Autophagy and Hallmarks of Cancer

2-dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione mediates the effect of ROS-enhanced PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway on autophagy in breast cancer

Several studies have suggested a potential antitumor effect of 2-dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione (DMDD). To further understand the mechanism of action of this compound, we investigated its effect on the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/serine-threonine kinase (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. We show that DMDD application significantly inhibited the proliferation of breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and ER-α positive MCF-7. Furthermore, DMDD application resulted in increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, apoptosis and autophagy, whereas it downregulated the expression of PI3K, Akt and mTOR mRNA and proteins, and increased the expression of LC3II/I and p62 proteins. In a mouse breast cancer xenograft model, DMDD inhibited tumor growth. Expression analyses suggest that ROS levels were higher in DMDD treated tumor tissues, whereas immunohistochemical analyses suggest that apoptotic cells were more prevalent in the DMDD treated group compared to the control group. Taken together, our results suggest that the molecular mechanism of action of DMDD may involve the enhancement of breast cancer autophagy through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway by mediating ROS expression.

Pyrrolidine SS13 induces oxidative stress and autophagy-mediated cell death in colorectal cancer cells

INTRODUCTION

Pyrrolidines, nitrogenous organic compounds, are among the most intensively studied agents because of their antibacterial, antiviral, neurological, and promising antitumor effects. Moreover, many medicinal drugs contain pyrrolidine moiety such as sunitinib (anticancer drug), telaprevir and ombitasvir (antiviral drugs) or ramipril (antihypertensive drug).

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Based on the pro-apoptotic effect of pyrrolidine SS13, this study focuses on the pro-oxidative properties of the tested pyrrolidine SS13 on colorectal cancer cells to deepen the understanding of its mechanisms of action.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesize that SS13 induces oxidative stress and autophagy activation in HCT116 and Caco-2 cell lines, thus contributing to antiproliferative effects.

METHODS

Flow cytometry, western blot, fluorescence microscopy and qRT-PCR were used to evaluate the effect of pyrrolidine SS13.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Pyrrolidine SS13 induced oxidative stress through the accumulation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in both cell lines and the modulation of both superoxide dismutase isoenzymes (SOD1, SOD2). Oxidative stress was also associated with the activation of DNA damage response system and modulation of stress/survival pathways. We demonstrated for the first time that pyrrolidine SS13 is involved in the induction of autophagy accompanied by increased levels of autophagic markers (p-AMPK, p-ULK, LC3I/II and ATG7) and a significant decrease in p62 protein levels in both cell lines. Finally, chloroquine, an inhibitor of autophagy, enhanced cell survival and suppressed the cytotoxic effect of SS13 in HCT116 and Caco-2 cells, indicating that SS13 contributes to autophagy-mediated cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that oxidative stress and autophagy participate in the antiproliferative effect of pyrrolidine SS13 on colorectal cancer cells. Further research using primary cell cultures obtained from different animal tissues as well as performing in vivo experiments is needed to understand these processes in detail and to investigate the potential therapeutic application of new pyrrolidine derivatives.

Ubiquitin-related gene markers predict immunotherapy response and prognosis in patients with epithelial ovarian carcinoma

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) is the most fatal among female reproductive system tumors. The immune tumor microenvironment and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway are closely related to the proliferation, invasion, and response to chemotherapy in EOC. However, their specific roles in EOC have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, we aimed to recognize potential prognostic markers and novel therapeutic targets for EOC. We constructed the ubiquitin-related signature risk model comprising HSP90AB1, FBXO9, SIGMAR1, STAT1, SH3KBP1, EPB41L2, DNAJB6, VPS18, PPM1G, AKAP12, FRK, and PYGB, specifically for patients with EOC. The high-risk model presented a worse prognosis, primarily associated with the B-cell receptor signaling pathway, ECM receptor interaction, focal adhesion, and actin cytoskeleton regulations. Analysis of the immune landscape revealed a higher abundance of B cells, M2 macrophages, neutrophil CD4 T cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, macrophage neutrophils, and fibroblasts in the high-risk group. It also exhibited lower tumor mutation burden, mRNAsi, and EREG-mRNAsi and reduced sensitivity to other chemotherapy drugs, except dasatinib. These findings serve as a valuable indicator for personalized treatment strategies and clinical stratification in managing patients with EOC. Additionally, our study will serve as a foundation for future mechanistic research to explore the association between the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and EOC.

Commitment Complex Splicing Factors in Cancers of the Gastrointestinal Tract-An In Silico Study

The initial step in pre-mRNA splicing involves formation of a spliceosome commitment complex (CC) or E-complex by factors that serve to bind and mark the exon-intron boundaries that will undergo splicing. The CC component U1 snRNP assembles at the 5'-splice site (ss), whereas SF1, U2AF2, and U2AF1 define the 3'-ss of the intron. A PRP40 protein bridges U1 snRNP with factors at the 3'-ss. To determine how defects in CC components impact cancers, we analyzed human gastrointestinal (GI) cancer patient tissue and clinical data from cBioPortal. cBioPortal datasets were analyzed for CC factor alterations and patient outcomes in GI cancers (bowel, stomach, esophagus, pancreas, and liver). In addition, co-expression datasets were used to determine the splicing targets of the CC. Our analysis found that frequency of genetic changes was low (1%-13%), but when combined with changes in expression levels, there was an overall surprisingly high incidence of CC component (>30%) alterations in GI cancers. Colon cancer patients carrying BRAF driver gene mutations had high incidences of CC alterations (19%-61%), whereas patients with APC, KRAS, or TP53 gene mutations had low (<5%) incidences of CC alterations. Most significantly, patients with mutations in CC genes exhibited a consistent trend of favorable survival rates, indicating that mutations that impair or lower CC component expression favor patient survival. Conversely, patients with high CC expression had worse survival. Pathway analysis indicates that the CC regulates specific metabolic and tumor suppressor pathways. Metabolic pathways involved in cell survival, nutrition, biosynthesis, autophagy, cellular movement (invasion), or immune surveillance pathways correlated with CC factor upregulation, whereas tumor suppressor pathways, which regulate cell proliferation and apoptosis, were inversely correlated with CC factor upregulation. This study demonstrates the versatility of in silico analysis to determine molecular function of large macromolecular complexes such as the spliceosome CC. Furthermore, our analysis indicates that therapeutic lowering of CC levels in colon cancer patients may enhance patient survival.

The dual role of autophagy in suppressing and promoting hepatocellular carcinoma

The 5-year survival rate for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a deadly form of liver cancer, is quite low. Although drug therapy is successful, patients with advanced liver cancer frequently develop resistance because of the significant phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of these cells. The overexpression of drug efflux transporters, downstream adaptive responses, malfunctioning DNA damage repair, epigenetic modification, the tumor microenvironment, and the extracellular matrix can all be linked to drug resistance. The evolutionary process of autophagy, which is in charge of intracellular breakdown, is intimately linked to medication resistance in HCC. Autophagy is involved in both the promotion and suppression of cancer by influencing treatment resistance, metastasis, carcinogenesis, and the viability of stem cells. Certain autophagy regulators are employed in anticancer treatment; however, because of the dual functions of autophagy, their use is restricted, and therapeutic failure is increased. By focusing on autophagy, it is possible to reduce HCC expansion and metastasis, and enhance tumor cell reactivity to treatment. Macroautophagy, the best-characterized type of autophagy, involves the formation of a sequestering compartment termed a phagophore, which surrounds and encloses aberrant or superfluous components. The phagophore matures into a double-membrane autophagosome that delivers the cargo to the lysosome; lysosomes and autophagosomes fuse to degrade and recycle the cargo. Macroautophagy plays dual functions in both promoting and suppressing cancer in a variety of cancer types.

