Losses caused by gastrointestinal nematode infections in Dorper lambs under two nutritional status

Molecular signatures of Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep: A comparative serum proteomic study on susceptible and resistant sheep breeds

Due to the negative impact of Haemonchus contortus in the tropics and subtropics, the detection of serum protein profiles that occur in infected sheep is of high relevance for targeted selective treatment strategies (TST). Herein, we integrated proteomics with phenotypic traits to elucidate physiological mechanisms associated to H. contortus infection in susceptible (Dorper - D) and resistant (Santa Inês - S) sheep breeds. Naïve female lambs were infected with H. contortus third-stage larvae on day zero (D0), and samples were collected weekly, for 28 days. Feces were used for individual fecal egg counts (FEC) blood for packed cell volume (PCV) and serum for specific antibody quantification through ELISA. Sera was collected on D0 (-) and D21 (+), and analyzed using a LC-MS/MS based proteomics approach. FEC, PCV, and anti-H. contortus antibody levels confirmed the absence of infection on D0. On D28 there was a significant difference between the two breeds for logFEC means (D = 3774 and S = 3141, p=0.033) and PCV means (D = 16.3 % and S = 24.3 %, p=0.038). From a total of 754 proteins identified, 68 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) were noted. Phosphopyruvate hydratase (ENO3) was a DAP in all comparisons, while S+ vs D+ and S- vs D- shared the highest number of DAPs (8). Each of the four experimental groups clustered separately in a principal component analysis (PCA) of protein profile. Among the DAPs, proteins associated with the innate and adaptive immune system were detected when comparing S- vs D- and S+ vs D+. In D-, some proteins were linked to stress response to handling, sampling and heat. Focusing on the consequences of infection in each breed, in the D+ vs D- comparison, upregulated proteins were associated with inflammation control and immune response, where downregulated proteins pointed to a negative impact of infection on tissue anabolism, compromising muscle growth and fat deposition. In the S+ vs S- comparison, upregulated proteins were related to immune response, while the downregulated proteins were possibly linked to muscular development and growth, impaired by infection. Collectively, it can be concluded that ENO3 regulation emerges as a potential factor underlying the differential immune response observed between Santa Inês and Dorper sheep infected with H. contortus. In turn, detected acute phase proteins (APPs) reinforce their relation with infection, inflammation and stress conditions, whereas THEMIS-like may contribute to the immune system in Dorper. GSDMD, Guanylate-binding protein and ACAN warrant further investigation as possible biomarkers for TST strategy development.

Anthelmintic efficacy of an organic fraction from Guazuma ulmifolia leaves and evaluation of reactive oxidative stress on Haemonchus contortus

This study describes the anthelmintic efficacy of an organic fraction (EtOAc-F) from Guazuma ulmifolia leaves and the evaluation of its reactive oxidative stress on Haemonchus contortus. The first step was to assess the anthelmintic effect of EtOAc-F at 0.0, 3.5, 7.0 and 14 mg kg of body weight (BW) in gerbil's (Meriones unguiculatus) artificially infected with H. contortus infective larvae (L3). The second step was to evaluate the preliminary toxicity after oral administration of the EtOAc-F in gerbils. Finally, the third step was to determine the relative expression of biomarkers such as glutathione (GPx), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) against H. contortus L3 post-exposition to EtOAc-F. Additionally, the less-polar compounds of EtOAc-F were identified by gas mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS). The highest anthelmintic efficacy (97.34%) of the organic fraction was found in the gerbils treated with the 14 mg/kg of BW. Histopathological analysis did not reveal changes in tissues. The relative expression reflects overexpression of GPx (p<0.05, fold change: 14.35) and over expression of SOD (p≤0.05, fold change: 0.18) in H. contortus L3 exposed to 97.44 mg/mL of EtOAc-F compared with negative control. The GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (1), leucoanthocyanidin derivative (2), coniferyl alcohol (3), ferulic acid methyl ester acetate (4), 2,3,4-trimethoxycinnamic acid (5) and epiyangambin (6) as major compounds. According to these results, the EtOAc-F from G. ulmifolia leaves exhibit anthelmintic effect and increased the stress biomarkers on H. contortus.

