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Zhuang Q, Yang H, Mao Y. The Oncogenesis of Glial Cells in Diffuse Gliomas and Clinical Opportunities. Neurosci Bull 2022; 39:393-408. [PMID: 36229714 PMCID: PMC10043159 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-00953-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma is the most common and lethal intrinsic primary tumor of the brain. Its controversial origins may contribute to its heterogeneity, creating challenges and difficulties in the development of therapies. Among the components constituting tumors, glioma stem cells are highly plastic subpopulations that are thought to be the site of tumor initiation. Neural stem cells/progenitor cells and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells are possible lineage groups populating the bulk of the tumor, in which gene mutations related to cell-cycle or metabolic enzymes dramatically affect this transformation. Novel approaches have revealed the tumor-promoting properties of distinct tumor cell states, glial, neural, and immune cell populations in the tumor microenvironment. Communication between tumor cells and other normal cells manipulate tumor progression and influence sensitivity to therapy. Here, we discuss the heterogeneity and relevant functions of tumor cell state, microglia, monocyte-derived macrophages, and neurons in glioma, highlighting their bilateral effects on tumors. Finally, we describe potential therapeutic approaches and targets beyond standard treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiyuan Zhuang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- Institute for Translational Brain Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute for Translational Brain Research, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Ying Mao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute for Translational Brain Research, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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2
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Jaeckle KA, Anderson SK, Twohy EL, Dixon JG, Giannini C, Jenkins R, Egorin MJ, Sarkaria JN, Brown PD, Flynn PJ, Schwerkoske J, Buckner JC, Galanis E. Phase I-II trial of imatinib mesylate (Gleevec; STI571) in treatment of recurrent oligodendroglioma and mixed oligoastrocytoma. North central cancer treatment group study N0272 (ALLIANCE/NCCTG). J Neurooncol 2019; 143:573-581. [PMID: 31119479 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-019-03194-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the pharmacokinetics and efficacy of imatinib in patients with recurrent oligodendroglial tumors. METHODS Patients with progressive WHO grade II-III recurrent tumors after prior RT and chemotherapy were eligible. A phase I dose-escalation study was conducted for patients on enzyme-inducing anticonvulsants (EIAC). A phase II study for non-EIAC patients utilized a fixed dose of 600 mg/D. Primary efficacy endpoint was 6-month progression-free survival (PFS6). A 2-stage design was utilized, with 90% power to detect PFS6 increase from 25 to 45%. RESULTS In the Phase I, maximum tolerated dose was not reached at 1200 mg/D. For phase II patients, overall PFS6 was 33% and median PFS 4.0 months (95% CI 2.1, 5.7). Median overall survival (OS) was longer in imatinib-treated patients compared with controls (16.6 vs. 8.0 months; HR = 0.64, 95% CI 0.41,1.0, p = 0.049), and longer in patients with 1p/19q-codeleted tumors (19.2 vs. 6.2 months, HR = 0.43, 95% CI 0.21,0.89, p = 0.019). Confirmed response rate was 3.9% (PR = 1; REGR = 1), with stable disease observed in 52.9%. At 600 mg/D, mean steady-state imatinib plasma concentration was 2513 ng/ml (95% CI 1831,3195). Grade 3-4 adverse events (hematologic, fatigue, GI, hypophosphatemia, or hemorrhage) occurred in 61%. CONCLUSIONS Although adequate plasma levels were achieved, the observed PFS6 of 33% did not reach our pre-defined threshold for success. Although OS was longer in imatinib-treated patients than controls, this finding would require forward validation in a larger cohort. Imatinib might show greater activity in a population enriched for PDGF-dependent pathway activation in tumor tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt A Jaeckle
- Mayo Clinic Florida, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
| | - S K Anderson
- Alliance Statistics and Data Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Erin L Twohy
- Alliance Statistics and Data Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jesse G Dixon
- Alliance Statistics and Data Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - P J Flynn
- Minnesota Oncology, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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3
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Heldin CH, Lennartsson J, Westermark B. Involvement of platelet-derived growth factor ligands and receptors in tumorigenesis. J Intern Med 2018; 283:16-44. [PMID: 28940884 DOI: 10.1111/joim.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) isoforms and their receptors have important roles during embryogenesis, particularly in the development of various mesenchymal cell types in different organs. In the adult, PDGF stimulates wound healing and regulates tissue homeostasis. However, overactivity of PDGF signalling is associated with malignancies and other diseases characterized by excessive cell proliferation, such as fibrotic conditions and atherosclerosis. In certain tumours, genetic or epigenetic alterations of the genes for PDGF ligands and receptors drive tumour cell proliferation and survival. Examples include the rare skin tumour dermatofibrosarcoma protuberance, which is driven by autocrine PDGF stimulation due to translocation of a PDGF gene, and certain gastrointestinal stromal tumours and leukaemias, which are driven by constitute activation of PDGF receptors due to point mutations and formation of fusion proteins of the receptors, respectively. Moreover, PDGF stimulates cells in tumour stroma and promotes angiogenesis as well as the development of cancer-associated fibroblasts, both of which promote tumour progression. Inhibitors of PDGF signalling may thus be of clinical usefulness in the treatment of certain tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- C-H Heldin
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Lennartsson
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - B Westermark
- Department of Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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4
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Azar S, Leventoux N, Ripoll C, Rigau V, Gozé C, Lorcy F, Bauchet L, Duffau H, Guichet PO, Rothhut B, Hugnot JP. Cellular and molecular characterization of IDH1-mutated diffuse low grade gliomas reveals tumor heterogeneity and absence of EGFR/PDGFRα activation. Glia 2017; 66:239-255. [PMID: 29027701 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse low grade gliomas (DLGG, grade II gliomas) are slowly-growing brain tumors that often progress into high grade gliomas. Most tumors have a missense mutation for IDH1 combined with 1p19q codeletion in oligodendrogliomas or ATRX/TP53 mutations in astrocytomas. The phenotype of tumoral cells, their environment and the pathways activated in these tumors are still ill-defined and are mainly based on genomics and transcriptomics analysis. Here we used freshly-resected tumors to accurately characterize the tumoral cell population and their environment. In oligodendrogliomas, cells express the transcription factors MYT1, Nkx2.2, Olig1, Olig2, Sox8, four receptors (EGFR, PDGFRα, LIFR, PTPRZ1) but not the co-receptor NG2 known to be expressed by oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. A variable fraction of cells also express the more mature oligodendrocytic markers NOGO-A and MAG. DLGG cells are also stained for the young-neuron marker doublecortin (Dcx) which is also observed in oligodendrocytic cells in nontumoral human brain. In astrocytomas, MYT1, PDGFRα, PTPRZ1 were less expressed whereas Sox9 was prominent over Sox8. The phenotype of DLGG cells is overall maintained in culture. Phospho-array screening showed the absence of EGFR and PDGFRα phosphorylation in DLGG but revealed the strong activation of p44/42 MAPK/ERK which was present in a fraction of tumoral cells but also in nontumoral cells. These results provide evidence for the existence of close relationships between the cellular phenotype and the mutations found in DLGG. The slow proliferation of these tumors may be associated with the absence of activation of PDGFRα/EGFR receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Azar
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - N Leventoux
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,CHU Montpellier, Pathology Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - C Ripoll
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - V Rigau
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,CHU Montpellier, Pathology Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - C Gozé
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,CHU Montpellier, Genetics Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - F Lorcy
- CHU Montpellier, Pathology Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - L Bauchet
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,CHU Montpellier, Surgery Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - H Duffau