Ubiquitination and deubiquitination in cancer: from mechanisms to novel therapeutic approaches

Ubiquitination, a pivotal posttranslational modification of proteins, plays a fundamental role in regulating protein stability. The dysregulation of ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes is a common feature in various cancers, underscoring the imperative to investigate ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases (DUBs) for insights into oncogenic processes and the development of therapeutic interventions. In this review, we discuss the contributions of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in all hallmarks of cancer and progress in drug discovery. We delve into the multiple functions of the UPS in oncology, including its regulation of multiple cancer-associated pathways, its role in metabolic reprogramming, its engagement with tumor immune responses, its function in phenotypic plasticity and polymorphic microbiomes, and other essential cellular functions. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive overview of novel anticancer strategies that leverage the UPS, including the development and application of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) and molecular glues.

A new perspective on the autophagic and non-autophagic functions of the GABARAP protein family: a potential therapeutic target for human diseases

Mammalian autophagy-related protein Atg8, including the LC3 subfamily and GABARAP subfamily. Atg8 proteins play a vital role in autophagy initiation, autophagosome formation and transport, and autophagy-lysosome fusion. GABARAP subfamily proteins (GABARAPs) share a high degree of homology with LC3 family proteins, and their unique roles are often overlooked. GABARAPs are as indispensable as LC3 in autophagy. Deletion of GABARAPs fails autophagy flux induction and autophagy lysosomal fusion, which leads to the failure of autophagy. GABARAPs are also involved in the transport of selective autophagy receptors. They are engaged in various particular autophagy processes, including mitochondrial autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum autophagy, Golgi autophagy, centrosome autophagy, and dorphagy. Furthermore, GABARAPs are closely related to the transport and delivery of the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-GABAA and the angiotensin II AT1 receptor (AT1R), tumor growth, metastasis, and prognosis. GABARAPs also have been confirmed to be involved in various diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative diseases. In order to better understand the role and therapeutic potential of GABARAPs, this article comprehensively reviews the autophagic and non-autophagic functions of GABARAPs, as well as the research progress of the role and mechanism of GABARAPs in cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases. It emphasizes the significance of GABARAPs in the clinical prevention and treatment of diseases, and may provide new therapeutic ideas and targets for human diseases. GABARAP and GABARAPL1 in the serum of cancer patients are positively correlated with the prognosis of patients, which can be used as a clinical biomarker, predictor and potential therapeutic target.

A Nanorobotics-Based Approach of Breast Cancer in the Nanotechnology Era

We are living in an era of advanced nanoscience and nanotechnology. Numerous nanomaterials, culminating in nanorobots, have demonstrated ingenious applications in biomedicine, including breast cancer (BC) nano-theranostics. To solve the complicated problem of BC heterogeneity, non-targeted drug distribution, invasive diagnostics or surgery, resistance to classic onco-therapies and real-time monitoring of tumors, nanorobots are designed to perform multiple tasks at a small scale, even at the organelles or molecular level. Over the last few years, most nanorobots have been bioengineered as biomimetic and biocompatible nano(bio)structures, resembling different organisms and cells, such as urchin, spider, octopus, fish, spermatozoon, flagellar bacterium or helicoidal cyanobacterium. In this review, readers will be able to deepen their knowledge of the structure, behavior and role of several types of nanorobots, among other nanomaterials, in BC theranostics. We summarized here the characteristics of many functionalized nanodevices designed to counteract the main neoplastic hallmark features of BC, from sustaining proliferation and evading anti-growth signaling and resisting programmed cell death to inducing angiogenesis, activating invasion and metastasis, preventing genomic instability, avoiding immune destruction and deregulating autophagy. Most of these nanorobots function as targeted and self-propelled smart nano-carriers or nano-drug delivery systems (nano-DDSs), enhancing the efficiency and safety of chemo-, radio- or photodynamic therapy, or the current imagistic techniques used in BC diagnosis. Most of these nanorobots have been tested in vitro, using various BC cell lines, as well as in vivo, mainly based on mice models. We are still waiting for nanorobots that are low-cost, as well as for a wider transition of these favorable effects from laboratory to clinical practice.

Autophagy: a necessary evil in cancer and inflammation

Autophagy, a highly regulated cellular process, assumes a dual role in the context of cancer. On the one hand, it functions as a crucial homeostatic pathway, responsible for degrading malfunctioning molecules and organelles, thereby maintaining cellular health. On the other hand, its involvement in cancer development and regression is multifaceted, contingent upon a myriad of factors. This review meticulously examines the intricacies of autophagy, from its molecular machinery orchestrated by Autophagy-Related Genes (ATG) initially discovered in yeast to the various modes of autophagy operative within cells. Beyond its foundational role in cellular maintenance, autophagy reveals context-specific functions in processes like angiogenesis and inflammation. Our analysis delves into how autophagy-related factors directly impact inflammation, underscoring their profound implications for cancer dynamics. Additionally, we extend our inquiry to explore autophagy's associations with cardiovascular conditions, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases, illuminating the broader medical relevance of this process. Furthermore, this review elucidates how autophagy contributes to sustaining hallmark cancer features, including stem cell maintenance, proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, and metabolic reprogramming. Autophagy emerges as a pivotal process that necessitates careful consideration in cancer treatment strategies. To this end, we investigate innovative approaches, ranging from enzyme-based therapies to MTOR inhibitors, lysosomal blockers, and nanoparticle-enabled interventions, all aimed at optimizing cancer treatment outcomes by targeting autophagy pathways. In summary, this comprehensive review provides a nuanced perspective on the intricate and context-dependent role of autophagy in cancer biology. Our exploration not only deepens our understanding of this fundamental process but also highlights its potential as a therapeutic target. By unraveling the complex interplay between autophagy and cancer, we pave the way for more precise and effective cancer treatments, promising better outcomes for patients.

AAA237, an SKP2 inhibitor, suppresses glioblastoma by inducing BNIP3-dependent autophagy through the mTOR pathway

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common brain tumor with the worst prognosis. Temozolomide is the only first-line drug for GBM. Unfortunately, the resistance issue is a classic problem. Therefore, it is essential to develop new drugs to treat GBM. As an oncogene, Skp2 is involved in the pathogenesis of various cancers including GBM. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effect of AAA237 on human glioblastoma cells and its underlying mechanism.

METHODS

CCK-8 assay was conducted to evaluate IC50 values of AAA237 at 48, and 72 h, respectively. The Cellular Thermal Shift Assay (CETSA) was employed to ascertain the status of Skp2 as an intrinsic target of AAA237 inside the cellular milieu. The EdU-DNA synthesis test, Soft-Agar assay and Matrigel assay were performed to check the suppressive effects of AAA237 on cell growth. To identify the migration and invasion ability of GBM cells, transwell assay was conducted. RT-qPCR and Western Blot were employed to verify the level of BNIP3. The mRFP-GFP-LC3 indicator system was utilized to assess alterations in autophagy flux and investigate the impact of AAA237 on the dynamic fusion process between autophagosomes and lysosomes. To investigate the effect of compound AAA237 on tumor growth in vivo, LN229 cells were injected into the brains of mice in an orthotopic model.

RESULTS

AAA237 could inhibit the growth of GBM cells in vitro. AAA237 could bind to Skp2 and inhibit Skp2 expression and the degradation of p21 and p27. In a dose-dependent manner, AAA237 demonstrated the ability to inhibit colony formation, migration, and invasion of GBM cells. AAA237 treatment could upregulate BNIP3 as the hub gene and therefore induce BNIP3-dependent autophagy through the mTOR pathway whereas 3-MA can somewhat reverse this process. In vivo, the administration of AAA237 effectively suppressed the development of glioma tumors with no side effects.

CONCLUSION

Compound AAA237, a novel Skp2 inhibitor, inhibited colony formation, migration and invasion of GBM cells in a dose-dependent manner and time-dependent manner through upregulating BNIP3 as the hub gene and induced BNIP3-dependent autophagy through the mTOR pathway therefore it might be a viable therapeutic drug for the management of GBM.

