorative materials, such as glass ionomer cements (GIC), much greater emphasis is now being placed on how well such materials can resist the challenge of acids that are present in foods and drinks, or gastric contents that are regurgitated. This laboratory study compared the dissolution and behavior of five GIC materials (GC Fuji® VII, GC Fuji® Bulk, GC Fuji® IX Fast, Fuji® IX Extra and GC Equia® Forte Fil) when exposed to three acids (citric acid, phosphoric acid and lactic acid), versus ultrapure deionized water, which was used as a control. Discs of each material GIC were submerged in solutions and percentage weight changes over time determined. Subsequently, the GIC materials were also placed as a part of standardized Class II sandwich restorations in bovine teeth (n = 20), and submerged in the solutions, and the extent of GIC dissolution and protection of the adjacent tooth was scored. Weight loss increased with time and with acid concentration. Overall, the most soluble material was GC Fuji® IX Extra, while GC Fuji® IX Fast and GC Fuji® Bulk were less soluble, and the least soluble material was GC Equia® Forte Fil. The most destructive solution for both the discs and for GIC restorations in teeth was 10% citric acid, while the least destructive acid was 0.1% lactic acid. The more recent GIC materials GC Fuji® Bulk and GC Equia® Forte Fil showed increased acid resistance over the older GIC materials, and this further justifies their use in open sandwich Class II restorations in more hostile environments.

Color Stability of Glass Ionomer Cement after Reinforced with Two Different Nanoparticles

Aim

This study aimed to compare the staining characteristics of a commercially available restorative glass ionomer cement to a formulation reinforced by the addition of carbon nanotubes and another formulation reinforced by the addition of silver nanoparticles to the powder of the same cement. Methodology. Twenty samples each of a control glass ionomer cement (PULPDENT® Glass Fill®, Pulpdent Corp. Watertown, MA, USA), control cement reinforced with 0.0006 gm (0.03% by weight) of carbon nanotubes (Sigma Aldrich, St Louis MO, USA), and control cement reinforced with 0.2 gm (10% by weight) of silver nanoparticles (Nanocyl™, Nanocyl SA, Sambreville, Belgium) were immersed in a staining solution. Color evaluations were carried out after 1 h, 24 h, and 1 week. Color change values were calculated.

Results

The results indicated that carbon nanotube reinforced specimens exhibited less color stability when compared to controlled glass ionomer cement specimens; however, both samples had significantly greater color stability than silver nanoparticle reinforced glass ionomer samples.

Conclusion

It can be concluded within the limitations of this study that carbon nanotube reinforced glass ionomer cements have better color stability than silver nanoparticle reinforced glass ionomer cements.

Forensic study of mechanical properties of dental restoration after burial in mangrove environment

Conducting research in the field of forensic sciences with methodologies that simulate situations found in the day-to-day practice of a given field of expertise is relevant insofar as this approach can produce results that are as close as possible to reality. In this context, the present study provided situations based on burial in a mangrove environment to estimate the changes in the mechanical properties (Knoop microhardness, roughness and color) of dental restorations utilizing silver amalgam, composite resin and glass ionomer cement over the time of burial. The silver amalgam showed a significant increase in surface roughness and a reduction in Knoop microhardness. Composite resin showed a statistically significant increase in color variation, and the glass ionomer cement showed significant increases in color variation and Knoop microhardness. These results allowed us to conclude that teeth restored with silver amalgam, composite resin and glass ionomer cement submitted to burial in mangrove environments produce different changes in surface roughness, Knoop microhardness and color properties depending on the time of burial to which the victims were submitted. These proprieties could help the forensic sciences to estimate time intervals for burial in mangrove environments.