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,CHU Montpellier, Surgery Department, Hôpital Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | - P O Guichet
- LNEC Inserm U1084 1 rue Georges Bonnet 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France
| | - B Rothhut
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - J P Hugnot
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier Inserm U1051, Saint Eloi Hospital, 80 av Augustin Fliche 34091 Montpellier Cedex 05, France.,University of Montpellier, Faculty of Sciences, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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5
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Kegelman TP, Hu B, Emdad L, Das SK, Sarkar D, Fisher PB. In vivo modeling of malignant glioma: the road to effective therapy. Adv Cancer Res 2015; 121:261-330. [PMID: 24889534 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800249-0.00007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Despite an increased emphasis on developing new therapies for malignant gliomas, they remain among the most intractable tumors faced today as they demonstrate a remarkable ability to evade current treatment strategies. Numerous candidate treatments fail at late stages, often after showing promising preclinical results. This disconnect highlights the continued need for improved animal models of glioma, which can be used to both screen potential targets and authentically recapitulate the human condition. This review examines recent developments in the animal modeling of glioma, from more established rat models to intriguing new systems using Drosophila and zebrafish that set the stage for higher throughput studies of potentially useful targets. It also addresses the versatility of mouse modeling using newly developed techniques recreating human protocols and sophisticated genetically engineered approaches that aim to characterize the biology of gliomagenesis. The use of these and future models will elucidate both new targets and effective combination therapies that will impact on disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Kegelman
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Bin Hu
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Luni Emdad
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Swadesh K Das
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Devanand Sarkar
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Paul B Fisher
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
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6
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Ilkhanizadeh S, Lau J, Huang M, Foster DJ, Wong R, Frantz A, Wang S, Weiss WA, Persson AI. Glial progenitors as targets for transformation in glioma. Adv Cancer Res 2015; 121:1-65. [PMID: 24889528 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800249-0.00001-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Glioma is the most common primary malignant brain tumor and arises throughout the central nervous system. Recent focus on stem-like glioma cells has implicated neural stem cells (NSCs), a minor precursor population restricted to germinal zones, as a potential source of gliomas. In this review, we focus on the relationship between oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), the largest population of cycling glial progenitors in the postnatal brain, and gliomagenesis. OPCs can give rise to gliomas, with signaling pathways associated with NSCs also playing key roles during OPC lineage development. Gliomas can also undergo a switch from progenitor- to stem-like phenotype after therapy, consistent with an OPC-origin even for stem-like gliomas. Future in-depth studies of OPC biology may shed light on the etiology of OPC-derived gliomas and reveal new therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirin Ilkhanizadeh
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jasmine Lau
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Miller Huang
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Daniel J Foster
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Robyn Wong
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Aaron Frantz
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Susan Wang
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - William A Weiss
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Anders I Persson
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA; Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
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7
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Lynes J, Wibowo M, Koschmann C, Baker GJ, Saxena V, Muhammad AKMG, Bondale N, Klein J, Assi H, Lieberman AP, Castro MG, Lowenstein PR. Lentiviral-induced high-grade gliomas in rats: the effects of PDGFB, HRAS-G12V, AKT, and IDH1-R132H. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:623-35. [PMID: 24752661 PMCID: PMC4121445 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0269-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In human gliomas, the RTK/RAS/PI(3)K signaling pathway is nearly always altered. We present a model of experimental gliomagenesis that elucidates the contributions of genes involved in this pathway (PDGF-B ligand, HRAS-G12V, and AKT). We also examine the effect on gliomagenesis by the potential modifier gene, IDH1-R132H. Injections of lentiviral-encoded oncogenes induce de novo gliomas of varying penetrance, tumor progression, and histological grade depending on the specific oncogenes used. Our model mimics hallmark histological structures of high-grade glioma, such as pseudopalisades, glomeruloid microvascular proliferation, and diffuse tumor invasion. We use our model of gliomagenesis to test the efficacy of an experimental brain tumor gene therapy. Our model allowed us to test the contributions of oncogenes in the RTK/RAS/PI(3)K pathway, and their potential modification by over-expression of mutated IDH1, in glioma development and progression in rats. Our model constitutes a clinically relevant system to study gliomagenesis, the effects of modifier genes, and the efficacy of experimental therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Lynes
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Mia Wibowo
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Carl Koschmann
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Gregory J. Baker
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Vandana Saxena
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - A. K. M. G. Muhammad
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Niyati Bondale
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Julia Klein
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Hikmat Assi
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Andrew P. Lieberman
- />Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Maria G. Castro
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Pedro R. Lowenstein
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, 4570 MSRB II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
- />Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
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8
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RAS/ERK signaling controls proneural genetic programs in cortical development and gliomagenesis. J Neurosci 2014; 34:2169-90. [PMID: 24501358 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4077-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural cell fate specification is well understood in the embryonic cerebral cortex, where the proneural genes Neurog2 and Ascl1 are key cell fate determinants. What is less well understood is how cellular diversity is generated in brain tumors. Gliomas and glioneuronal tumors, which are often localized in the cerebrum, are both characterized by a neoplastic glial component, but glioneuronal tumors also have an intermixed neuronal component. A core abnormality in both tumor groups is overactive RAS/ERK signaling, a pro-proliferative signal whose contributions to cell differentiation in oncogenesis are largely unexplored. We found that RAS/ERK activation levels differ in two distinct human tumors associated with constitutively active BRAF. Pilocytic astrocytomas, which contain abnormal glial cells, have higher ERK activation levels than gangliogliomas, which contain abnormal neuronal and glial cells. Using in vivo gain of function and loss of function in the mouse embryonic neocortex, we found that RAS/ERK signals control a proneural genetic switch, inhibiting Neurog2 expression while inducing Ascl1, a competing lineage determinant. Furthermore, we found that RAS/ERK levels control Ascl1's fate specification properties in murine cortical progenitors--at higher RAS/ERK levels, Ascl1(+) progenitors are biased toward proliferative glial programs, initiating astrocytomas, while at moderate RAS/ERK levels, Ascl1 promotes GABAergic neuronal and less glial differentiation, generating glioneuronal tumors. Mechanistically, Ascl1 is phosphorylated by ERK, and ERK phosphoacceptor sites are necessary for Ascl1's GABAergic neuronal and gliogenic potential. RAS/ERK signaling thus acts as a rheostat to influence neural cell fate selection in both normal cortical development and gliomagenesis, controlling Neurog2-Ascl1 expression and Ascl1 function.