Regulation of mitochondrial metabolism by autophagy supports leptin-induced cell migration

Leptin is an adipokine secreted by adipose tissue, which promotes tumor progression by activating canonical signaling pathways such as MAPK/ERK. Recent studies have shown that leptin induces autophagy, and this process is involved in leptin-induced characteristics of malignancy. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation process associated with different hallmarks of cancer, such as cell survival, migration, and metabolic reprogramming. However, its relationship with metabolic reprogramming has not been clearly described. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of leptin-induced autophagy in cancer cell metabolism and its association with cellular proliferation and migration in breast cancer cells. We used ER+/PR+ and triple-negative breast cancer cell lines treated with leptin, autophagy inhibition, or mitochondrial metabolism inhibitors. Our results show that leptin induces autophagy, increases proliferation, mitochondrial ATP production and mitochondrial function in ER+/PR+ cells. Importantly, autophagy was required to maintain metabolic changes and cell proliferation driven by leptin. In triple-negative cells, leptin did not induce autophagy or cell proliferation but increased glycolytic and mitochondrial ATP production, mitochondrial function, and cell migration. In triple negative cells, autophagy was required to support metabolic changes and cell migration, and autophagy inhibition decreased cellular migration similar to mitochondrial inhibitors. In conclusion, leptin-induced autophagy supports mitochondrial metabolism in breast cancer cells as well as glycolysis in triple negative cells. Importantly, leptin-induced mitochondrial metabolism promoted cancer cell migration.

IL-13/IL-13RA2 signaling promotes colorectal cancer stem cell tumorigenesis by inducing ubiquitinated degradation of p53

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are considered tumor-initiating cells and the main drivers of disease progression. Targeting these rare cancer cells, however, remains challenging with respect to therapeutic benefit. Here, we report the up-regulation of IL-13RA2 expression in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissues and spheroid cells. The expression of IL-13RA2 was positively correlated with canonical stemness markers in CRC. We further demonstrated that the level of IL-13 was up-regulated in the serum of CRC patients. Biologically, recombinant IL-13 (rIL-13) stimulation promoted the sphere formation, proliferation, and migration of CRC cells in vitro and enhanced tumorigenesis in vivo. This phenotype could be reversed by knocking down IL-13RA2. Mechanistically, IL-13 activated autophagy by inducing LC3I/LC3II transformation in CRC-CSCs, which was crucial for the biological functions of IL-13. We further demonstrated that IL-13RA2 acted as a modular link of the E3 ligase UBE3C and the substrate p53 protein, enhancing the interaction of UBE3C and p53, thereby inducing the K48-linked ubiquitination of p53. In conclusion, the IL-13/IL-13RA2 signaling cascade promotes CRC-CSC self-renewal and tumorigenesis by inducing p53 ubiquitination, adding an important layer to the connection between IL-13 and p53, which can be translated into novel targeted therapies.

Poricoic acid A induces mitophagy to ameliorate podocyte injury in diabetic kidney disease via downregulating FUNDC1

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a devastating complication of diabetes mellitus (DM) and is the most prevalent chronic kidney disease (CKD). Poricoic acid A (PAA), a component isolated from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Poria cocos, has hypoglycaemic and anti-fibrosis effects. However, the role of PAA in DKD remains largely unclear. To mimics an in vitro model of DKD, the mouse podocyte MPC5 cells were treated with high glucose (25 mM; HG) for 24 h. CCK-8 and flow cytometry assays were conducted for assessing MPC5 cell viability and apoptosis. Meanwhile, streptozotocin (STZ) was used to induce experimental DKD in mice by intraperitoneal injection. PAA notably inhibited the apoptosis and inflammation, reduced the generation of ROS, and elevated the MMP level in HG-treated MPC5 cells. Moreover, PAA obviously reduced blood glucose and urine protein levels, inhibited renal fibrosis in DKD mice. Meanwhile, PAA markedly increased LC3 and ATG5 levels and declined p62 and FUNDC1 levels in HG-treated MPC5 cells and in the kidney tissues of DKD mice, leading to the activation of cell mitophagy. Furthermore, the downregulation of FUNDC1 also inhibited apoptosis, inflammation, and promoted mitophagy in HG-treated MPC5 cells. As expected, the knockdown of FUNDC1 further enhanced the protective role of PAA in MPC5 cells following HG treatment, indicating that induction of mitophagy could attenuate podocyte injury. Collectively, PAA could exert beneficial effects on podocyte injury in DKD by promoting mitophagy via downregulating FUNDC1. These findings suggested that PAA may have great potential in alleviating kidney injury in DKD.

Identification of galactosamine-(N-acetyl)-6-sulfatase (GALNS) as a novel therapeutic target in progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a commonly diagnosed malignancy in southern China and southeast Asia. Previous studies have identified galactosamine-(N-acetyl)-6-sulfatase (GALNS) as a potential biomarker for multiple cancers. However, it is unknown whether GALNS plays a role in NPC development, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we found that GALNS is overexpressed in NPC cell lines and tissues compared to the normal nasopharyngeal counterparts. Knocking down GALNS expression in the NPC cells significantly decreased their proliferation in vitro, and inhibited xenograft growth in a mouse model. Mechanistically, the anti-proliferative effect of GALNS silencing was the result of autophagy induction via the inhibition of PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway. Taken together, GALNS drives the progression of NPC via PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling-mediated autophagy, and is therefore a promising therapeutic target.

Autophagy Modulation as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Osteosarcoma: Current Insights and Future Perspectives

Autophagy, the process that enables the recycling and degradation of cellular components, is essential for homeostasis, which occurs in response to various types of stress. Autophagy plays an important role in the genesis and evolution of osteosarcoma (OS). The conventional treatment of OS has limitations and is not always effective at controlling the disease. Therefore, numerous researchers have analyzed how controlling autophagy could be used as a treatment or strategy to reverse resistance to therapy in OS. They highlight how the inhibition of autophagy improves the efficacy of chemotherapeutic treatments and how the promotion of autophagy could prove positive in OS therapy. The modulation of autophagy can also be directed against OS stem cells, improving treatment efficacy and preventing cancer recurrence. Despite promising findings, future studies are needed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and its relationship to OS, as well as the mechanisms underlying the functioning of autophagic modulators. Careful evaluation is required as autophagy modulation may have adverse effects on normal cells, and the optimization of autophagic modulators for use as drugs in OS is imperative.

Blood- and Urine-Based Liquid Biopsy for Early-Stage Cancer Investigation: Taken Clear Renal Cell Carcinoma as a Model

Liquid biopsy is a noninvasive technique that can provide valuable information for disease characterization by using biofluids as a source of biomarkers. Proteins found in biofluids can offer a wealth of information for understanding pathological processes. In this study, we used early-stage clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) as a model to explore the proteomic relationships among tissue, plasma, and urine. We analyzed samples of tumor tissue, plasma, and urine from a cohort of 27 ccRCC patients with T1-2 stage and 27 matched healthy controls, using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) for proteomic analysis. We integrated the differential proteins found in the three types of samples to explore ccRCC-associated molecular changes. Our results showed that both plasma and urine proteomes could reflect functional changes in tumor tissue. In plasma, cytoskeletal proteins and metabolic enzymes were differentially expressed, while in urine, adhesion molecules and defense proteins showed differential levels. The differential proteins found in plasma and urine both reflect the binding and catalytic activity of tumor tissue. Additionally, proteins only changed in biofluids could reflect body immune response changes, with plasma proteins involved in actin cytoskeleton and oxidative stress, and urine proteins involved in granulocyte adhesion and leukocyte extravasation signaling. Plasma and urine proteins could effectively distinguish RCC from control, with good performances (plasma/urine: 92.6%/92.6% specificity, 96.3%/92.6% sensitivity, and an area under the curve of 0.981/0.97). In conclusion, biofluids could not only reflect functional changes in tumor tissue but also reflect changes in the body's immune response. These findings will benefit the understanding of body biomarkers in tumors and the discovery of potential disease biomarkers.