Validation of targeted selective treatment (TST) methodology for gastrointestinal parasites of adult sheep in different physiological states

We aimed to validate a targeted selective treatment (TST) methodology for treating parasitic gastrointestinal infections in ewes in different physiological states using parasitological and hematological parameters. Forty ewes were monitored from December 2021 to June 2022 and evaluated during various physiological stages in their life cycle. Before starting the experiment, a fecal egg count (FEC) reduction test was performed to evaluate the efficacy of the anthelmintic (AH) treatment. Weekly assessments were performed based on the Famacha© (F) system and body condition score (BCS), and ewes were subjected to AH treatment when necessary, with their physiological states recorded. Ewes were treated when they presented F ≥ 3, BCS ≤ 2.0 (when F = 2), or submandibular edema. Parasitological, i.e., FEC, and hematological, i.e., hematocrit (Ht), parameters were evaluated monthly to determine the efficiency of the TST methodology. Comparisons between the mean Ht and FEC values in ewes subjected to AH treatment and untreated ewes were performed using analysis of variance, followed by Tukey's test. Spearman's correlation was performed to determine the correlation between the variables, i.e., F scores, BCS, Ht, and FEC. All tests were performed at a significance level of 5 %. During the experimental period, 1138 evaluations were performed. The main reason for AH treatment was F ≥ 3. Ewes in early pregnancy, lactation and late pregnancy received comparatively more AH treatments than the other physiological states. Ewes in late pregnancy and lactation exhibited lower mean Ht values (23.5 % and 22.9 %) and higher mean FEC values (3269 and 1426) compared with those in early pregnancy (30.2 % and 727 EPG). In addition, a statistically significant difference was observed in the Ht and FEC values of ewes that presented submandibular edema (P < 0.001) compared with those that did not exhibit submandibular edema. The genus Haemonchus sp. showed a 96.4 % prevalence in coprocultures. A positive correlation existed between F scores and FEC (r = 0.3819) and a negative correlation between F scores and Ht (r = -0.4728). Ewes that needed AH treatment had lower mean Ht values than ewes that did not need the treatment (19.2 % × 29.3 %; P < 0.001) and higher mean FEC values (8747 × 1163; P < 0.001), confirming that these ewes needed AH treatment. The TST methodology based on F scores, BCS, and submandibular edema could effectively identify individuals in the herd needing AH treatment, identifying 13 % additional cases requiring treatment than using only the F score criterion.

Enhanced mucosal response in sheep harbouring βA beta-globin against haemonchosis

Association between ovine β-globin polymorphisms and resistance against haemonchosis was described and related to the mechanism of high oxygen affinity βA ➔ βC switch during anaemia, but there are no studies regarding the involved local host responses. Phenotypic parameters and local responses were evaluated in sheep from two β-globin haplotypes naturally infected with Haemonchus contortus. Morada Nova lambs were monitored at 63, 84 and 105 days of age for faecal egg counts and packed cell volume (PCV) under natural infection with H. contortus. At 210 days of age, lambs of Hb-AA and Hb-BB β-globin haplotypes were euthanised, and the fundic region of abomasum was sampled for evaluation of microscopic lesions and relative expression of genes related to immune, mucin and lectin activities. Lambs harbouring the βA allele presented an improved resistance/resilience against clinical haemonchosis, showing higher PCV during infection. Hb-AA animals presented increased eosinophilia in the abomasum compared to Hb-BB animals, accompanied by higher Th2 profile, mucin and lectin activity transcripts, while the inflammatory response was increased in Hb-BB animals. This is the first report to demonstrate an enhanced local response in the primary site of H. contortus infection related to βA allele of β-globin haplotype.