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9
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Cheng P, Alberts I, Li X. The role of ERK1/2 in the regulation of proliferation and differentiation of astrocytes in developing brain. Int J Dev Neurosci 2013; 31:783-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2013.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Cheng
- Shanghai Mental Health CenterShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Ian Alberts
- Department of Natural Sciences, LaGuardia CCCity University of New YorkNY11101USA
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Department of NeurochemistryNY State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental DisabilitiesNew YorkNY10314USA
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10
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Abstract
Glioma and medulloblastoma represent the most commonly occurring malignant brain tumors in adults and in children, respectively. Recent genomic and transcriptional approaches present a complex group of diseases and delineate a number of molecular subgroups within tumors that share a common histopathology. Differences in cells of origin, regional niches, developmental timing, and genetic events all contribute to this heterogeneity. In an attempt to recapitulate the diversity of brain tumors, an increasing array of genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) has been developed. These models often utilize promoters and genetic drivers from normal brain development and can provide insight into specific cells from which these tumors originate. GEMMs show promise in both developmental biology and developmental therapeutics. This review describes numerous murine brain tumor models in the context of normal brain development and the potential for these animals to impact brain tumor research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik J. Swartling
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE-75185, Sweden
| | - Sanna-Maria Hede
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE-75185, Sweden
| | - William A. Weiss
- University of California, Depts. of Neurology, Pathology, Pediatrics, Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Center and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco CA 94158, USA
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11
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Liu KW, Hu B, Cheng SY. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha in glioma: a bad seed. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CANCER 2012; 30:590-602. [PMID: 21880180 PMCID: PMC3543696 DOI: 10.5732/cjc.011.10236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Recent collaborative, large-scale genomic profiling of the most common and aggressive brain tumor glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) has significantly advanced our understanding of this disease. The gene encoding platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα) was identified as the third of the top 11 amplified genes in clinical GBM specimens. The important roles of PDGFRα signaling during normal brain development also implicate the possible pathologic consequences of PDGFRα over-activation in glioma. Although the initial clinical trials using PDGFR kinase inhibitors have been predominantly disappointing, diagnostic and treatment modalities involving genomic profiling and personalized medicine are expected to improve the therapy targeting PDGFRα signaling. In this review, we discuss the roles of PDGFRα signaling during development of the normal central nervous system (CNS) and in pathologic conditions such as malignant glioma. We further compare various animal models of PDGF-induced gliomagenesis and their potential as a novel platform of pre-clinical drug testing. We then summarize our recent publication and how these findings will likely impact treatments for gliomas driven by PDGFRα overexpression. A better understanding of PDGFRα signaling in glioma and their microenvironment, through the use of human or mouse models, is necessary to design a more effective therapeutic strategy against gliomas harboring the aberrant PDGFRα signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun-Wei Liu
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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Helmy K, Halliday J, Fomchenko E, Setty M, Pitter K, Hafemeister C, Holland EC. Identification of global alteration of translational regulation in glioma in vivo. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46965. [PMID: 23056544 PMCID: PMC3463531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression contributes to the protein output of a cell, however, methods for measuring translational regulation in complex in vivo systems are lacking. Here, we describe a sensitive method for measuring translational regulation in defined cell populations from heterogeneous tissue in vivo. We adapted the translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) methodology to measure the relative occupancy of individual mRNA transcripts in translating ribosomes in the Olig2-positive tumor cell population in a genetically engineered mouse model (GEM) of glioma. Global measurement of paired ribosome-bound and total cellular mRNA populations from tumor cells in vivo identified a broad distribution of relative ribosome occupancies amongst mRNA species that was highly reproducible across biological samples. Comparison of the translation state of glioma cells to non-transformed oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in normal brain identified global alteration of translation in tumor, and specifically of genes involved in cell division and synthetic metabolism. Furthermore, investigation of alteration in steady state translational efficiencies upon loss of PTEN, one of the most frequently mutated and deleted tumor suppressors in glioma, identified differential translation of proteins involved in cellular respiration, canonically regulated by PI3K/Akt signaling, and cellular glycosylation profiles, deregulation of which is known to be associated with tumor progression. Application of the translation efficiency profiling method described here to other biological contexts and conditions would extend our knowledge of the scope and impact of this important mode of gene regulation in complex in vivo systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karim Helmy
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, New Jersey Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - John Halliday
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Elena Fomchenko
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Manu Setty
- Computational Biology Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ken Pitter
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Christoph Hafemeister
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric C. Holland
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neurology and Surgery, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Galbán S, Lemasson B, Williams TM, Li F, Heist KA, Johnson TD, Leopold JS, Chenevert TL, Lawrence TS, Rehemtulla A, Mikkelsen T, Holland EC, Galbán CJ, Ross BD. DW-MRI as a biomarker to compare therapeutic outcomes in radiotherapy regimens incorporating temozolomide or gemcitabine in glioblastoma. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35857. [PMID: 22536446 PMCID: PMC3334987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The effectiveness of the radiosensitizer gemcitabine (GEM) was evaluated in a mouse glioma along with the imaging biomarker diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) for early detection of treatment effects. A genetically engineered murine GBM model [Ink4a-Arf−/− PtenloxP/loxP/Ntv-a RCAS/PDGF(+)/Cre(+)] was treated with gemcitabine (GEM), temozolomide (TMZ) +/− ionizing radiation (IR). Therapeutic efficacy was quantified by contrast-enhanced MRI and DW-MRI for growth rate and tumor cellularity, respectively. Mice treated with GEM, TMZ and radiation showed a significant reduction in growth rates as early as three days post-treatment initiation. Both combination treatments (GEM/IR and TMZ/IR) resulted in improved survival over single therapies. Tumor diffusion values increased prior to detectable changes in tumor volume growth rates following administration of therapies. Concomitant GEM/IR and TMZ/IR was active and well tolerated in this GBM model and similarly prolonged median survival of tumor bearing mice. DW-MRI provided early changes to radiosensitization treatment warranting evaluation of this imaging biomarker in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Galbán
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Lemasson
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Terence M. Williams
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Fei Li
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Kevin A. Heist
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Timothy D. Johnson
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Judith S. Leopold
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Thomas L. Chenevert
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Theodore S. Lawrence
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Alnawaz Rehemtulla
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Tom Mikkelsen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hermelin Brain Tumor Center, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Eric C. Holland
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Genetics and Neurosurgery, and Brain Tumor Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Craig J. Galbán
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Brian D. Ross