Regulation of Autophagy via Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism in Cancer

Metabolic changes are an important component of tumor cell progression. Tumor cells adapt to environmental stresses via changes to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Autophagy, a physiological process in mammalian cells that digests damaged organelles and misfolded proteins via lysosomal degradation, is closely associated with metabolism in mammalian cells, acting as a meter of cellular ATP levels. In this review, we discuss the changes in glycolytic and lipid biosynthetic pathways in mammalian cells and their impact on carcinogenesis via the autophagy pathway. In addition, we discuss the impact of these metabolic pathways on autophagy in lung cancer.

The Role of Autophagy in Breast Cancer Metastasis

Patient morbidity and mortality is significantly increased in metastatic breast cancer. The metastasis process of breast cancer is very complicated and is delicately controlled by various factors. Autophagy is one of the important regulatory factors affecting metastasis in breast cancer by engaging in cell mobility, metabolic adaptation, tumor dormancy, and cancer stem cells. Here, we discuss the effects of autophagy on metastasis in breast cancer and assess the potential use of autophagy modulators for metastasis treatment.

Autophagy: A challengeable paradox in cancer treatment

OBJECTIVE

Autophagy is an intracellular degradation pathway conserved in all eukaryotes from yeast to humans. This process plays a quality-control role by destroying harmful cellular components under normal conditions, maintaining cell survival, and establishing cellular adaptation under stressful conditions. Hence, there are various studies indicating dysfunctional autophagy as a factor involved in the development and progression of various human diseases, including cancer. In addition, the importance of autophagy in the development of cancer has been highlighted by paradoxical roles, as a cytoprotective and cytotoxic mechanism. Despite extensive research in the field of cancer, there are many questions and challenges about the roles and effects suggested for autophagy in cancer treatment. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the paradoxical roles of autophagy in different tumors and related cancer treatment options.

METHODS

In this study, to find articles, a search was made in PubMed and Google scholar databases with the keywords Autophagy, Autophagy in Cancer Management, and Drug Design.

RESULTS

According to the investigation, some studies suggest that several advanced cancers are dependent on autophagy for cell survival, so when cancer cells are exposed to therapy, autophagy is induced and suppresses the anti-cancer effects of therapeutic agents and also results in cell resistance. However, enhanced autophagy from using anti-cancer drugs causes autophagy-mediated cell death in several cancers. Because autophagy also plays roles in both tumor suppression and promotion further research is needed to determine the precise mechanism of this process in cancer treatment.

CONCLUSION

We concluded in this article, autophagy manipulation may either promote or hinder the growth and development of cancer according to the origin of the cancer cells, the type of cancer, and the behavior of the cancer cells exposed to treatment. Thus, before starting treatment it is necessary to determine the basal levels of autophagy in various cancers.

Acquired drug resistance interferes with the susceptibility of prostate cancer cells to metabolic stress

Background

Metformin is an inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation that displays an array of anticancer activities. The interference of metformin with the activity of multi-drug resistance systems in cancer cells has been reported. However, the consequences of the acquired chemoresistance for the adaptative responses of cancer cells to metformin-induced stress and for their phenotypic evolution remain unaddressed.

Methods

Using a range of phenotypic and metabolic assays, we assessed the sensitivity of human prostate cancer PC-3 and DU145 cells, and their drug-resistant lineages (PC-3_DCX20 and DU145_DCX20), to combined docetaxel/metformin stress. Their adaptation responses have been assessed, in particular the shifts in their metabolic profile and invasiveness.

Results

Metformin increased the sensitivity of PC-3 wild-type (WT) cells to docetaxel, as illustrated by the attenuation of their motility, proliferation, and viability after the combined drug application. These effects correlated with the accumulation of energy carriers (NAD(P)H and ATP) and with the inactivation of ABC drug transporters in docetaxel/metformin-treated PC-3 WT cells. Both PC-3 WT and PC-3_DCX20 reacted to metformin with the Warburg effect; however, PC-3_DCX20 cells were considerably less susceptible to the cytostatic/misbalancing effects of metformin. Concomitantly, an epithelial–mesenchymal transition and Cx43 upregulation was seen in these cells, but not in other more docetaxel/metformin-sensitive DU145_DCX20 populations. Stronger cytostatic effects of the combined fenofibrate/docetaxel treatment confirmed that the fine-tuning of the balance between energy supply and expenditure determines cellular welfare under metabolic stress.

Conclusions

Collectively, our data identify the mechanisms that underlie the limited potential of metformin for the chemotherapy of drug-resistant tumors. Metformin can enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapy by inducing their metabolic decoupling/imbalance. However, the acquired chemoresistance of cancer cells impairs this effect, facilitates cellular adaptation to metabolic stress, and prompts the invasive front formation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11658-022-00400-1.

Long-Term Fenofibrate Treatment Stimulates the Phenotypic Microevolution of Prostate Cancer Cells In Vitro

Fenofibrate is a widely used anti-hyperlipidemic agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). As a metabolic blocker, fenofibrate interferes with cancer promotion/progression via its misbalancing effects on cellular metabolism. However, the consequences of its long-term application for patients with diagnosed drug-resistant cancers are unknown. We addressed this point by tracing the phenotypic microevolution of naïve and drug-resistant prostate cancer PC3_DCX20 cells that underwent a long-term exposition to 10 μM and 50 μM fenofibrate. Their resistance to fenofibrate, metabolic profile and invasive phenotype were estimated in the control conditions and under fenofibrate-induced stress. Apparently, drug efflux systems are not effective against the cytostatic FF action. However, wtPC3 and PC3_DCX20 cells that survived the long-term 50 μM fenofibrate treatment gave rise to lineages that displayed an increased proliferation rate, lower motility in the control conditions and enhanced fenofibrate resistance. Attenuated fenofibrate bioavailability modified the pattern of PC3 microevolution, as illustrated by phenotypic differences between wtPC3/PC3_DCX20 lineages propagated in the presence of 50 μM and 10 μM fenofibrate. Collectively, our observations indicate that fenofibrate acts as a selective factor that affects prostate cancer microevolution. We also pinpoint potential consequences of long-term exposition of prostate cancer patients to metabolic blockers.

Functions and therapeutic potentials of exosomes in osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is a primary malignant tumor of the skeleton with the morbidity of 2.5 in 1 million. The regularly on-set is in the epiphysis of the extremities with a high possibility of early metastasis, rapid progression, and poor prognosis. The survival rate of patients with metastatic or recurrent osteosarcoma remains low, and novel diagnostic and therapeutic methods are urgently needed. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles 30-150 nm in diameter secreted by various cells that are widely present in various body fluids. Exosomes are abundant in biologically active components such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Exosomes participate in numerous physiological and pathological processes via intercellular substance exchange and signaling. This review presents the novel findings of exosomes in osteosarcoma in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic aspects.

Development of a novel autophagy-related gene model for gastric cancer prognostic prediction

Gastric cancer (GC) is a major global health issue and one of the leading causes of tumor-associated mortality worldwide. Autophagy is thought to play a critical role in the development and progression of GC, and this process is controlled by a set of conserved regulators termed autophagy-related genes (ATGs). However, the complex contribution of autophagy to cancers is not completely understood. Accordingly, we aimed to develop a prognostic model based on the specific role of ATGs in GC to improve the prediction of GC outcomes. First, we screened 148 differentially expressed ATGs between GC and normal tissues in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort. Consensus clustering in these ATGs was performed, and based on that, 343 patients were grouped into two clusters. According to Kaplan–Meier survival analysis, cluster C2 had a worse prognosis than cluster C1. Then, a disease risk model incorporating nine differentially expressed ATGs was constructed based on the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression analysis, and the ability of this model to stratify patients into high- and low-risk groups was verified. The predictive value of the model was confirmed using both training and validation cohorts. In addition, the results of functional enrichment analysis suggested that GC risk is correlated with immune status. Moreover, autophagy inhibition increased sensitivity to cisplatin and exacerbated reactive oxygen species accumulation in GC cell lines. Collectively, the results indicated that this novel constructed risk model is an effective and reliable tool for predicting GC outcomes and could help with individual treatment through ATG targeting.

