Toxoplasma gondii in goats from Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil: risks factors and epidemiology

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in goats (Capra hircus) in the state of Espírito Santo, Southeast Brazil

Toxoplasma gondii is described as a potential cause of abortion in goats and as a threat to public health. To estimate the prevalence of goats infected by T. gondii, in different cities in the Espírito Santo State, and to identify possible risk factors for infection a serological study was conducted. A total of 146 goat serum samples from the cities of Cariacica, Serra and Vila Velha were analyzed. The presence of IgG Class Immunoglobulins was serologically evaluated by Immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and by Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). The seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii was 46.6% (68/146) in both techniques and the same samples got the same results in both techniques. Among the analyzed sera, 70.6% (48/68) exhibited high-avidity IgG antibodies, and 29.4% (20/68) exhibited low-avidity IgG antibodies, suggesting that the infection was chronic in the infected animals. Female sex, age group over two years old, water from the public supply system, storage of food and supplies in an open and unprotected place, and the presence of a domestic cat on the property were identified as risk factors for T. gondii infection in goats. The state of Espirito Santo has a high frequency of infected goats, and this is the first research on caprine toxoplasmosis seroepidemiology in that region.

Serosurvey of selected reproductive pathogens in domestic ruminants from Upper Egypt

Toxoplasmosis, neosporosis, and Q fever are among the most important abortifacient diseases in ruminants worldwide. These diseases result in huge economic losses in livestock besides the fact that some of are of public health concern. The present study aimed to update the data about the current seroepidemiological situation of these diseases in Upper Egypt. A total of 411 blood samples were collected from small and large ruminants and serologically tested against the presence of T. gondii, N. caninum, and C. burnetii. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) models were performed to assess the potential risk factors associated with the exposure to these pathogens. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii was 47.9% (197/411) with an individual seropositivity of 59.4% (63/106), 58.6% (17/29), 38.8% (54/139) and 46% (63/137) in cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats, respectively. Meanwhile, 9.7% (38/411) of the examined animals were tested positive for anti-N. caninum antibodies, with an individual seropositivity of 13.2% (12/106), 34.5% (10/29), 8.6% (12/139) and 2.9% (4/137) in cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats, respectively. Furthermore, the overall prevalence of antibodies against C. burnetii was 17.3% (63/411), and exposure to this pathogen was detected in 4.7% (5/106) of cattle, 19.3% (20/129) of sheep, 29.2% (38/130) of goats but none of the examined buffalo were found to be seropositive. A total of 12.1% (50/411) of the examined animals showed co-exposure to at least two of the tested pathogens. Regarding the potential risk factors, there were statistically significant differences among species in the frequency of exposure to the three tested pathogens. Age (> 6 months) was also shown to be a significant risk factor associated with T. gondii exposure. The results obtained provided updated information about the occurrence of three of the main reproductive pathogens in Upper Egypt. The high seropositivity values found for the tested zoonotic pathogens in most of the analyzed ruminant species suggest the necessity of performing additional in-depth studies to evaluate the epidemiology of these pathogens in the study area.

Prevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Sheep and Goats in Pakistan: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Toxoplasmosis, a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, results in congenital disorders and miscarriages among livestock and humans worldwide. This systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to determine the prevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep and goats in Pakistan from 2000 to 2020. We searched the PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, and Google Scholar databases and selected 17 publications that fulfilled our inclusion criteria. Eight studies were conducted in Southern Punjab, six in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, two in Northern Punjab, and one in Central Punjab. The diagnostic tests used in the included articles to confirm toxoplasmosis were the latex agglutination test in 56% of the studies, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 38%, and the indirect hemagglutination assay in 6%. The infection rates were substantially higher among sheep > 1 year of age (37%) than among sheep ≤ 1 year old (19%). Statistically significant differences in infection rates were found between male and female sheep and goats. The overall infection rate by age was also significant among sheep and goats. Sex and age variability between sheep investigations were significant, and sex heterogeneity and age homogeneity were significant among goats. Hence, robust infection control protocols should be implemented to prevent infection in animals and humans.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats from different geographical regions of the world: Systematic review and meta-analysis

The Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which significantly impact small ruminant productivity, international animal trade and transboundary movement of animal across the globe. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection (toxoplasmosis) in sheep and goats is widely studied in many parts of the world and there is a lack of comprehensive information on prevalence estimates considering the global and regional perspectives. The aim of the study was to use systematic review and meta-analysis methods to estimate the global and regional pooled seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep and goats, as well as factors that influence prevalence estimations. Relevant articles reporting the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in sheep and/goats were searched in five electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase and ProQuest. After the publications were checked to verify they fit the inclusion criteria, a total of 225 articles were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, reflecting data from 70 countries/regions. The pooled prevalence was estimated using a random effect meta-analysis model. Overall, the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was 33.86% (95% CI: 30.47-37.25%) in sheep and 31.78% (95% CI: 28.99-34.58%) in goats, with significant variation in prevalence estimates across geographical locations (p < .001). Substantial heterogeneity (I²  > 75%) was observed in most pooled seroprevalence estimates. The T. gondii infection in global sheep and goat population showed uptrend over the period. This information would be useful for epidemiologist, health authorities and farmers in order to plan future T. gondii survey and infection management strategies both locally and internationally.

A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in goats

The aim of this study was evaluate to seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats worldwide and the main risk factors associated from 2000 to 2020, through meta-analysis with 55,317 goats from 75 reports published in seven electronic databases of major global importance. A global seroprevalence detected was 27.49% (95% CI 24.15-30.95; I2 = 99%), with the lowest percentage in Asia (20.74%; 95% CI 16.45-25.39) and highest in Central America (62.15%; 95% CI 57.28-66.90) and Europe (31.53%; 95% CI 21.71-42.26). The seropositivity in Africa and South America were (29.41%; 95% CI 19.11-40.89) and (29.76%; 95% CI 25.84-33.83), respectively. The seroprevalence was associated with presence of cats (OR 2.22; 95% CI 1.30-3.82), goats older than one year (OR 1.77; 95% CI 1, 37-2.29), females (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.23-1.65), rearing system (extensive vs. intensive) (OR 4.82; 95% CI 1.96-11, 84) and rearing system (semi-intensive vs. intensive) (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.48-6.13). The heterogeneity was evidenced in most world regions and the risk factors may play roles in varying the seroprevalence.

Dynamics of natural infection by Toxoplasma gondii in goat herds in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil: transitional antibody observation

This study aimed to describe the transmission of T. gondii in naturally infected goats in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil, through evaluating the serological status of these animals from one to 12 months of age. Seven goat farms were selected. During the first visit, an epidemiological questionnaire was applied. Blood samples were collected from pregnant goats and from their female offspring every month, to monitor them for anti-T. gondii antibodies, using the indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT). Out of 66 pregnant goats evaluated, 47% (31/66) (95% CI: 34.6% - 59.7%) were positive and out of 93 female offspring, 61.3% (57/93) (95% CI: 52.4% - 69.2%) were positive, in at least one month during the evaluation period. Among the positive female offspring, 43.3% (27/57) (95% CI: 39.7% - 56.9%) presented environmental infection and 56.7% (30/57) (95% CI: 43.4% - 66.3 %) probably had only colostral antibodies or vertical transmission. It was observed that 92,6% (25/27) from environmental infections occurred until reproductive age (six months) (p<0.0001). It was also noted that there is a correlation between the titration of mothers and offspring, until four months of age (p<0.0001). Large fluctuations in the presence of antibodies were observed among the animals over the months monitored. It can be concluded that the prevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies within the herds was greater than what has been expressed in specific prevalence studies and that most goat become infected up to the six months of life in the studied area.

The presence of Toxoplasma gondii in soil, their transmission, and their influence on the small ruminants and human population: A review

The ecosystem approach has been developed since the 1940s. An ecosystem is a community of living organism and their interaction and conjugation with abiotic factors of the environment. The ecosystem is not endemic to the aquatic environment only but, the terrestrial environment is also considered to be a part of an ecosystem. Soil act as mother role for the survival of different microorganism. The Toxoplasma gondii oocysts stay survive for a long time in the soil. This presence of these oocysts might critically enhance the success of this parasite in two ways. First, this parasite can widespread; second, it can create a lot of consequences regarding animals and their economic value. Soil contamination caused by Toxoplasma gondii Y is a significant and profound issue for animals and public health. Therefore, the current study was aimed to summarize and correlate the soil and parasite, their transmission, infection, and some aspects related to T. gondii. The small animals are pose at a high risk therefore, it was concluded that some preventive measures should be taken to keep secure itself from zoonotic diseases.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Toxoplasma gondii Infection Among Five Wild Rodent Species from Five Provinces of China

Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular zoonotic parasite, can infect humans and various animals worldwide. Wild rodents plan an important role as intermediate hosts of T. gondii. Some studies on T. gondii from wild rodents have been published, but the investigation data of T. gondii in wild rodents in China are limited. Therefore, brain tissue samples from 382 wild rodents in four provinces and one autonomous region of China were screened by PCR amplification of T. gondii B1 gene. Furthermore, the wild rodents were identified as five species based on their morphological characteristics, including Citellus dauricus (n = 35 from Heilongjiang), Lasiopodomys brandti (n = 81 from Inner Mongolia), Apodemus agrarius (n = 12 from Heilongjiang), Rattus norvegicus (n = 2 from Heilongjiang; n = 99 from Zhejiang; n = 54 from Shanxi), and Mus musculus (n = 99 from Guangxi). The overall prevalence of T. gondii in these wild rodents was 5.24% (20/382) in this study. At different regions, the highest prevalence of T. gondii was in Guangxi (12.12%) compared with other regions (0% in Heilongjiang; 2.47% in Inner Mongolia; 2.02% in Zhejiang; 7.41% in Shanxi). At different climates, the higher prevalence was found in temperate/mesothermal climates (7.07%) compared with continental/microthermal climates (3.26%). Also, the results showed that M. musculus had the highest prevalence of T. gondii infection (12.12%) among the rodent species sampled. Moreover, sampling year was significantly related to the prevalence of T. gondii in investigated wild rodents (p = 0.0117). This is the first report of T. gondii in wild rodents from Zhejiang, Guangxi, Shanxi, Heilongjiang provinces and Inner Mongolia autonomous region in China, providing the fundamental information for further prevention and control of toxoplasmosis in China.

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections and factors associated in goats in the Parana state, Southern Brazil

The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii and anti-Neospora caninum antibodies and their associated factors among goats in farms from the Paraná state, South Brazil. The serological analysis was performed by indirect ELISA on 629 goat serum samples collected from 32 farms distributed in five mesorregions from the state. Seropositivity was observed in 30.7% of the animals for T. gondii, 6.3% for N. caninum, and 3.0% for both agents. Final multiple regression models showed that the use of assisted reproduction decreased the chance of seropositivity for T. gondii (PR=0.70) and the slaughtering site on the farm (PR=2.03) increased it. To N. caninum, the supplying concentrated feed to animals (OR=4.80) and animal pre-weaning death (OR=9.96) increased the chance of seropositivity. The variables associated with these seropositivities suggest deficiencies in sanitation and reproductive management. In addition, it recognizes critical points of infection for animal production management.

Public health and economic importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in goats: The last decade

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasmosis in goats continues to be of public health and economic concern. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in goats in the past decade. There is debate and uncertainty regarding excretion of T. gondii in milk and the ingestion of raw milk as sources of T. gondii infection for humans. Toxoplasmosis can cause abortion and deaths even in adult goats. PCR-RFLP typing of T. gondii DNA derived from viable T. gondii isolates has revealed genetic diversity in goats in North and South America. The significance of T. gondii isolates in domestic goats usually associated with wildlife in USA is discussed. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.

Occupational history of exposure to zoonotic agents in people dedicated to livestock in San Pedro de los Milagros, Antioquia, Colombia