Influence of targeted selective anthelmintic treatment on the productive performance of wool and hair lambs naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes in Brazil

Targeted selective treatment (TST) is an alternative method to reduce the use of anthelmintics and delay the development of resistant nematode populations. However, there is limited information on the actual effects of this type of treatment on livestock productivity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the production performance of Santa Ines (hair) and Ile de France (wool) lambs naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) under TST based on packed cell volume (PCV) versus suppressive anthelmintic treatments. Thirty-eight lambs were divided into two treatment groups: Suppressive treatment, animals were drenched with monepantel every two weeks and TST, animals were treated with the same anthelmintic when they presented PCV ≤ 20%. Feces, blood, and weight were measured weekly to determine eggs per gram of feces, PCV, total plasma protein, and weight gain. After animals were slaughtered, carcasses were weighed to determine carcass yield. In the TST group, substantial productive losses of approximately 21.3% in the wool and 25.9% in the hair lambs were observed in body weight compared to their counterparts. Significant differences in hematological variables occurred over the experimental period, especially in the wool lambs under TST. Favorable environmental conditions enabled infective larvae to survive and thrive on pasture. Haemonchus contortus and intestinal nematodes were the most common parasites found in the Ile de France lambs and the Santa Ines lambs, respectively. Although TST prevented mortality, it did not prevent production losses. Both breeds showed a significant drop in production due to GIN parasitism.

The diversity and quality of forages and their potency as herbal anthelmintic for swamp buffalo in Brebes District, Central Java

Background and Aim

Swamp buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy of Indonesia. They consume various forages during their grazing time, including those with anti-parasitic potential. However, the information about the type and quality of forages and their potential as a natural anthelmintic for swamp buffalo is very limited. This study aimed to identify the diversity, quality, and anthelmintic potency of forages consumed by swamp buffaloes reared in Bantarkawung Subdistrict, Brebes District, Central Java Province, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods

Samples of forages were obtained during three observation periods of the study, with a 12-week interval between each period. Forage diversity was evaluated by identifying its consumption by swamp buffaloes during their grazing activity in the field and feeding time in their shed. The quality of forages was analyzed using proximate analysis to measure their dry matter (DM), crude fiber (CF), crude protein (CP), crude fat (CFat), and ash contents. This is followed by the calculation of their total digestible nutrient based on the proximate analysis results. Botanical composition analysis was then conducted to measure the predominance of forages consumed by the livestock during their grazing activity. Literature reviews were carried out to explore forage's anthelmintic activity.

Results

The results showed that swamp buffaloes consume nine species of forage in the shed and 47 in the grazing area, including nine legumes, 18 grass, and 20 others. Swamp buffaloes consumed forages of lower quality, which contained high CF contents and varying levels of other nutrients below their daily nutritional needs. The grazing activity allowed swamp buffaloes to consume a higher variety of forages with better nutritional quality, thereby enabling them to meet their nutritional needs. Legumes and other forages served as the major protein sources, providing CP of 20.03% DM and 11.53% DM, and CF levels of 17.01% DM and 20.35% DM, respectively. The results also showed that the consumption of these forages increased during the rainy season. The predominant species of legumes consumed were Leucaena leucocephala and Acacia spp., while Alternanthera sessilis and Merremia umbellata were the predominant species of other forages. A total of 13 of the 47 species could potentially be used as natural anthelmintic due to their secondary metabolites, namely, tannin, flavonoid, saponin, terpenoid, diterpenoid, and mimosine. These compounds exert anthelmintic effects by inhibiting egg-hatching and larval development, as well as damaging the surface structure of both larvae and adult worms, ultimately leading to the death of the parasites.

Conclusion

Overall, swamp buffaloes consumed more variety of forages during grazing compared to when they were kept in sheds. While the low-variety and low-quality forages provisioned for swamp buffaloes in their shed resulted in a low nutrient intake below their daily requirement. Furthermore, daily grazing activities allowed swamp buffaloes to fulfill and supplement their need by consuming a variety of grasses, legumes, and other forages in their respective grazing areas. Some of these forages also have the potential to become natural anthelmintic because they contain secondary metabolites, such as tannins, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, diterpenoids, and mimosine.

Effect of Supplementation of Lambs with Whole Cottonseed: Impact on Serum Biomarkers and Infection by Gastrointestinal Parasites under Field Conditions