The circadian clock gene ARNTL overexpression suppresses oral cancer progression by inducing apoptosis via activating autophagy

The study aimed to explore tumor suppressor mechanism of ARNTL from the perspective of autophagy in oral cancer. Human oral squamous carcinoma HN6 cells stably overexpressing ARNTL were established, cell viability and apoptosis were detected by CCK-8 and TUNEL assays, and intracellular autophagosomes were observed under electron microscopy. Western Blot detected expressions of Beclin1, LC3 II/I, ATG-12, P62, BAX and BCL-2. Bafilomycin A1 was used to detect autophagic flux, and Western Blot was used to detect changes of LC3II and P62 proteins. Autophinib was added to cells with ARNTL overexpression for recovery experiments, and cell proliferation and apoptosis were detected by flow cytometry. In vivo tumorigenesis experiment was used to evaluate the in vivo anti-tumor efficacy of ARNTL, and Western blot simultaneously detected ARNTL, LC3 II/I, Beclin1, P62 and ATG-12 expressions. ARNTL overexpression promoted apoptosis and autophagy and inhibited cell viability. In ARNTL-overexpressing cells, expressions of Beclin1, LC3 II/I, and BAX were significantly up-regulated, while P62 and BCL-2 expressions were decreased, and ATG-12 expression wasn't significantly changed. When the autophagy inhibitor Autophinib was used, expressions of elevated BAX and decreased BCL-2 were reversed effectively, as were decreased cell proliferation index and increased apoptosis index. An in vivo tumorigenesis assay also showed ARNTL overexpression inhibited tumor growth, and autophagy-related protein expressions were consistent with the in vitro data. The research demonstrated for the first time that ARNTL induced apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation dependent on autophagy in oral cancer, which provides theoretical basis for potential therapeutic targets.

Mechanisms of Primary and Acquired Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common liver cancer and a relevant global health problem. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) represent the most effective systemic treatment for HCC. However, due to primary resistance, approximately 40% of HCC patients do not achieve a disease control with ICIs. Moreover, a similar proportion will experience disease progression after an initial response caused by secondary resistance. This review describes the mechanisms of primary and secondary resistance and reports the ongoing therapeutic strategies to overcome these obstacles.

Extracellular vesicles: A new diagnostic biomarker and targeted drug in osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a primary bone cancer that is highly prevalent among adolescents and adults below the age of 20 years. The prognostic outcome of metastatic OS or relapse is extremely poor; thus, developing new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for treating OS is necessary. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) ranging from 30–150 nm in diameter are commonly produced in different cells and are found in various types of body fluids. EVs are rich in biologically active components like proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. They also strongly affect pathophysiological processes by modulating the intercellular signaling pathways and the exchange of biomolecules. Many studies have found that EVs influence the occurrence, development, and metastasis of osteosarcoma. The regulation of inflammatory communication pathways by EVs affects OS and other bone-related pathological conditions, such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. In this study, we reviewed the latest findings related to diagnosis, prognosis prediction, and the development of treatment strategies for OS from the perspective of EVs.

Ambra1 in cancer: implications for clinical oncology

Activating molecule in Beclin-1-regulated autophagy protein 1 (Ambra1) is well known to mediate the autophagy process and promote the formation of autophagosomes. In addition, Ambra1 is involved in the execution of apoptosis. A growing number of studies have revealed that this protein modifies the sensitivity of cancer cells to anticancer drugs by controlling the balance between autophagy and apoptosis. In addition, Ambra1 is a key factor in regulating the cell cycle, proliferation, invasion and migration. Therefore, it plays a key role in tumorigenesis and progression. Moreover, Ambra1 is highly expressed in a variety of cancers and is closely related to the prognosis of patients. Thus, it appears that Ambra1 has multiple roles in tumorigenesis and progression, which may have implications for clinical oncology. The present review focuses on recent advances in the study of Ambra1, especially the role of the protein in tumorigenesis, progression and effects on anticancer drug sensitivity.

Therapeutic potential of autophagy activators and inhibitors in lung and breast cancer- a review

Autophagy is a cellular process that eliminates damaged components of cytoplasm via the lysosome. Autophagy supports cells and tissues to remain healthy by recycling old or damaged cellular organelles and proteins with new ones. The breakdown products that follow are directed into cellular metabolism, where they are utilized to produce energy as well as for maintaining homeostasis and stability of the genome. In many cancers, autophagy modulation carries out a dual role in cancer development and suppression. Autophagy suppresses the proliferation of cancer cells by bringing about cell death and limiting cancer cell development, although it also promotes tumorigenesis by encouraging cancer cell growth and formation. Nevertheless, autophagy's implication in cancer remains a paradox. While several autophagy activators, and inhibitors, such as SAH-EJ2, Gefitinib, Ampelopsin hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine, are utilized to regulate autophagy in chemoprevention, the exact intrinsic system of autophagy in cancer deserves further investigation. Despite improved treatment regimens, the incidence rate of both breast and lung cancer has grown, as has the number of recurrence cases. Hence, this review offers a wide overview of autophagy's underlying role in lung and breast cancer, particularly focusing on the various autophagy activators and inhibitors in both cancers, as well as the use of various organic compounds, regular drugs, and natural products in cancer prevention and treatment.

TOPK Affects Autophagy of Skin Squamous Cell Carcinoma by Regulating NF-KB Pathway through HDAC1

Objective

To explore the effect and potential mechanism of T-LAK cell-originated protein kinase (TOPK) on autophagy in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC).

Methods

Human cSCC cancer tissue and paracancerous tissue samples were collected clinically; immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of TOPK, nuclear factor κB p65 (NF-κB p65), phosphorylated nuclear factor κB inhibitor α (p-IκBα), Beclin-1, and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) in cSCC tissue; and immunofluorescence was adopted to detect the coexpression of NF-κB p65, p-IκBα, and TOPK in cSCC tissue. After TOPK silencing or overexpression, SCL-1 and A431 cells were treated with PDTC and 3-MA, respectively. RT-qPCR and Western Blot were used to detect the mRNA and protein expressions of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) in TOPK-silenced/overexpressing cells. Western Blot was performed to detect the protein expressions of NF-κB p65, p-p65, IκBα, p-IκBα, Beclin-1, and LC3 in each group. Transwell and scratch healing experiments were used to detect the ability of cells to invade and migrate. The formation of autophagosomes in each group was observed by TEM.

Results

Compared with adjacent tissues, TOPK, NF-κB p65, p-IκBα, Beclin-1, and LC3 were highly expressed in cSCC cancer tissues; TOPK and NF-κB p65 were coexpressed; and TOPK and p-IκBα were expressed in cSCC cancer tissues both increased. The mRNA and protein levels of TOPK in human cSCC cells were significantly higher than those in human normal skin HaCaT cells. After TOPK knockout, the expression of HDAC1, p-IκBα/IκBα, NF-κB p65, p-p65, Beclin-1, LC3II/I proteins, cell invasion, and migration abilities were significantly reduced, and fewer autophagosomes were observed. Treatment with PDTC and 3-MA significantly downregulated NF-κB pathway protein activity and autophagy level and reduced cell migration and invasion ability.