Introduction: According to the World Health Organization, livestock farming is one of the anthropic activities in which workers are exposed to various zoonotic agents.Objectives: To establish the frequency of seropositivity (IgG antibodies) against some zoonotic agents in people with occupational exposure to livestock in San Pedro de los Milagros (Antioquia), and to analyze associated factors.Materials and methods: Descriptive study carried out on a population of 328 cattle farmers. Demographic data were collected and the seropositivity frequency of IgG antibodies to Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia chaffensis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Brucella abortus, Brucella suis, Leptospira interrogans, and Toxoplasma gondii was determined. Overall and specific prevalence, prevalence ratios and binary logistic regressions were estimated.Results: The highest seropositivity frequencies were 47.6% for T. gondii, 33.5% for B. burgdorferi and 13% for E. chaffensis. The prevalence of T. gondii and B. burgdorferi had statistical association with sex [RP:1.3 (CI:1.0-1.8) and 2.0 (CI:1.1-3.9) respectively], and age group [(RP:1.5 (CI:1.2-1,9) and 2.5 (CI:1.4-6.4) respectively]. In workers with more than 10 years of related work experience, statistical association was 50% [RP:1.5 (CI:1.2-1.9) and 2.5 (CI:1.6-2.3), respectively]. There were no seropositive results for B. abortus, B. suis, B. bovis and B. bigemina.Conclusions: Exposure to some zoonotic agents was evidenced. This is determinant for the knowledge of tropical zoonotic diseases transmitted by vectors in livestock production systems.

Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: Risk factors and economic impact

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Felids, including domestic cats, are definitive hosts that can shed oocysts with their feces. In addition to infections that occur by accidental oral uptake of food or water contaminated with oocysts, it is assumed that a large proportion of affected humans may have become infected by consuming meat or other animal products that contained infective parasitic stages of T. gondii. Since farm animals represent a direct source of infection for humans, but also a possible reservoir for the parasite, it is important to control T. gondii infections in livestock. Moreover, T. gondii may also be pathogenic to livestock where it could be responsible for considerable economic losses in some regions and particular farming systems, e.g. in areas where the small ruminant industry is relevant. This review aims to summarize actual knowledge on the prevalence and effects of infections with T. gondii in the most important livestock species and on the effects of toxoplasmosis on livestock. It also provides an overview on potential risk factors favoring infections of livestock with T. gondii. Knowledge on potential risk factors is prerequisite to implement effective biosecurity measures on farms to prevent T. gondii infections. Risk factors identified by many studies are cat-related, but also those associated with a potential contamination of fodder or water, and with access to a potentially contaminated environment. Published information on the costs T. gondii infections cause in livestock production, is scarce. The most recent peer reviewed reports from Great Britain and Uruguay suggest annual cost of about 5-15 million US $ per country. Since these estimates are outdated, future studies are needed to estimate the present costs due to toxoplasmosis in livestock. Further, the fact that T. gondii infections in livestock may affect human health needs to be considered and the respective costs should also be estimated, but this is beyond the scope of this article.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild sika deer in Japan

Toxoplasmosis is a food-borne infection that is widespread around the world, causing congenital disorders and opportunistic infections. Ingestion of undercooked meat is one of the risk factors for infection with the causative agent, Toxoplasma gondii. Japanese people occasionally eat rare meat as a traditional cuisine style called "Sashimi". A rapid increase in venison consumption in Japan has occurred mainly due to enhanced population control of wild Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) in recent decades. In particular, Yezo-sika deer (C. n. yesoensis) in Hokkaido (the northernmost and largest prefecture in Japan) is frequently supplied to markets as branded game/bushmeat. To study the possible burden of Toxoplasma gondii among wild Yezo-sika deer, plasma samples of Yezo-sika deer hunted during two seasons, 2010-2012, in Eastern Hokkaido were investigated. A total 80 samples were examined using the Sabin-Feldman dye test, which is highly specific and sensitive for identifying the development and persistence of antibodies after primary Toxoplasma infection, demonstrating that 38 cases (47.5%) were seropositive (cut-off titer <1:16). Antibody prevalence of T. gondii in female deer was higher than in males. Adult deer aged 3 years or over showed higher seroprevalence compared with younger animals. The overall seroprevalence fluctuated significantly according to the season when the deer were hunted. These results indicated widespread infection of T. gondii among Japanese wild Yezo-sika deer, suggesting that both appropriate handling and treatment of bushmeat are required to prevent food-borne toxoplasmosis in Japan.