The purpose of this trial was to evaluate serum levels of oxidative stress biomarkers and biochemical analytes in crossbred lambs during the rearing phase in an integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS) to control gastrointestinal parasites. The experiment used 36 crossbred lambs (cross: Ile de France × White Dorper × Texel) divided into two groups. The WCS group was supplemented with whole cottonseed (WCS), and controls had no supplementation. Body weight, blood collection, and fecal analysis of nematode eggs and Eimeria oocysts counting per gram of feces were performed for each animal within 84 days of experiment. The following serum analytes were determined: total protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, haptoglobin, and 10 oxidative stress biomarkers: cupric reducing antioxidant capacity, ferric reducing ability of plasma, trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, thiol, uric acid, paraoxonase-1, total oxidant status, ferric-xylenol orange, advanced oxidation protein products, and reactive oxygen metabolites derived compounds. The inclusion of WCS suggested the benefit in controlling infection as well as inducing an increase in antioxidants and a decrease in oxidants in lambs naturally infected by gastrointestinal parasites. The combination of WCS and ICLS could be a useful tool in controlling gastrointestinal parasite infection without affecting the production performance.

Comparative study on pathological changes in sheep and goats experimentally infected with Haemonchus Contortus

Background

The parasites causes localized and generalized infections to the host depends on the parasite attachment organs, depth of penetration, site of location and worm burdens.

Methods

The experimental study was done between December, 2019 and April, 2020 in the fly-proof experimental animal facility located in the premise of the College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture at Bishoftu, Ethiopia. A total of 14 male goat (G1 and G2) and 14 male sheep (G3 and G4) were allotted in to four equal groups. Single dose of 10,000 of infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus (L3) was orally administered to each animal in G1 and G3. Parameters such as body weight, PCV, haemoglobin, worm count, serum total protein, serum albumin, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate aminotransferase were measured. Moreover, histopathological sections were stained and examined for general changes as well as for changes in specific cells such as tissue eosinophilia and parietal cell population.

Results

The findings show that 1) All infected sheep and goats developed the infection with higher mean worm burden in goats (5590) than sheep (2887) and the difference was significant (P < 0.05); 2) All infected sheep and goats exhibited a progressive anaemia; the level being more severe in goats than in sheep (P < 0.05) with mean PCVs of 13 and 18.6% respectively; 3) While body weight gain was minimal in sheep, goats have lost significant weight compared to pre-infection levels, to control animals or in relation to infected sheep (P < 0.05); 4) analysis of biochemical changes revealed marked reduction in serum total protein and albumin which was much more significant in goats than in sheep (P < 0.05); 5) the abomasum of infected sheep and goats have shown thickening, nodule development, eosinophilic infiltration and damage to parietal cells. Tissue eosinophilia was more prominent in sheep while parietal cell loss was severe in goats.

Conclusion

In conclusion, goats under experimental infection and similar management condition with sheep develop much more severe infection and associated pathology compared to sheep and hence deserve special attention.

Advances in diagnosis and control of anthelmintic resistant gastrointestinal helminths infecting ruminants

Infection with gastrointestinal helminths is widely spread among ruminant causing severe losses and adversely affects the livestock husbandry. Synthetic chemotherapeutics have been utilized throughout years, as a means of combating helminthiasis. Anthelmintic resistance (AR) has a serious concern on livestock industry which, mainly arises as outcome of misuse, improper dosing and frequent utilization of the synthetic drugs.Various gastrointestinal helminths have the capability to survive the therapeutic dose of anthelmintics and become resistant to the major anthelmintic classes. Early diagnosis might delay or reduce the risk of AR. Conventional phenotyping methods were commonly used for detection of anthelmintic resistant helminths, but appeared to lack of sensitivity, especially when the frequency of resistant allele is very low. Several molecular assays were carried out to detect the AR with greater accuracy. Sustainable effective preventive and control measures for gastrointestinal helminths infection remain the corner stone to overcome AR. Rational use of anthelmintics with keeping unexposed proportion of worm populations, could have the potentiality to maintain and prolong the efficacy of anthelmintics. Several alternative anthelmintic treatments might offer valuable solutions either alone or adjunct to synthetic drugs to dilute the spread of resistance alleles among the helminths population. This article reviews current status of various diagnostic methods and control measures for anthelmintic resistant gastrointestinal helminths infecting ruminants and tries to present a practical protocol to avoid or delay the development of AR.