Conclusion

TOPK promotes the malignant progression of cSCC by upregulating HDAC1 to activate the NF-κB pathway and promote autophagy.

Golgi Complex: A Signaling Hub in Cancer

The Golgi Complex is the central hub in the endomembrane system and serves not only as a biosynthetic and processing center but also as a trafficking and sorting station for glycoproteins and lipids. In addition, it is an active signaling hub involved in the regulation of multiple cellular processes, including cell polarity, motility, growth, autophagy, apoptosis, inflammation, DNA repair and stress responses. As such, the dysregulation of the Golgi Complex-centered signaling cascades contributes to the onset of several pathological conditions, including cancer. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the signaling pathways regulated by the Golgi Complex and implicated in promoting cancer hallmarks and tumor progression.

SIRT1 regulates mitotic catastrophe via autophagy and BubR1 signaling

Mitotic catastrophe (MC) is a suppressive mechanism that mediates the elimination of mitosis-deficient cells through apoptosis, necrosis or senescence after M phase block. SIRT1 is involved in the regulation of several cellular processes, including autophagy. However, the relationship between SIRT1 and MC has been largely obscure. Our study highlights that SIRT1 might be involved in the regulation of MC. We have shown that degradation of the SIRT1 protein via proteasome and lysosomal pathway was accompanied by MC induced via BMH-21. Overexpression of SIRT1 alleviated MC by decreasing the proportion of apoptotic and multinuclear cells induced by G2/M block and triggered autophagy whereas knockdown of SIRT1 aggravated MC and repressed autophagy. Furthermore, we found that serum starvation triggered autophagy evidently generated lower MC whereas siRNA of ATG5/7 suppressed autophagy leading to higher MC. ChIP analysis revealed that SIRT1 could bind to the promoter of BubR1, a component of spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), to upregulate its expression. Overexpression of BubR1 decreased MC whereas knockdown of BubR1 increased it. These results reveal that SIRT1 regulates MC through autophagy and BubR1 signaling, and provide evidence for SIRT1, autophagy and BubR1 being the potential cancer therapeutic targets.

The Potential of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) in Targeting Autophagy for Cancer Treatment: A Narrative Review

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process for the degradation of redundant or damaged cellular material by means of a lysosome-dependent mechanism, contributing to cell homeostasis and survival. Autophagy plays a multifaceted and context-dependent role in cancer initiation, maintenance, and progression; it has a tumor suppressive role in the absence of disease and is upregulated in cancer cells to meet their elevated metabolic demands. Autophagy represents a promising but challenging target in cancer treatment. Green tea is a widely used beverage with healthy effects on several diseases, including cancer. The bioactive compounds of green tea are mainly catechins, and epigallocatechin-gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant and biologically active among them. In this review, evidence of autophagy modulation and anti-cancer effects induced by EGCG treatment in experimental cancer models is presented. Reviewed articles reveal that EGCG promotes cytotoxic autophagy often through the inactivation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, resulting in apoptosis induction. EGCG pro-oxidant activity has been postulated to be responsible for its anti-cancer effects. In combination therapy with a chemotherapy drug, EGCG inhibits cell growth and the drug-induced pro-survival autophagy. The selected studies rightly claim EGCG as a valuable agent in cancer chemoprevention.

Ferroptosis at the crossroads of tumor-host interactions, metastasis, and therapy response

Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxides in an iron-dependent manner. Ferroptotic cell death is modulated by many metabolic pathways, such as pathways governing the metabolism of sugars, lipids, amino acids, and iron, as well as mitochondrial activity and redox homeostasis. Tumor metastasis and therapy resistance are the main obstacles to curing cancers. Because tumor cells usually exhibit higher iron dependence than normal cells, they may be more susceptible to ferroptosis despite being resistant to other forms of cell death. Moreover, recent evidence has suggested that ferroptosis is involved in tumor-host interactions, modulates the tumor microenvironment, and serves as an anti-metastatic mechanism. Thus, inducing ferroptosis in tumor cells has the potential to improve cancer treatment. Here, we review ferroptosis-regulating mechanisms and the roles of ferroptosis in malignant progression, including the tumor-host interactions, metastasis, and cancer therapy response.

Novel Effects of Statins on Cancer via Autophagy

Cancer is one of the main causes of death globally. Most of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer are marked by complex aberrations that activate the critical cell-signaling pathways that play a pivotal role in cell metabolism, tumor development, cytoskeletal reorganization, and metastasis. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase-B/mammalian target of the rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) pathway is one of the main signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis and metastasis. Autophagy, a cellular pathway that delivers cytoplasmic components to lysosomes for degradation, plays a dual role in cancer, as either a tumor promoter or a tumor suppressor, depending on the stage of the carcinogenesis. Statins are the group of drugs of choice to lower the level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood. Experimental and clinical data suggest the potential of statins in the treatment of cancer. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the molecular mechanisms through which statins inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of cancer cells in different types of cancer. The anticancer properties of statins have been shown to result in the suppression of tumor growth, the induction of apoptosis, and autophagy. This literature review shows the dual role of the autophagic process in cancer and the latest scientific evidence related to the inducing effect exerted by statins on autophagy, which could explain their anticancer potential.

An Update to Hallmarks of Cancer

In the last decade, there has been remarkable progress in research toward understanding and refining the hallmarks of cancer. In this review, we propose a new hallmark - "pro-survival autophagy." The importance of pro-survival autophagy is well established in tumorigenesis, as it is related to multiple steps in cancer progression and vital for some cancers. Autophagy is a potential anti-cancer therapeutic target. For this reason, autophagy is a good candidate as a new hallmark of cancer. We describe two enabling characteristics that play a major role in enabling cells to acquire the hallmarks of cancer - "tumor-promoting microenvironment and macroenvironment" and "cancer epigenetics, genome instability and mutation." We also discuss the recent updates, therapeutic and prognostic implications of the eight hallmarks of cancer described by Hanahan et al. in 2011. Understanding these hallmarks and enabling characteristics is key not only to developing new ways to treat cancer efficiently but also to exploring options to overcome cancer resistance to treatment.

Preclinical Development of Seriniquinones as Selective Dermcidin Modulators for the Treatment of Melanoma

The bioactive natural product seriniquinone was discovered as a potential melanoma drug, which was produced by the as-yet-undescribed marine bacterium of the rare genus Serinicoccus. As part of a long-term research program aimed at the discovery of new agents for the treatment of cancer, seriniquinone revealed remarkable in vitro activity against a diversity of cancer cell lines in the US National Cancer Institute 60-cell line screening. Target deconvolution studies defined the seriniquinones as a new class of melanoma-selective agents that act in part by targeting dermcidin (DCD). The targeted DCD peptide has been recently examined and defined as a “pro-survival peptide” in cancer cells. While DCD was first isolated from human skin and thought to be only an antimicrobial peptide, currently DCD has been also identified as a peptide associated with the survival of cancer cells, through what is believed to be a disulfide-based conjugation with proteins that would normally induce apoptosis. However, the significantly enhanced potency of seriniquinone was of particular interest against the melanoma cell lines assessed in the NCI 60-cell line panel. This observed selectivity provided a driving force that resulted in a multidimensional program for the discovery of a usable drug with a new anticancer target and, therefore, a novel mode of action. Here, we provided an overview of the discovery and development efforts to date.