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Venza M, Visalli M, Alafaci C, Caffo M, Caruso G, Salpietro FM, Tomasello F, Teti D. Interleukin-8 overexpression in astrocytomas is induced by prostaglandin E2 and is associated with the transcription factors CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-β and CCAAT/enhancer-binding homologous protein. Neurosurgery 2011; 69:713-21; discussion 721. [PMID: 21471847 DOI: 10.1227/neu.0b013e31821954c6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The upregulation of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) and the overexpression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) have been separately linked to glioma malignancy. OBJECTIVE To evaluate (1) the correlation between the mRNA levels of IL-8, mPGES-1, and the main transcription factors (TFs) activating the IL-8 promoter in human brain tumors of different grades; (2) the role of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) on IL-8 activation and the expression of these TFs in tumor-derived cells; and (3) the biological impact of PGE2 treatment and mPGES-1 silencing on IL-8 synthesis and tumorigenesis. METHODS Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, transfection experiments, and cell proliferation and apoptosis assays were performed. RESULTS Regardless of histological grade, a significant positive association between IL-8 expression and mPGES-1, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-β (C/EBP-β) and C/EBP Homologous Protein (CHOP) mRNA levels was found only in astrogliomas (P < .001). The correlation was not significant in the other brain tumors. PGE2-treated astroglioma cells showed a marked upregulation of IL-8, C/EBP-β, and CHOP, as well as increased proliferation and decreased apoptosis compared with untreated cells. mPGES-1-silenced astroglioma cells displayed decreased IL-8 synthesis, accompanied by reduced cell growth and an increased rate of apoptosis. The other brain tumor cells were unaffected either by PGE2 treatment or by mPGES-1 knockout. CONCLUSION (1) PGE2 is responsible for IL-8 overexpression, independently of the malignancy grade, in astrogliomas only. (2) C/EBP-β and CHOP may be involved in mediating PGE2-induced IL-8 activation in these tumors. (3) mPGES-1 inhibition may have potential as a form of adjuvant therapy for astrogliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Venza
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychiatry and Anaesthesiology, Neurosurgical Clinic, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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Terrile M, Appolloni I, Calzolari F, Perris R, Tutucci E, Malatesta P. PDGF-B-driven gliomagenesis can occur in the absence of the proteoglycan NG2. BMC Cancer 2010; 10:550. [PMID: 20939912 PMCID: PMC2964636 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the last years, the transmembrane proteoglycan NG2 has gained interest as a therapeutic target for the treatment of diverse tumor types, including gliomas, because increases of its expression correlate with dismal prognosis. NG2 has been shown to function as a co-receptor for PDGF ligands whose aberrant expression is common in gliomas. We have recently generated a glioma model based on the overexpression of PDGF-B in neural progenitors and here we investigated the possible relevance of NG2 during PDGF-driven gliomagenesis. METHODS The survival curves of NG2-KO mice overexpressing PDGF-B were compared to controls by using a Log-rank test. The characteristics of tumors induced in NG2-KO were compared to those of tumors induced in wild type mice by immunostaining for different cell lineage markers and by transplantation assays in adult mice. RESULTS We showed that the lack of NG2 does not appreciably affect any of the characterized steps of PDGF-driven brain tumorigenesis, such as oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC) induction, the recruitment of bystander OPCs and the progression to full malignancy, which take place as in wild type animals. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis, using both NG2-KO mice and a miRNA based silencing approach, clearly demonstrates that NG2 is not required for PDGF-B to efficiently induce and maintain gliomas from neural progenitors. On the basis of the data obtained, we therefore suggest that the role of NG2 as a target molecule for glioma treatment should be carefully reconsidered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Terrile
- National Institute for Cancer Research IST, IRCCS, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy
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Ide T, Uchida K, Kikuta F, Suzuki K, Nakayama H. Immunohistochemical Characterization of Canine Neuroepithelial Tumors. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:741-50. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985810363486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The expression of cell differentiation and proliferation markers of canine neuroepithelial tumors was examined immunohistochemically to identify the histogenesis of these tumors. Astrocytomas ( n = 4) consisted of cells positive for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and nestin and a few cells positive for doublecortin (DCX). Immunoreactive cells for receptor tyrosine kinases (epidermal growth factor receptor and c-erbB2) and their downstream molecules (phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and phospho-Akt) were often detected in astrocytomas, especially in medium- and high-grade tumors. Gliomatosis cerebri ( n = 3) consisted of cells positive for ionized calcium–binding adaptor molecule 1 and GFAP, including a minor population of cells positive for nestin, DCX, and beta III tubulin, suggesting their glial differentiation. In choroid plexus tumors ( n = 4), most tumor cells were positive for cytokeratins AE1/AE3 and 18, and few were positive for GFAP. The majority of cells of oligodendrogliomas ( n = 5) were DCX positive, but the tumors also contained minor populations of cells positive for GFAP, nestin, or beta III tubulin. Primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs; n = 2) consisted of heterogeneous cell populations, and the tumor cells were positive for nestin, beta III tubulin, and DCX, suggesting glial and neuronal differentiation. The major population of neuroblastoma cells ( n = 3) were positive for beta III tubulin and DCX, suggesting single neuronal differentiation. As for antiapoptotic cell death molecules, most tumor cells in the choroid plexus tumors, PNETs, and neuroblastomas were intensely positive for Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, whereas those in gliomatosis cerebri were almost negative. In astrocytomas, Bcl-xL-positive cells predominated over Bcl-2-positive cells, but the opposite was observed in oligodendrogliomas. The immunohistochemical results were analyzed by hierarchical clustering, and the constructed dendrogram clearly indicated a novel position of oligodendrogliomas: the primitive glial and neuronal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Ide
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - K. Uchida
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - F. Kikuta
- St. Luke’s College of Nursing, Tokyo, Japan
| | - K. Suzuki
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - H. Nakayama
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Spontaneous canine gliomas: overexpression of EGFR, PDGFRalpha and IGFBP2 demonstrated by tissue microarray immunophenotyping. J Neurooncol 2009; 98:49-55. [PMID: 19967449 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-009-0072-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Fifty-seven spontaneous canine gliomas were histologically classified and graded using the latest World Health Organization (WHO 2007) criteria for classification of human gliomas. A total of 19 canine astrocytomas were classified as follows: grade IV (GBM) n = 7; grade III n = 5; and grade II, n = 7. Thirty-eight oligodendrogliomas were classified as either grade III (anaplastic) n = 35 or low grade II n = 3. Tissue microarray (TMA) immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate tumor expression of EGFR, PDGFRa and IGFBP2, three key molecules of known pathophysiological importance in human gliomas. Findings were correlated with tumor classification and grade. Increased EGFR expression was demonstrated in 57% of GBMs, 40% of grade III and 28% of grade II astrocytomas. EGFR expression occurred in only 3% of grade III oligodendrogliomas. Increased expression of PDGFRalpha was demonstrated in 43% of GBMs, 20% of grade III, and 14% of grade II astrocytomas. In the oligodendroglioma series, 94% of grade III tumors overexpressed PDGFRalpha. IGFBP2 expression was detected in 71, 60 and 28% of GBMs, grade III and grade II astrocytomas respectively. IGFBP2 expression occurred in 48% of anaplastic and in 33% of low grade oligodendrogliomas. Expression of EGFR, PDGFRalpha or IGFBP2 was not detected in normal canine CNS control TMA cores. The incidence of overexpression of EGFR, PDGFRalpha and IGFBP2 in these canine gliomas closely parallels that in human tumors of similar type and grade. These findings support a role for the spontaneous canine glioma model in directed pathway-targeting therapeutic studies.
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Glioblastoma subclasses can be defined by activity among signal transduction pathways and associated genomic alterations. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7752. [PMID: 19915670 PMCID: PMC2771920 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 406] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 10/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an umbrella designation that includes a heterogeneous group of primary brain tumors. Several classification strategies of GBM have been reported, some by clinical course and others by resemblance to cell types either in the adult or during development. From a practical and therapeutic standpoint, classifying GBMs by signal transduction pathway activation and by mutation in pathway member genes may be particularly valuable for the development of targeted therapies. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We performed targeted proteomic analysis of 27 surgical glioma samples to identify patterns of coordinate activation among glioma-relevant signal transduction pathways, then compared these results with integrated analysis of genomic and expression data of 243 GBM samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). In the pattern of signaling, three subclasses of GBM emerge which appear to be associated with predominance of EGFR activation, PDGFR activation, or loss of the RAS regulator NF1. The EGFR signaling class has prominent Notch pathway activation measured by elevated expression of Notch ligands, cleaved Notch receptor, and downstream target Hes1. The PDGF class showed high levels of PDGFB ligand and phosphorylation of PDGFRbeta and NFKB. NF1-loss was associated with lower overall MAPK and PI3K activation and relative overexpression of the mesenchymal marker YKL40. These three signaling classes appear to correspond with distinct transcriptomal subclasses of primary GBM samples from TCGA for which copy number aberration and mutation of EGFR, PDGFRA, and NF1 are signature events. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Proteomic analysis of GBM samples revealed three patterns of expression and activation of proteins in glioma-relevant signaling pathways. These three classes are comprised of roughly equal numbers showing either EGFR activation associated with amplification and mutation of the receptor, PDGF-pathway activation that is primarily ligand-driven, or loss of NF1 expression. The associated signaling activities correlating with these sentinel alterations provide insight into glioma biology and therapeutic strategies.