Goats reinfected with Toxoplasma gondii: loss of viable prolificacy and gross revenue

ABSTRACTWe determined the reproductive parameters and clinical disorders in pregnant goats infected and reinfected with Toxoplasma gondii, and posteriorly the loss of gross revenue due to congenital toxoplasmosis was estimated. Of the 25 non-pregnant females negative for T. gondii, 20 were orally inoculated (ME 49 strain) and of these, 15 pregnant females chronically infected were orally reinoculated (VEG strain) with T. gondii oocysts. Five groups were formed (n=5): GI, GII and GIII (reinoculations at 40, 80 and 120 days of gestation, respectively), GIV (inoculation) and GV (no inoculation). Clinical and serological exams were performed on days 0 (prior to inoculation), 3, 6 9, 15 and 21 and every 7 days post-inoculation. Exams were also performed on day 3 and every 7 days post-reinoculation. Reproductive management was performed on all females and initiated when the females infected displayed IgG titers IFAT<1,024. From the average prolificacy indexes of each experimental group were estimated: total production of kilograms of live weight (total kg LW) of goats for slaughter, gross revenue and loss of gross revenue in U.S. dollars (US$), designed for a herd of 1,000 matrices. The unviable prolificacy indexes were 0.8 (GI), 1.2 (GII) and 0.2 (GIII). Clinical disorders affected 57.1% (GI), 75.0% (GII) and 16.7% (GIII) of the offspring of goats reinfected with T. gondii. Congenital toxoplasmosis in goats reinfected resulted in the loss of 26.5% of gross revenues, being GI (US$ 10,577.60 or 57.1%) and GII (US$ 12,693.12 or 60%) holders of the highest values and percentages of economic losses. It was found that congenital toxoplasmosis reinfection cause clinical disorders in goats chronically infected with T. gondii and their offspring with birth of unviable animals and loss of gross revenue, at different stages of pregnancy (40, 80 and 120 days of gestation), being in the initial and intermediate stages of pregnancy the largest estimates of these losses.

Pathogens of zoonotic and biological importance in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): Seroprevalence in an agro-system population in France

Antibody prevalence for several infectious and parasitic diseases in a population of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) inhabiting a mixed agricultural landscape (south of France) has been analyzed. Serological analyses with ELISA in 245 animals captured from 2008 to 2012 has been performed. We found a high prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (46.4%), Chlamydophila abortus (17.27%) and Coxiella burnetii (11.26%) compared to other studies in Europe. Seroprevalence varied strongly among years for T. gondii (27-91%), C. abortus (0-42%) and C. burnetii (0-27%). T. gondii prevalence was lower in juvenile females, compared to juvenile males and adults of both sexes. Other pathogens had low prevalences: Neospora caninum (1.56%), Bovine herpesvirus 1 (1.17%, 2008/09; 1.1%, 2010/11), Mycoplasma agalactiae (1.45%, 2009/10), Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (0.9%) and Slow viruses (CAEV-MVV) (0.15%, 2008/10; 0%, 2011/12). Antibodies to bluetongue virus and pestiviruses were not found in any individual.

Toxoplasmosis in humans and animals in Brazil: high prevalence, high burden of disease, and epidemiology

Infections by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii are widely prevalent in humans and animals in Brazil. The burden of clinical toxoplasmosis in humans is considered to be very high. The high prevalence and encouragement of the Brazilian Government provides a unique opportunity for international groups to study the epidemiology and control of toxoplasmosis in Brazil. Many early papers on toxoplasmosis in Brazil were published in Portuguese and often not available to scientists in English-speaking countries. In the present paper we review prevalence, clinical spectrum, molecular epidemiology, and control of T. gondii in humans and animals in Brazil. This knowledge should be useful to biologists, public health workers, veterinarians, and physicians. Brazil has a very high rate of T. gondii infection in humans. Up to 50% of elementary school children and 50-80% of women of child-bearing age have antibodies to T. gondii. The risks for uninfected women to acquire toxoplasmosis during pregnancy and fetal transmission are high because the environment is highly contaminated with oocysts. The burden of toxoplasmosis in congenitally infected children is also very high. From limited data on screening of infants for T. gondii IgM at birth, 5-23 children are born infected per 10 000 live births in Brazil. Based on an estimate of 1 infected child per 1000 births, 2649 children with congenital toxoplasmosis are likely to be born annually in Brazil. Most of these infected children are likely to develop symptoms or signs of clinical toxoplasmosis. Among the congenitally infected children whose clinical data are described in this review, several died soon after birth, 35% had neurological disease including hydrocephalus, microcephaly and mental retardation, 80% had ocular lesions, and in one report 40% of children had hearing loss. The severity of clinical toxoplasmosis in Brazilian children may be associated with the genetic characteristics of T. gondii isolates prevailing in animals and humans in Brazil.