UBE2T is upregulated, predicts poor prognosis, and promotes cell proliferation and invasion by promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition via inhibiting autophagy in an AKT/mTOR dependent manner in ovarian cancer

Aberrant upregulation and oncogenic roles of UBE2T are revealed in several cancers. However, the expression, clinical significance, and functions of UBE2T have not been explored in ovarian cancer (OC). In this study, the expression of UBE2T and its relation with clinicopathological features and prognosis of OC patients were explored by analyzing online data and experimental data. Besides, the functions of UBE2T in OC cells were investigated by in vitro experiments, including CCK-8, plate clone formation, and Transwell assays. Finally, the underlying mechanism of UBE2T associated functions in OC was analyzed. The results indicated that UBE2T was significantly upregulated in OC tissues. UBE2T expression was notably correlated with clinical features, such as primary T stage and FIGO stage in OC patients. UBE2T, acting as an independent prognostic indicator, was inversely associated with the prognosis of OC patients. The UBE2T knockdown remarkably suppressed the growth, proliferation, and invasion of OC cells, indicated by impaired cell viability, fewer cell clones, and invasive cells. Mechanistically, UBE2T depletion suppressed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which was caused by autophagy activation due to inactivation of AKT/mTOR in OC cells with UBE2T knockdown. Collectively, our findings confirm that UBE2T upregulation predicts poor prognosis and promotes malignant progression in OC. UBE2T upregulation suppresses autophagy and subsequently boosts EMT via activating the AKT/mTOR axis, which accounts for the underlying mechanism of oncogenic roles of UBE2T in OC.

Construction of a Prognostic Signature of 10 Autophagy-Related lncRNAs in Gastric Cancer

Background

Autophagy plays a double-edged sword role in cancers. LncRNAs could regulate cancer initiation and development at various levels. However, the role of autophagy-related lncRNAs (ARlncs) in gastric cancer (GC) remains indistinct.

Methods

GC gene expression profile and clinical data were acquired from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). The prognostic signature composed of ARlncs was established via cox regression analysis. Kaplan–Meier (K-M) survival curve was adopted to show overall survival (OS). Independence and reliability of risk signature were visualized by cox regression analysis and ROC curve. A nomogram was constructed and the reliability was analyzed by ROC curve. Immune infiltrating cells and check points were also analyzed.

Results

A prognostic signature was constructed which stratified GC patients into high- and low-risk groups according to risk score calculated via the 10 ARlncs including LINC01094, AC068790.7, AC090772.1, AC005165.1, PVT1, LINC00106, AC026368.1, AC090912.3, AC013652.1, UICLM. Patients in high-risk group showed a poor prognosis (p<0.001). Cox regression analysis showed signature was an independent prognostic factor (p<0.001). Areas under curves (AUC) of ROC for risk signature for predicting OS outweighed age, gender, grade, T, M and N, which suggested the reliability of the signature. A nomogram was constructed with risk signature, T, M, N and age and its AUC of ROC for 1-, 3-, and 5-year was 0.700, 0.730, 0.757 respectively, which showed good reliability. Macrophage M2, T cell CD8+ and T cell CD4+ memory resting had greatest difference between the two risk groups according to CIBERSORE-ABS algorithm (p<0.001). CD274 (PD-L1), PDCD1 (PD-1) and PDCD1LG2 (PD-L2) were expressed higher in the high-risk group (p<0.05), which implied that immunotherapy may be a good choice for these patients.

Conclusion

The risk signature based on 10 ARlncs can serve as an efficacious prognostic predictor and guide the immunotherapies and precise treatment for GC patients.

Effects of melatonin and metformin in preventing lysosome-induced autophagy and oxidative stress in rat models of carcinogenesis and the impact of high-fat diet

Imbalanced glucose tolerance and insulin resistance remain important as high cancer risk factors. Metformin administration to diabetic patients may be associated with a reduced risk of malignancy. The combined effects of the hormone melatonin and metformin in oncology practice have shown positive results. The relevance of our study is to find out the role of specific biomarkers of lysosome destruction and oxidative stress data in carcinogenesis models. The present study was designed to investigate the comparative synergic effect of peroral antidiabetic metformin (MF) and pineal hormone melatonin (MEL) administered alone and in combination in two different rat’s models of mammary tumour proliferation in vivo (N-methyl-N-nitrosourea, NMU or 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene, DMBA). We have studied the processes of lysosomal destruction (alanyl aminopeptidase AAP, leucyl aminopeptidase LAP, acid phosphatase AcP, β-N-acetylglucosaminidase NAG, β-galactosidase β-GD and β-glucuronidase β-GR) caused by evaluated oxidative stress in three types of tissues (liver, heart, and spleen) in female Sprague–Dawley rats fed a high-fat diet (10% of total fat: 2.5% from lard and 7.5% from palm olein). Our results revealed an increase in the activity of the studied lysosomal enzymes and their expression in a tissue-specific manner depending on the type of chemical agent (NMU or DMBA). MANOVA tests in our study confirmed the influence of the three main factors, type of tissue, chemical impact, and chemopreventive agents, and the combinations of these factors on the lysosomal activity induced during the process of cancerogenesis. The development and induction of the carcinogenesis process in the different rat models with the high-fat diet impact were also accompanied by initiation of free-radical oxidation processes, which we studied at the initial (estimated by the level of diene conjugates) and final (TBARS products) stages of this process. The combined effects of MEL and MF for the two models of carcinogenesis at high-fat diet impact for AAP, LAP, and AcP showed a significant synergistic effect when they impact together when compared with the effects of one substance alone (either MEL or MF) in the breast cancer model experiments. Synergistic effects of limiting destructive processes of lysosomal functioning β-GD enzyme activity we obtained in experiments with MEL and MF chemoprevention for both models of carcinogenesis for three tissues. The statistical SS test allowed us to draw the following conclusions on the role of each lysosomal parameter analyzed as an integral model: NAG > AcP > β-GD > β-GR > AAP > LAP.

ER-phagy in the Occurrence and Development of Cancer

As an organelle, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is closely related to protein synthesis and modification. When physiological or pathological stimuli induce disorders of ER function, misfolded proteins trigger ER-phagy, which is beneficial for restoring cell homeostasis or promoting cell apoptosis. As a double-edged sword, ER-phagy actively participates in various stages of development and progression in tumor cells, regulating tumorigenesis and maintaining tumor cell homeostasis. Through the unfolded protein response (UPR), the B cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) protein family, the Caspase signaling pathway, and others, ER-phagy plays an initiating role in tumor occurrence, migration, stemness, and proliferation. At the same time, many vital proteins strongly associated with ER-phagy, such as family with sequence similarity 134 member B (FAM134B), translocation protein SEC62 (SEC62), and C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP), can produce a marked effect in many complex environments, which ultimately lead to entirely different tumor fates. Our article comprehensively focused on introducing the relationship and interaction between ER-phagy and cancers, as well as their molecular mechanism and regulatory pathways. Via these analyses, we tried to clarify the possibility of ER-phagy as a potential target for cancer therapy and provide ideas for further research.

Targeting the two-pore channel 2 in cancer progression and metastasis

The importance of Ca²⁺ signaling, and particularly Ca²⁺ channels, in key events of cancer cell function such as proliferation, metastasis, autophagy and angiogenesis, has recently begun to be appreciated. Of particular note are two-pore channels (TPCs), a group of recently identified Ca²⁺-channels, located within the endolysosomal system. TPC2 has recently emerged as an intracellular ion channel of significant pathophysiological relevance, specifically in cancer, and interest in its role as an anti-cancer drug target has begun to be explored. Herein, an overview of the cancer-related functions of TPC2 and a discussion of its potential as a target for therapeutic intervention, including a summary of clinical trials examining the TPC2 inhibitors, naringenin, tetrandrine, and verapamil for the treatment of various cancers is provided.