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Robinson JP, VanBrocklin MW, Guilbeault AR, Signorelli DL, Brandner S, Holmen SL. Activated BRAF induces gliomas in mice when combined with Ink4a/Arf loss or Akt activation. Oncogene 2009; 29:335-44. [PMID: 19855433 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) growth factor receptors (epidermal growth factor receptor, platelet-derived growth factor receptor, MET and ERBB2), which result in downstream activation of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and PI(3)K/Akt pathway, are found in almost all high-grade gliomas and MAPK signaling is necessary for continued glioma maintenance. In addition, BRAF is mutated in the majority of low-grade gliomas and its expression and activity is significantly increased in the majority of high-grade gliomas. Although the importance of RTKs and RAS signaling in glioma development has been shown, the role of BRAF has yet to be characterized. We evaluated the effect of activated BRAF in glioma formation using the retroviral replication-competent avian leukosis virus long terminal repeat, splice acceptor (RCAS)/TVA system to transfer genes encoding activated forms of BRAF, KRas, Akt and Cre to nestin-expressing neural progenitor cells in Ink4a/Arf(lox/lox) mice in vivo. Although expression of activated BRAF alone is not sufficient for tumorigenesis, the combination of activated BRAF and Akt or BRAF with Ink4a/Arf loss is transforming. Interestingly, activated BRAF generates gliomas with characteristics similar to activated KRas in the context of Akt but not Ink4a/Arf loss. Our studies show a role for BRAF activation and signaling in glioma development and as potential target for glioma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Robinson
- Drug Development Department, Nevada Cancer Institute, Las Vegas, NV 89135, USA
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Abstract
Gliomas are aggressive and almost incurable glial brain tumors which frequently display abnormal platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) signaling. Evidence gained from studies on several in vivo animal models has firmly established a causal connection between aberrant PDGF signaling and the formation of some gliomas. However, only recently has significant knowledge been gained regarding crucial issues such as the glioma cell of origin and the relationship between the transforming stimulus and the cellular characteristics of the resulting tumor. Based on recent evidence, we propose that PDGF can bias cell-fate decisions, driving the acquisition of cell type-specific features by the progeny of multipotent neural progenitors, thus determining the shape and direction of the transformation path. Furthermore, recent data about the cellular mechanisms of PDGF-driven glioma progression and maintenance indicate that PDGF may be required, unexpectedly, to override cell contact inhibition and promote glioma cell infiltration rather than to stimulate cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Calzolari
- National Institute for Cancer Research (IST), IRCCS, and Department of Oncology Biology and Genetics (DOBIG), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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Majumdar K, Radotra BD, Vasishta RK, Pathak A. Platelet-derived growth factor expression correlates with tumor grade and proliferative activity in human oligodendrogliomas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 72:54-60. [PMID: 19559929 DOI: 10.1016/j.surneu.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2008] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For the last one and a half decade, it has been found that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) promotes glial tumor growth through autocrine and paracrine loops, by expression of PDGFalpha receptor (PDGFRalpha) on glioma cells and PDGFbeta receptor (PDGFRbeta) on proliferating endothelial cells. However, studies on oligodendrogliomas, correlating expression of PDGF and its receptor with tumor grade and proliferative activity, through MIB-1 labeling index (LI) are relatively few as compared to astroglial counterpart. METHODS Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues from 55 cases of oligodendrogliomas (34 World Health Organization [WHO] grade II and 21 WHO grade III tumors) were subjected to immunohistochemistry. MIB-1 LI was calculated, and a semiquantitative scoring system for expression of PDGF and PDGFRalpha was used. RESULTS MIB-1 LI and PDGF expression increased with histologic grades of malignancy ("t" test, P < .001 and Mann Whitney test, U = 109, P < .001 respectively). The PDGF expression scores had a positive correlation with MIB-1 LI, irrespective of tumor grade (Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = 0.566; P < .001). However, there was no significant difference of PDGFRalpha expression between 2 grades of tumors. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study showed that MIB-1 LI is a rapid and cost-effective modality for predicting tumor grade in oligodendrogliomas. Immunohistochemistry for PDGF was found to be useful in differentiating various grades of oligodendroglioma, and therefore, it may be involved in tumor cell proliferation and malignant transformation. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha, although expressed in oligodendroglial neoplasms, was not found to be useful in predicting tumor grade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushik Majumdar
- Department of Histopathology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
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Galectin 1 proangiogenic and promigratory effects in the Hs683 oligodendroglioma model are partly mediated through the control of BEX2 expression. Neoplasia 2009; 11:485-96. [PMID: 19412433 DOI: 10.1593/neo.81526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously reported that galectin 1 (Gal-1) plays important biological roles in astroglial as well as in oligodendroglial cancer cells. As an oligodendroglioma model, we make use of the Hs683 cell line that has been previously extensively characterized at cell biology, molecular biology, and genetic levels. Galectin 1 has been shown to be involved in Hs683 oligodendroglioma chemoresistance, neoangiogenesis, and migration. Down-regulating Gal-1 expression in Hs683 cells through targeted small interfering RNA provokes a marked decrease in the expression of the brain-expressed X-linked gene: BEX2. Accordingly, the potential role of BEX2 in Hs683 oligodendroglioma cell biology has been investigated. The data presented here reveal that decreasing BEX2 expression in Hs683 cells increases the survival of Hs683 orthotopic xenograft-bearing mice. Furthermore, this decrease in BEX2 expression impairs vasculogenic mimicry channel formation in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo, and modulates glioma cell adhesion and invasive features through the modification of several genes previously reported to play a role in cancer cell migration, including MAP2, plexin C1, SWAP70, and integrin beta(6). We thus conclude that BEX2 is implicated in oligodendroglioma biology.
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Live cell labeling of glial progenitor cells using targeted quantum dots. Ann Biomed Eng 2009; 37:1967-73. [PMID: 19415494 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-009-9703-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This study describes the development of targeted quantum dots (T-QDs) as biomarkers for the labeling of glial progenitor cells (GPCs) that over express platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and its receptor PDGFR (GPC(PDGF)). PDGFR plays a critical role in glioma development and growth, and is also known to affect multiple biological processes such as cell migration and embryonic development. T-QDs were developed using streptavidin-conjugated quantum dots (S-QDs) with biotinylated antibodies and utilized to label the intracellular and extracellular domains of live, cultured GPC(PDGF) cells via lipofection with cationic liposomes. Confocal studies illustrate successful intracellular and extracellular targeted labeling within live cells that does not appear to impact upstream PDGFR dynamics during real-time signaling events. Further, T-QDs were nontoxic to GPC(PDGF) cells, and did not alter cell viability or proliferation over the course of 6 days. These results raise new applications for T-QDs as ultra sensitive agents for imaging and tracking of protein populations within live cells, which that will enable future mechanistic study of oncogenic signaling events in real-time.
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Tumor progression and oncogene addiction in a PDGF-B-induced model of gliomagenesis. Neoplasia 2009; 10:1373-82, following 1382. [PMID: 19048116 DOI: 10.1593/neo.08814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2008] [Revised: 09/11/2008] [Accepted: 09/12/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor B (PDGF-B) overexpression induces gliomas of different grades from murine embryonic neural progenitors. For the first time, we formally demonstrated that PDGF-B-induced neoplasms undergo progression from nontumorigenic low-grade tumors toward highly malignant forms. This result, showing that PDGF-B signaling alone is insufficient to confer malignancy to cells, entails the requirement for further molecular lesions in this process. Our results indicate that one of these lesions is represented by the down-regulation of the oncosuppressor Btg2. By in vivo transplantation assays, we further demonstrate that fully progressed tumors are PDGF-B-addicted because their tumor-propagating ability is lost when the PDGF-B transgene is silenced, whereas it is promptly reacquired after its reactivation. We provide evidence that this oncogene addiction is not caused by the need for PDGF-B as a mitogen but, rather, to the fact that PDGF-B is required to overcome cell-cell contact inhibition and to confer in vivo infiltrating potential on tumor cells.