Economic impact of gastrointestinal nematodes in Morada Nova sheep in Brazil

This study evaluated the economic impact of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection in Morada Nova lambs under different parasite chemical control conditions. For this, 246 lambs, in the rainy and dry season, were randomized into groups according to their anthelmintic treatment with levamisole: control (CT: no treatment); routine treatment (RT: treated every 42 days); and targeted selective treatment (TST: treated according to the average daily weight gain, DWG). From 63 days of age (D63) to D210, the lambs were weighed and monitored for GIN infection parameters. Spending on anthelmintics in the production system was 1.3% of the total economic result. The economic result per animal (R$ 5.00 = US$ 1.00) was higher in the RT group, amounting to US$ 6.60 in the rainy and US$ 5.69 in the dry season, due to higher DWG. Thus, RT presented economic results 14.4% and 10.9% higher than CT, and 7.2% and 1.9% higher than TST, in the rainy and dry season, respectively. However, fast development of resistance made RT unfeasible. Here, the economic impact of GIN infection on a national scale is discussed, demonstrating its importance and the impossibility of profitable and sustainable sheep production without adequate control.

Investigating the benefits of targeted selective treatment according to average daily weight gain against gastrointestinal nematodes in Morada Nova lambs

The objective of this study was to evaluate a method of targeted selective treatment (TST) of Morada Nova lambs, based on the average daily weight gain (DWG). For this, 114 lambs in the rainy and 102 in the dry season were randomized into three treatments: control (CT), routine (RT, treated every 42 days), and targeted selective (TST, treated according to DWG). Packed cell volume (PCV) and eggs per gram of feces (EPG) tests were performed. The anthelmintic resistance of parasites was assessed by the EPG count reduction test (FECRT), RESISTA-Test^©, and molecular test. For CT, RT, and TST groups, the following results were obtained: mean EPG values were 4665.1, 3063.5, and 3462.1 in the rainy season and 4475.1, 1341.7, and 2863.4 in the dry season, respectively; mean PCV values were 32.1, 33.4, and 32.3% in the rainy season and 33.9, 36.0, and 35.1% in the dry season; mean DWG readings were 0.087, 0.101, and 0.094 kg in the rainy season and 0.102, 0.113, and 0.112 kg in the dry season; efficacies of levamisole in FECRT were 66.4, 24.1, and 76.4% in the rainy and 90.7, 12.4, and 64.8% in the dry season, respectively; in the RESISTA-Test^©, the LC₅₀ values were 0.482, 1.926, and 0.117 µg.mL^-1 in the rainy and 0.437, 0.851, and 0.045 µg.mL^-1 in the dry season, respectively; the frequencies of the homozygous-resistant genotype were 57.1, 71.4, and 40.0% in the rainy and 47.8, 55.9, and 41.9% in the dry season. In conclusion, TST reduced the development of resistance through refugia maintenance, without productive losses, contributing to the sustainability of sheep breeding.

Prophylactic Effects of Ivermectin and Closantel Treatment in the Control of Oestrus ovis Infestation in Sheep

The sheep nasal bots Oestrus ovis is parasite of the nasal cavities and sinuses of small ruminants causing oestrosis, one of the most frequent parasitic diseases in sheep and goats. The widely use of ivermectin and closantel by the sheep breeders in the treatment and prophylaxis of gastrointestinal nematodes resulted in widespread cases of anthelmintic resistance. However, there is no report about cases of O. ovis with drug-resistance. In this study, we evaluated the prophylactics and therapeutic effects of both antiparasitics in sheep with O. ovis natural infestation. The trial was carried out from early December 2019 to March 2020, with 30 crossbred males lambs allocated into three groups of 10 animals each: control (without treatment), treated with ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg subcutaneously) and treated with closantel (10 mg/kg orally). The animals were kept together grazing the same pasture area. The treatment groups were drenched in two occasions 70 days apart: on 5th December 2019 and on 13th February 2020. On 19th March 2020, all lambs were slaughtered. The lamb heads were removed and sectioned along their longitudinal and sagittal axis to search for larvae. Recovered O. ovis larvae were counted and identified according to their developmental stage (L1, L2, and L3). Seven of the control lambs were infested with O. ovis larvae ranging from six to 17 larvae (11.6 mean infestation intensity). All recovered larvae from control group were intact and active. Three animals treated with ivermectin had O. ovis larvae (1-3 larvae), however they were dead and in degeneration. The animals treated with closantel did not have any larvae. The clinical suggestive signs of oestrosis were scarce over the experimental period. The averages of daily weight gain were similar (p > 0.05) among groups. Closantel and ivermectin had high efficacy against oestrosis and O. ovis parasitism did not hinder the performance of lambs.