Comparison of Anticancer Drug Toxicities: Paradigm Shift in Adverse Effect Profile

The inception of cancer treatment with chemotherapeutics began in the 1940s with nitrogen mustards that were initially employed as weapons in World War II. Since then, treatment options for different malignancies have evolved over the period of last seventy years. Until the late 1990s, all the chemotherapeutic agents were small molecule chemicals with a highly nonspecific and severe toxicity spectrum. With the landmark approval of rituximab in 1997, a new horizon has opened up for numerous therapeutic antibodies in solid and hematological cancers. Although this transition to large molecules improved the survival and quality of life of cancer patients, this has also coincided with the change in adverse effect patterns. Typically, the anticancer agents are fraught with multifarious adverse effects that negatively impact different organs of cancer patients, which ultimately aggravate their sufferings. In contrast to the small molecules, anticancer antibodies are more targeted toward cancer signaling pathways and exhibit fewer side effects than traditional small molecule chemotherapy treatments. Nevertheless, the interference with the immune system triggers serious inflammation- and infection-related adverse effects. The differences in drug disposition and interaction with human basal pathways contribute to this paradigm shift in adverse effect profile. It is critical that healthcare team members gain a thorough insight of the adverse effect differences between the agents discovered during the last twenty-five years and before. In this review, we summarized the general mechanisms and adverse effects of small and large molecule anticancer drugs that would further our understanding on the toxicity patterns of chemotherapeutic regimens.

Small activating RNA-activated NIS gene promotes 131I uptake and inhibits thyroid cancer via AMPK/mTOR pathway

BACKGROUND

Sodium/iodide symporter (NIS) acts as a vital role in regulation of iodide uptake in thyroid cancer. However, the efficient approach to increase NIS expression and the mechanism of NIS-mediated iodide uptake in thyroid cancer remain unclear.

METHODS

Small activating RNA (saRNA) was used to promote NIS expression. And the cell viability, apoptosis, and autophagy were detected using Cell count-kit 8 (CCK-8), Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining, and GFP-LC3 immunofluorescence assays, respectively. The protein levels of caspase 3, Bax, Bcl-2, ATG5, ATG12, LC3B Ⅱ to LC3B Ⅰ, Beclin 1, P62, AMPK, mTOR, P70S6K, actin, and phosphorylation of AMPK, mTOR, P70S6K were determined by western blotting. Moreover, a nude murine node with transplanted NC-dsRNA or NIS-482-transfected SW579 cells was used to examine the effect of NIS-mediated autophagy in vivo. And the levels of caspase 3 and ki67 were examined by immunohistochemical staining assay.

RESULTS

saRNA mediated NIS mRNA and protein upregulated in SW579 cells. saRNA-mediated NIS expression inhibited cell proliferation, induced apoptosis and autophagy, and promoted iodide uptake in SW579 cells. Moreover, the effects of NIS on cells were enhanced by autophagy activator Rapamycin whereas reversed by autophagy inhibitor 3-Methyladenine (3-MA). For mechanism analysis, we found that NIS upregulation exerted the effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and iodide uptake via regulating AMPK/mTOR pathway. We also demonstrated that saRNA-mediated NIS expression promoted iodide uptake in vivo.

CONCLUSION

saRNA-mediated NIS expression acted as a critical role in increasing iodide uptake via AMPK/mTOR pathway in thyroid cancer.

Unfolding the role of autophagy in the cancer metabolism

Autophagy is considered an indispensable process that scavenges toxins, recycles complex macromolecules, and sustains the essential cellular functions. In addition to its housekeeping role, autophagy plays a substantial role in many pathophysiological processes such as cancer. Certainly, it adapts cancer cells to thrive in the stress conditions such as hypoxia and starvation. Cancer cells indeed have also evolved by exploiting the autophagy process to fulfill energy requirements through the production of metabolic fuel sources and fundamentally altered metabolic pathways. Occasionally autophagy as a foe impedes tumorigenesis and promotes cell death. The complex role of autophagy in cancer makes it a potent therapeutic target and has been actively tested in clinical trials. Moreover, the versatility of autophagy has opened new avenues of effective combinatorial therapeutic strategies. Thereby, it is imperative to comprehend the specificity of autophagy in cancer-metabolism. This review summarizes the recent research and conceptual framework on the regulation of autophagy by various metabolic pathways, enzymes, and their cross-talk in the cancer milieu, including the implementation of altered metabolism and autophagy in clinically approved and experimental therapeutics.

A pharmacognostic approach for mitigating pancreatic cancer: emphasis on herbal extracts and phytoconstituents

Background

Pancreatic cancer is studied as one of the most lethal cancers with currently no control of its lethality, mainly due to its late diagnosis and lack of foolproof treatment processes. Despite continuous efforts being made in looking for therapies to deal with cancer, it keeps on being a labyrinth for the researchers. Efforts like discovering new treatment options, repurposing existing drugs, are continuously made to deal with this cancer.

Main body

With the urge to get answers and the fact that nature has all roots of therapeutics, efforts are made in the direction of finding those answers for providing ministrations for pancreatic cancer from plant products. Plant products are used as treatment options either directly in the form of extracts or an alternative to them is individual phytochemicals that are either isolated from the plants or are commercially synthesized for various purposes. In this review, we put forward such pharmacognostic initiatives made in combating pancreatic cancer, focusing mainly on plant extracts and various phytochemicals; along with the mechanisms which they triggered to fulfill the need for cytotoxicity to pancreatic cancer cells (in vitro and in vivo).

Conclusion

This study will thus provide insights into new combination therapy that can be used and also give a clue on which plant product and phytoconstituent can be used in dealing with pancreatic cancer.

Graphical abstract

Immunohistochemical Analysis of the Beclin-1 Expression Predicts the Progression of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background: Autophagy is a cellular process responsible for maintaining homeostasis; a dysregulation of this process is involved in the development and progression of neoplasms. Beclin-1 is one of the major proteins linked to autophagy. However, the data regarding the association between the role of Beclin-1 and the progression of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) are rather low. For this reason, the objective of this study is to evaluate, through immunohistochemical techniques, the prognostic role of the expression of Beclin-1 autophagy marker in patients with OSCC. Methods: This is a single-centre retrospective study that includes patients with OSCC admitted to the Maxillofacial Unit of “Magna Graecia” University between January 2019 and September 2020. All the samples obtained from surgery were treated with anti Beclin-1 antibodies and subjected to immunohistochemical methods. Results: A total of 26 samples were analysed and the following variables were evaluated for each: percentage of positive Beclin-1 expression by tumour cells, signal strength of tumour cells, and total score. The variables considered were first normalised according to the D’Agostino and Pearson test, then analysed using the Pearson linear correlation coefficient: a statistically significant correlation was found between the parameters infiltration-intensity (p = 0.0088), infiltration-percent (p = 0.0123), intensity-total score (p = 0.0060). Conclusions: The immunohistochemical evaluation of Beclin-1 revealed a statistically significant correlation between the intensity of the molecule’s expression and a greater degree of infiltration of the neoplasm. Beclin-1 can, therefore, be considered a valid prognostic index of disease.

Optimization of BCG Therapy Targeting Neutrophil Extracellular Traps, Autophagy, and miRNAs in Bladder Cancer: Implications for Personalized Medicine

Bladder cancer (BC) is the ninth most common cancer and the thirteenth most common cause of mortality worldwide. Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) instillation is a common treatment option for BC. BCG therapy is associated with the less adversary effects, compared to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and other conventional treatments. BCG could inhibit the progression and recurrence of BC by triggering apoptosis pathways, arrest cell cycle, autophagy, and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation. However, BCG therapy is not efficient for metastatic cancer. NETs and autophagy were induced by BCG and help to suppress the growth of tumor cells especially in the primary stages of BC. Activated neutrophils can stimulate autophagy pathway and release NETs in the presence of microbial pathogenesis, inflammatory agents, and tumor cells. Autophagy can also regulate NETs formation and induce production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NETs. Moreover, miRNAs are important regulator of gene expression. These small non-coding RNAs are also considered as an essential factor to control the levels of tumor development. However, the interaction between BCG and miRNAs has not been well-understood yet. Therefore, the present study discusses the roles of miRNAs in regulations of autophagy and NETs formation in BCG therapy in the treatment of BC. The roles of autophagy and NETs formation in BC treatment and efficiency of BCG are also discussed.