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Appolloni I, Calzolari F, Tutucci E, Caviglia S, Terrile M, Corte G, Malatesta P. PDGF-B induces a homogeneous class of oligodendrogliomas from embryonic neural progenitors. Int J Cancer 2009; 124:2251-9. [PMID: 19165863 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We describe the generation of mouse gliomas following the overexpression of PDGF-B in embryonic neural progenitors. Our histopathological, immunohistochemical and genome-wide expression analyses revealed a surprising uniformity among PDGF-B induced tumors, despite they were generated by transducing a highly heterogeneous population of progenitor cells known for their ability to produce all the cell types of the central nervous system. Comparison of our microarray data with published gene expression data sets for many different murine neural cell types revealed a closest correlation between our tumor cells and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, confirming definitively that PDGF-B-induced gliomas are pure oligodendrogliomas. Importantly, we show that this uniformity is likely due to the ability of PDGF-B overexpression to respecify competent embryonic neural precursors toward the oligodendroglial lineage, providing evidence that the transforming activity of PDGF-B is influenced by the developmental potential of the targeted cells. Interestingly, we found that PDGF-B-induced tumors harbor different proliferating cell populations. However only PDGF-B-overexpressing cells are tumorigenic, indicating that paracrine signaling from the tumor is unable to transform bystander cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Appolloni
- Department of Genic Transfer, National Institute for Cancer Research (IST), IRCCS, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy
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26
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Abstract
The term oligodendroglioma was created by Bailey, Cushing, and Bucy based on the observation that these tumors share morphological similarities with oligodendrocytes (Bailey and Cushing 1926; Bailey and Bucy 1929). However, a convincing link between oligodendrocytes and oligodendrogliomas still needs to be shown. Oligoastrocytomas or mixed gliomas are histologically defined by the presence of oligodendroglial and astrocytic components. According to the WHO classification of brain tumors, oligodendroglial tumors are separated into oligodendrogliomas WHO grade II (OII), anaplastic oligodendrogliomas WHO grade III (OIII), oligoastrocytomas WHO grade II (OAII), anaplastic oligoastrocytomas WHO grade III (OAIII), and glioblastomas with oligodendroglioma component WHO grade IV (GBMo) (Louis et al. 2007).The perception of oligodendroglial tumors has changed in recent years. The diagnosis of oligodendroglioma or oligoastrocytomas is made much more frequently than 10 years ago. Treatment modalities have been advanced and novel concepts regarding the origin of oligodendroglial tumors have been developed. This review focuses on recent developments with impact on the diagnosis and understanding of molecular mechanisms in oligodendroglial tumors.
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27
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Zhao Y, Xiao A, Dipierro CG, Abdel-Fattah R, Amos S, Redpath GT, Carpenter JE, Pieper RO, Hussaini IM. H-Ras increases urokinase expression and cell invasion in genetically modified human astrocytes through Ras/Raf/MEK signaling pathway. Glia 2008; 56:917-24. [PMID: 18383343 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Previous study reported that the activation of Ras pathway cooperated with E6/E7-mediated inactivation of p53/pRb to transform immortalized normal human astrocytes (NHA/hTERT) into intracranial tumors strongly resembling human astrocytomas. The mechanism of how H-Ras contributes to astrocytoma formation is unclear. Using genetically modified NHA cells (E6/E7/hTERT and E6/E7/hTERT/Ras cells) as models, we investigated the mechanism of Ras-induced tumorigenesis. The overexpression of constitutively active H-RasV12 in E6/E7/hTERT cells robustly increased the levels of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) mRNA, protein, activity and invasive capacity of the E6/E7/hTERT/Ras cells. However, the expressions of MMP-9 and MMP-2 did not significantly change in the E6/E7/hTERT and E6/E7/hTERT/Ras cells. Furthermore, E6/E7/hTERT/Ras cells also displayed higher level of uPA activity and were more invasive than E6/E7/hTERT cells in 3D culture, and formed an intracranial tumor mass in a NOD-SCID mouse model. uPA specific inhibitor (B428) and uPA neutralizing antibody decreased uPA activity and invasion in E6/E7/hTERT/Ras cells. uPA-deficient U-1242 glioblastoma cells were less invasive in vitro and exhibited reduced tumor growth and infiltration into normal brain in xenograft mouse model. Inhibitors of Ras (FTA), Raf (Bay 54-9085) and MEK (UO126), but not of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) (LY294002) and of protein kinase C (BIM) pathways, inhibited uPA activity and cell invasion. Our results suggest that H-Ras increased uPA expression and activity via the Ras/Raf/MEK signaling pathway leading to enhanced cell invasion and this may contribute to increased invasive growth properties of astrocytomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunge Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA.
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28
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Neoplasia: An Anniversary of Progress. Neoplasia 2007. [DOI: 10.1593/neo.07968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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Hambardzumyan D, Lyustikman Y, Holland EC. An update on mouse brain tumor models in cancer drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2007; 2:1435-51. [PMID: 23484596 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2.11.1435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Gliomas and medulloblastomas are the most common primary brain tumors in adults and children, respectively. Although the standard of care for gliomas may have evolved slightly over the last 50 years, the clinical outcome of this disease remains unchanged. Therefore, further research to improve the treatment modalities is urgently needed. An important step forward is the use of genetically and histologically accurate mouse glioma models that mimic the human tumors in their native microenvironment in order to fully understand the biology and mechanistic causes of this disease. Such strategy will help us to identify novel targets for therapies and use these models for preclinical testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Hambardzumyan
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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30
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Dunlap SM, Celestino J, Wang H, Jiang R, Holland EC, Fuller GN, Zhang W. Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2 promotes glioma development and progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:11736-41. [PMID: 17606927 PMCID: PMC1913900 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0703145104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpression of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2 (IGFBP2) is associated with progression in many types of human cancer. In this study we used a glial-specific transgenic mouse model to examine the active role of IGFBP2 in tumorigenesis and progression. Our studies show that IGFBP2 coexpression results in progression to a higher-grade glioma in platelet-derived growth factor beta (PDGFB)-driven tumors. These anaplastic oligodendrogliomas are characterized by increased cellularity, vascular proliferation, small regions of necrosis, increased mitotic activity, and increased activation of the Akt pathway. Combined expression of IGFBP2 or Akt with K-Ras was required to form astrocytomas, indicating that activation of two separate pathways is necessary for gliomagenesis. In ex vivo experiments, blockade of Akt by an inhibitor led to decreased viability of cells coexpressing IGFBP2 versus PDGFB expression alone. Thus, this study provides definitive evidence that IGFBP2 plays a key role in activation of the Akt pathway and collaborates with K-Ras or PDGFB in the development and progression of two major types of glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Dunlap
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Joseph Celestino
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Hua Wang
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Rongcai Jiang
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Eric C. Holland
- Department of Neurosurgery, Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021
| | - Gregory N. Fuller
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed at:
Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 85, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030. E-mail: or
| | - Wei Zhang