Cluster analysis to explore additive-genetic patterns for the identification of sheep resistant, resilient and susceptible to gastrointestinal nematodes

Infection caused by gastrointestinal nematodes is an important issue for animal health and production. Controlling worm infections improves the sustainability of the sheep industry. Genetic selection of animals that are resistant to gastrointestinal nematodes is another strategy to render sheep production more sustainable by decreasing the use of anthelmintics. The aims of this study were (1) to explore the additive-genetic pattern of EBVs for Famacha© (FAM), packed-cell volume (PVC), and fecal egg counts (FEC) of Santa Ines sheep, (2) to propose a classification of animals that are resistant, resilient and susceptible to gastrointestinal nematodes based on their additive-genetic patterns, and (3) to identify the most suitable animals for selection based on their genetic pattern. A dataset of 2,241 records from 747 animals was used to predict the breeding values for indicator traits of resistance to gastrointestinal nematodes with THRGIBBS1F90 and to carry out cluster analyses was used R software. Three clusters of animals were found in the population using hierarchical cluster analysis of the breeding values for FAM, PCV and FEC. Each cluster was characterized by different additive-genetic patterns identified by k-means non-hierarchical cluster analysis. Among a total of 747 animals, 196 were classified as resistant, 288 as resilient, and 263 as susceptible. Cluster analysis is a valuable tool for data screening that permits to evaluate only selection candidates based on their additive-genetic pattern for gastrointestinal nematode resistance. EBVs for FEC were decisive to divide the population into resilient, resistant and susceptible animals. It is also important to include the EBVs for PCV and FAM to adequately distinguish resistant from resilient animals. Finally, the resistant cluster consisted of the most desirable animals to be used as selection candidates in order to genetically improve resistance to infection with gastrointestinal nematodes. This cluster contained animals with the most appropriate additive-genetic pattern to achieve the breeding goal, with positive breeding values for PCV and negative breeding values for FAM and FEC.

Performance of lambs under four levels of dietary supplementation and artificially mix-infected with Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis

The effect of four diets on the performance of Dorper lambs that were artificially mix-infected with 1000 infective larvae (L3) of Haemonchus contortus and 1000 L3 of Trichostrongylus colubriformis every three days for 12 weeks was evaluated. For each diet, one infected group (n = 7) and one control group (n = 4) were set up. The four diets contained the following proportions of hay (H) and concentrate (C): Diet 1 - 100%H; Diet 2 - 75%H:25%C; Diet 3 - 50%H:50%C; Diet 4 - 25%H:75. All the infected groups showed decreases in mean packed cell volume (PCV) and total plasma protein, especially the Diet 1-infected, which was also the group with the highest fecal egg count. The diets and infection had significant effects (P < 0.05) on daily body weight gain (DBWG), cold carcass weight and daily food consumption. The control and infected groups had mean DBWG (in kg), respectively, of 0.048 and 0.025 with Diet 1; 0.082 and 0.067 with Diet 2; 0.188 and 0.189 with Diet 3; and 0.303 and 0.221 with Diet 4. In conclusion, the infection affected the productive performance regardless of the diet; however, with increased metabolizable protein and energy, the risk of occurrence of anemia and hypoproteinemia diminished.

Influence of metabolizable protein and minerals supplementation on detrimental effects of endoparasitic nematodes infection in small ruminants

Endoparasitic nematode infection could have negative impacts on performances of sheep and goats. However, supplementary protein and minerals can also affect nematodes. This paper reviews present information on the importance of protein and minerals supplementation as means to control nematode infection in small ruminants. Protein supplementation seems to improve host resilience by diverting metabolizable protein (MP) towards dealing with detrimental effects of the infection and thus improve production and reproductive performances of animal. A large body of evidence shows that supplementation of copper, iron, and zinc can also enhance host resistance against nematode infection as shown by decreased fecal egg count (FEC) and worm burdens. As such, protein and mineral supplementations can play a major role in sustainable control of parasitic nematode infection and thus reduce reliance on chemotherapic drugs.