- *Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed at:
Department of Pathology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 85, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030. E-mail: or
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31
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Fomchenko EI, Holland EC. Platelet-derived growth factor-mediated gliomagenesis and brain tumor recruitment. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2007; 18:39-58, viii. [PMID: 17244553 DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2006.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is a growth factor family of ligands and receptors known to activate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase, Jak family kinase, Src family kinase, and phospholipase Cgamma signal transduction pathways, some of which have been causally linked to glioma formation. Extensive involvement of PDGF in development and its implication in a variety of pathologic conditions, including gliomagenesis, are mediated not only by autocrine effects but by paracrine effects. Many researchers view brain tumors as clonal entities derived from the cancer stem cell; however, recent documentation of the importance of the tumor microenvironment for glioma initiation and progression as well as the ability of neural stem or progenitor cells to migrate toward the sites of injury or tumor formation reveals additional complexities in brain tumorigenesis. Paracrine effects of PDGF in animal models of gliomagenesis, continued adult neurogenesis capable of increasing in response to brain injury, and the growth factor-rich environment of brain tumors suggest that recruitment may play a role in gliomagenesis. In this view, glioma formation involves recruitment of cells from the adjacent brain and possibly other sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena I Fomchenko
- Department of Cancer Biology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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32
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Abstract
Recent findings suggest that Notch signaling is active in brain tumors and stem cells, and that stem cells or cells with progenitor characteristics contribute to brain tumor formation. These stem cells are marked by expression of several markers, including nestin, an intermediate filament protein. We have studied how the Notch signaling pathway affects nestin expression in brain tumors. We find that Notch receptors and ligands are expressed in vitro and in human samples of glioblastomas, the highest grade of malignant gliomas. In culture, Notch activity activates the nestin promoter. Activation of the Notch pathway also occurs in a glioblastoma multiforme mouse model induced by Kras, with translational regulation playing a role in Notch expression. Combined activation of Notch and Kras in wild-type nestin-expressing cells leads to their expansion within the subventricular zone and retention of proliferation and nestin expression. However, activation of Notch alone is unable to induce this cellular expansion. These data suggest that Notch may have a contributing role in the stem-like character of glioma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan H Shih
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Lyustikman Y, Lassman AB. Glioma oncogenesis and animal models of glioma formation. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007; 20:1193-214. [PMID: 17113459 DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2006.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in animal models have improved our understanding of the pathway abnormalities driving glioma growth. This article reviews key molecular abnormalities that have been modeled in mice, and describes major tumor modeling techniques along with examples of astrocytoma and oligodendroglioma models. Animal models are important not only for the testing of novel therapeutics but also as a means to understand the molecular explanations for treatment success and failure in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelena Lyustikman
- Department of Cancer Biology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 408 East 69th Street, Z1319, New York, NY 10021, USA
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34
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Rousseau A, Nutt CL, Betensky RA, Iafrate AJ, Han M, Ligon KL, Rowitch DH, Louis DN. Expression of oligodendroglial and astrocytic lineage markers in diffuse gliomas: use of YKL-40, ApoE, ASCL1, and NKX2-2. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2007; 65:1149-56. [PMID: 17146289 DOI: 10.1097/01.jnen.0000248543.90304.2b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The phenotypic heterogeneity of astrocytic and oligodendroglial tumor cells complicates establishing accurate diagnostic criteria, and lineage-specific markers would facilitate diagnosis of glioma subtypes. Based on data from the literature and from expression microarrays, we selected molecules relevant to gliogenesis and glial lineage specificity and then used immunohistochemistry to assess expression of these molecules in 55 diffuse gliomas, including 8 biphasic oligoastrocytomas, 21 oligodendrogliomas (all with 1p/19qloss), 21 astrocytomas, and 5 glioblastomas. For the astrocytic lineage markers (GFAP, YKL-40, and ApoE), GFAP expression was significantly higher in the astrocytic component of oligoastrocytomas compared with the oligodendroglial part; similar patterns were detected for YKL-40 and ApoE, although the differences were not significant. GFAP, YKL-40, and ApoE reliably distinguished grade II-III oligodendrogliomas from grade II-IV astrocytomas (p < 0.0001, p = 0.002, and p < 0.0001, respectively). Among the oligodendroglial lineage markers (Olig2, Sox10, ASCL1, and NKX2-2), ASCL1 and NKX2-2 displayed significantly different immunostaining between oligodendrogliomas and astrocytomas (p = 0.017 and 0.004, respectively), but none clearly differentiated between the 2 glial populations of oligoastrocytomas. In addition to GFAP, therefore, YKL-40, ApoE, ASCL1, and NKX2-2 represent promising tumor cell markers to distinguish oligodendrogliomas from astrocytomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Rousseau
- Molecular Pathology Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
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35
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Nicolis SK. Cancer stem cells and "stemness" genes in neuro-oncology. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 25:217-29. [PMID: 17141509 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Accepted: 08/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The main properties of stem cells include long-term self-renewal and the capacity to give rise to one or more types of differentiated progeny. Recently, much evidence was provided that leukemia and tumor maintenance and growth are sustained by a small proportion of cells exhibiting stem cell properties. In neural tumors, stem cells have been detected in glioblastoma, medulloblastoma and ependymoma. These observations imply that normal stem cells could be the origin of cancer stem cells; alternatively, a more differentiated progeny may revert to a "stem-like" status, and give rise to cancer stem cells. In adult brain residual stem cells are located in the hippocampus, the subventricular zone and possibly the cerebellum. However, evidence for the ability of more differentiated progeny (astroglia, oligodendroglia) to convert into "stem cells" in vitro has also been provided, thus greatly expanding the potential target of oncogenic mutations. In the framework of the cancer stem cell hypothesis, genes originally identified as important for normal neural stem cells may be essential to support cancer stem cells as well. Stem cell genes act in several ways: they stimulate stem cell self-replication, inhibit differentiation, control excessive replication that might lead to "exhaustion" of the stem cell pool. Mutations in man and mouse, in spontaneous or experimental brain tumors, often target stem cell genes or genes lying in their functional pathway, the main examples being the Sonic hedgehog and the Wnt pathways. Interestingly, several stem cell genes are often overexpressed in brain tumors, even if they are not mutated. This suggests that these genes may be important for the generation of cancer stem cells from more differentiated precursors, or for cancer stem cell maintenance. Cancer stem cells partially differentiate in vivo, and in vitro they also give rise to seemingly normal differentiated progeny, like normal stem cells: thus, their main defect, leading to cancer, may lie in the unbalance between self-replication and terminal differentiation of this minority cell population. Knowledge of extrinsic diffusible factors affecting the activity of stem cell genes may help identifying tools for inducing cancer stem cell differentiation, which might be of use in therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy.
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36
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Wei Q, Clarke L, Scheidenhelm DK, Qian B, Tong A, Sabha N, Karim Z, Bock NA, Reti R, Swoboda R, Purev E, Lavoie JF, Bajenaru ML, Shannon P, Herlyn D, Kaplan D, Henkelman RM, Gutmann DH, Guha A. High-grade glioma formation results from postnatal pten loss or mutant epidermal growth factor receptor expression in a transgenic mouse glioma model. Cancer Res 2006; 66:7429-37. [PMID: 16885338 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-0712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
High-grade gliomas are devastating brain tumors associated with a mean survival of <50 weeks. Two of the most common genetic changes observed in these tumors are overexpression/mutation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) vIII and loss of PTEN/MMAC1 expression. To determine whether somatically acquired EGFRvIII expression or Pten loss accelerates high-grade glioma development, we used a previously characterized RasB8 glioma-prone mouse strain, in which these specific genetic changes were focally introduced at 4 weeks of age. We show that both postnatal EGFRvIII expression and Pten inactivation in RasB8 mice potentiate high-grade glioma development. Moreover, we observe a concordant loss of Pten and EGFR overexpression in nearly all high-grade gliomas induced by either EGFRvIII introduction or Pten inactivation. This novel preclinical model of high-grade glioma will be useful in evaluating brain tumor therapies targeted to the pathways specifically dysregulated by EGFR expression or Pten loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxia Wei
- Arthur & Sonia Labatt Brain Tumour Research Centre, The Hospital for Sick Children, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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37
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Dennis J, Nogaroli L, Fuss B. Phosphodiesterase-Ialpha/autotaxin (PD-Ialpha/ATX): a multifunctional protein involved in central nervous system development and disease. J Neurosci Res 2006; 82:737-42. [PMID: 16267828 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Phosphodiesterase-Ialpha/autotaxin (PD-Ialpha/ATX) was originally identified as a cell-motility-stimulating factor secreted by a variety of tumor cells. Thus, studies related to its potential functional roles have traditionally focused on tumorigenesis. PD-Ialpha/ATX's catalytic activity, initially defined as nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase, was soon recognized as being necessary for its tumor cell-motility-stimulating activity. However, only the discovery of PD-Ialpha/ATX's identity with lysophospholipase D, an extracellular enzyme that converts lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and potentially sphingosylphosphoryl choline into sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), revealed the actual effectors responsible for PD-Ialpha/ATX's ascribed motogenic functions, i.e., its catalytic products. PD-Ialpha/ATX has also been detected during normal development in a number of tissues, in particular, the central nervous system (CNS), where expression levels are high. Similar to tumor cells, PD-Ialpha/ATX-expressing CNS cells secrete catalytically active PD-Ialpha/ATX into the extracellular environment. Thus, it appears reasonable to assume that PD-Ialpha/ATX's CNS-related functions are mediated via lysophospholipid, LPA and potentially S1P, signaling. However, recent studies identified PD-Ialpha/ATX as a matricellular protein involved in the modulation of oligodendrocyte-extracellular matrix interactions and oligodendrocyte remodeling. This property of PD-Ialpha/ATX was found to be independent of its catalytic activity and to be mediated by a novel functionally active domain. These findings, therefore, uncover PD-Ialpha/ATX, at least in the CNS, as a multifunctional protein able to induce complex signaling cascades via distinct structure-function domains. This Mini-Review describes PD-Ialpha/ATX's multifunctional roles in the CNS and discusses their potential contributions to CNS development and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jameel Dennis
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center, Richmond, 23298, USA
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38
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Rehemtulla A, Ross BD. A review of the past, present, and future directions of neoplasia. Neoplasia 2006; 7:1039-46. [PMID: 16354585 PMCID: PMC1501177 DOI: 10.1593/neo.05793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
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39
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Momota H, Nerio E, Holland EC. Perifosine inhibits multiple signaling pathways in glial progenitors and cooperates with temozolomide to arrest cell proliferation in gliomas in vivo. Cancer Res 2005; 65:7429-35. [PMID: 16103096 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-1042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Perifosine is an oral Akt inhibitor which exerts a marked cytotoxic effect on human tumor cell lines, and is currently being tested in several phase II trials for treatment of major human cancers. However, the efficacy of perifosine in human gliomas has not been established. As Akt is activated in approximately 70% of human glioblastomas, we investigated the impact of perifosine on glia in culture and on a mouse glioma model in vivo. Here we show that perifosine strongly reduces phosphorylation levels of Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) 1/2, induces cell cycle arrest in G1 and G2, and causes dose-dependent growth inhibition of mouse glial progenitors in which Akt and/or Ras-Erk 1/2 pathways are activated. Furthermore, because temozolomide is a common oral alkylating agent used in the treatment of gliomas, we investigated the effect of perifosine in combination with temozolomide. We observed an enhanced effect when both were used in culture. With these results, we combined perifosine and temozolomide as treatment of platelet-derived growth factor B-driven gliomas in mice. Animal studies showed that perifosine and temozolomide combination therapy was more effective than temozolomide treatment alone (P < 0.01). These results indicate that perifosine is an effective drug in gliomas in which Akt and Ras-Erk 1/2 pathways are frequently activated, and may be a new candidate for glioma treatment in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Momota
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics and Surgery (Neurosurgery) and Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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40
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Hu X, Pandolfi PP, Li Y, Koutcher JA, Rosenblum M, Holland EC. mTOR promotes survival and astrocytic characteristics induced by Pten/AKT signaling in glioblastoma. Neoplasia 2005; 7:356-68. [PMID: 15967113 PMCID: PMC1501155 DOI: 10.1593/neo.04595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2004] [Revised: 09/03/2004] [Accepted: 09/18/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Combined activation of Ras and AKT leads to the formation of astrocytic glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) in mice. In human GBMs, AKT is not mutated but is activated in approximately 70% of these tumors, in association with loss of PTEN and/or activation of receptor tyrosine kinases. Mechanistic justification for the therapeutic blockade of targets downstream of AKT, such as mTOR, in these cancers requires demonstration that the oncogenic effect of PTEN loss is through elevated AKT activity. We demonstrate here that loss of Pten is similar to AKT activation in the context of glioma formation in mice. We further delineate the role of mTOR activity downstream of AKT in the maintenance of AKT+KRas-induced GBMs. Blockade of mTOR results in regional apoptosis in these tumors and conversion in the character of surviving tumor cells from astrocytoma to oligodendroglioma. These data suggest that mTOR activity is required for the survival of some cells within these GBMs, and mTOR appears required for the maintenance of astrocytic character in the surviving cells. Furthermore, our study provides the first example of conversion between two distinct tumor types usually thought of as belonging to specific lineages, and provides evidence for signal transduction-mediated transdifferentiation between glioma subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Hu
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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41
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Hu X, Holland EC. Applications of mouse glioma models in preclinical trials. Mutat Res 2005; 576:54-65. [PMID: 16011838 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2004] [Revised: 04/11/2004] [Accepted: 08/12/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Gliomas are the most common primary tumors that arise from glial cells and their precursors in the central nervous system. Most of the genetic alterations identified in human gliomas result in signal transduction abnormalities or disruption of cell cycle arrest pathways. Over the past years, several mouse glioma models have been generated based on human genetic abnormalities and the induced gliomas exhibit histological similarities to their human counterparts. There is emerging evidence suggesting that an oncogenic signaling initiating tumorigenesis is also required for tumor maintenance, these glioma models can be used to further characterize the mechanisms of oncogenic signaling in tumor formation, as well as identify molecular targets in preclinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Hu
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, New York, NY 10021, USA
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42
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Shih AH, Holland EC. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and glial tumorigenesis. Cancer Lett 2005; 232:139-47. [PMID: 16139423 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2005.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2005] [Accepted: 02/04/2005] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) has long been implicated in cancer and is known to be involved in many biological processes. In Central Nervous System (CNS) neoplasms, particularly gliomas, PDGF is often over-expressed. However, what role PDGF plays in tumor progression remains to be fully described. A wide range of work from in vitro studies to mouse models have implicated the PDGF pathway in various processes including proliferation, cellular migration, development, and angiogenesis. Being a secreted factor, PDGF not only has autocrine effects on producing cells but also has potential for paracrine effects on other tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. The development of small molecules that inhibit the PDGF receptor and various subsequent signaling components promises to introduce new approaches to the treatment of gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan H Shih
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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43
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Fomchenko EI, Holland EC. Stem cells and brain cancer. Exp Cell Res 2005; 306:323-9. [PMID: 15925587 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2005] [Revised: 03/08/2005] [Accepted: 03/08/2005] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
One of the most devastating CNS pathologies is brain cancer. The undifferentiated character of brain tumor cells and recent reports of cancer stem cells prompt questions regarding the involvement of normal stem/progenitor cells in brain tumor biology, their potential contribution to the tumor itself, and whether they are the cause or the consequence of tumor initiation and progression. The cancer stem cell model proposes a clonally derived brain tumor arising from a cancer stem cell. This tumor cell-of-origin originates from a stem/progenitor or more differentiated cell via acquisition of oncogenic mutations that dysregulate or allow reacquisition of self-renewal mechanisms. The tumor cells differentiate unidirectionally from the cancer stem cell in a way parallel to normal development. However, several properties of brain tumors add complexity to this model. For example, the apparent lineage and differentiation status of tumor cells are significantly affected by signaling abnormalities that are causally related to formation of the tumor. In addition, these tumors recruit normal CNS stem and progenitor cells to the tumor mass leading to the possibility of a heterogeneous and polyclonal cell population. It is likely that a complete description of the role of stem cells in brain tumors will be more complex than our current models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena I Fomchenko
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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