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Bernardino PN, Pusterla N, Conrad PA, Packham AE, Tamez-Trevino E, Aleman M, James K, Smith WA. Evidence of intrathecally-derived antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in horses suspected of neurological disease consistent with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 2023; 318:109919. [PMID: 37043865 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2023.109919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Among the recognized neurologic diseases in horses, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) has been reported around the world and still presents challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Horses can present with clinical neurologic signs consistent with EPM while testing negative for the two main causative agents, Sarcocystis neurona or Neospora hughesi, and may still be clinically responsive to anti-parasitic drug therapy. This context led to our hypothesis that another protozoal parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, which is known to cause toxoplasmosis in other mammalian species, is a potential pathogen to cause neurologic disease in horses. To evaluate this hypothesis, serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were collected from 210 horses presenting with clinical signs compatible with EPM, and the indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was used to detect antibody titers for T. gondii, S. neurona, and N. hughesi. Additionally, the serum to CSF titer ratio was calculated for T. gondii, S. neurona, and N. hughesi infections, suggesting intrathecally-derived antibodies for each of the three agents if the serum:CSF ratio was ≤ 64. There were 133 (63.3%) horses positive for serum T. gondii antibodies using a cutoff titer of 160, and 31 (14.8%) positive for CSF T. gondii antibodies using a cutoff titer of 5. Overall, 21 (10.0%) of EPM-suspect horses had a serum:CSF ratio ≤ 64 for antibodies for T. gondii, while 43 (20.5%) and 8 (3.8%) horses had a serum to CSF ratio ≤ 64 for antibodies for S. neurona and N. hughesi, respectively. A total of 6 (2.9%) animals presented evidence of concurrent intrathecally-derived antibodies for T. gondii and at least one other apicomplexan parasite in this study. Signalment and clinical signs were not different across the groups aforementioned. These data provide evidence of intrathecal production of anti-T. gondii antibodies, indicative of T. gondii infection in the brain and/or spinal cord of horses with EPM-like disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro N Bernardino
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Patricia A Conrad
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Andrea E Packham
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Eva Tamez-Trevino
- William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medicine Teaching Hospital, Immunology/Virology Laboratory, 1 Garrod Drive, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Monica Aleman
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Kaitlyn James
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Woutrina A Smith
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Landrau-Giovannetti N, Waltzek TB, López-Orozco N, Su C, Rotstein D, Levine G, Rodrigues TCS, Silva-Krott I, Humann C, West K. Prevalence and genotype of Toxoplasma gondii in stranded Hawaiian cetaceans. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2022; 152:27-36. [PMID: 36394138 DOI: 10.3354/dao03699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a significant threat to endangered Hawaiian wildlife including birds and marine mammals. To estimate the prevalence of T. gondii in stranded cetaceans from 1997 to 2021 in Hawai'i, we tested tissues from 37 stranded spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris and 51 stranded individuals that represented 18 other cetacean species. DNA from cetacean tissue extracts were screened using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay targeting the Toxoplasmatinae internal transcribed spacer 1 of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. A positive result was obtained in 9 tissues examined for each of 2 spinner dolphins out of 525 tissue samples analyzed by PCR. The PCR-positive spinner dolphins had disseminated acute toxoplasmosis with necrosis, inflammation, and intralesional protozoal cysts and tachyzoites in multiple organs. Discrete positive immunostaining for T. gondii was observed in all tissues tested including the adrenal gland, brain, liver, and lung. Both positive spinner dolphins were negative for cetacean morbillivirus. The T. gondii genotyping was performed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) based on 10 genetic markers. The PCR-RFLP analysis revealed the T. gondii belonged to PCR-RFLP-ToxoDB genotype #24, previously detected in wild pig Sus scrofa in O'ahu, bobcats Lynx rufus from Mississippi, USA, and chickens Gallus gallus from Costa Rica and Brazil. These cases represent the first report of this genotype in aquatic mammals and the second and third reports of fatal disseminated T. gondii infection in stranded spinner dolphins from Hawai'i. Nearshore species, like spinner dolphins, may be at increased risk of mortality from this parasite in marine coastal waterways via sewage systems, storm water drainage, and freshwater runoff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelmarie Landrau-Giovannetti
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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Fernández-Escobar M, Giorda F, Mattioda V, Audino T, Di Nocera F, Lucifora G, Varello K, Grattarola C, Ortega-Mora LM, Casalone C, Calero-Bernal R. Toxoplasma gondii Genetic Diversity in Mediterranean Dolphins. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080909. [PMID: 36015030 PMCID: PMC9416038 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii constitutes a major zoonotic agent but also has been frequently identified as an important cause of clinical disease (e.g., abortion, pneumonia, encephalitis) in wildlife; specifically, T. gondii has been associated with neurological disease in cetaceans. This study investigated the genetic diversity of T. gondii strains involved in infections in dolphins found stranded in the Mediterranean coastlines of Italy. Tissue samples from 16 dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba and Tursiops truncatus species) positive for T. gondii-DNA presence by PCR were examined by histology and subjected to further genetic characterization of strains detected by PCR-RFLP and multilocus PCR-sequencing assays. According to fully genotyped samples, the genotypes ToxoDB#3 (67%) and #2 (22%) were detected, the latter being reported for the first time in cetaceans, along with a mixed infection (11%). Subtyping by PCR-seq procedures provided evidence of common point mutations in strains from southwestern Europe. Despite evidence of T. gondii as a cause of neurological disease in dolphins, sources of infections are difficult to identify since they are long-living animals and some species have vast migration areas with multiple chances of infection. Finally, the genetic diversity of T. gondii found in the dolphins studied in the Mediterranean coastlines of Italy reflects the main genotypes circulating inland in the European continent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Fernández-Escobar
- SALUVET, Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Federica Giorda
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Virgina Mattioda
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Tania Audino
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Fabio Di Nocera
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lucifora
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Katia Varello
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Carla Grattarola
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Casalone
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Health of Marine Mammals, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Rafael Calero-Bernal
- SALUVET, Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Ahmadpour E, Rahimi MT, Ghojoghi A, Rezaei F, Hatam-Nahavandi K, Oliveira SMR, de Lourdes Pereira M, Majidiani H, Siyadatpanah A, Elhamirad S, Cong W, Pagheh AS. Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Marine Animal Species, as a Potential Source of Food Contamination: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Acta Parasitol 2022; 67:592-605. [PMID: 35038109 PMCID: PMC8761968 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-021-00507-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Many marine animals are infected and susceptible to toxoplasmosis, which is considered as a potential transmission source of Toxoplasma gondii to other hosts, especially humans. The current systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the prevalence of T. gondii infection among sea animal species worldwide and highlight the existing gaps. METHODS Data collection was systematically done through searching databases, including PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science from 1997 to July 2020. RESULTS Our search strategy resulted in the retrieval of 55 eligible studies reporting the prevalence of marine T. gondii infection. The highest prevalence belonged to mustelids (sea otter) with 54.8% (95% CI 34.21-74.57) and cetaceans (whale, dolphin, and porpoise) with 30.92% (95% CI 17.85-45.76). The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) with 41 records and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) with 30 records were the most applied diagnostic techniques for T. gondii detection in marine species. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated the geographic distribution and spectrum of infected marine species with T. gondii in different parts of the world. The spread of T. gondii among marine animals can affect the health of humans and other animals; in addition, it is possible that marine mammals act as sentinels of environmental contamination, especially the parasites by consuming water or prey species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Ahmadpour
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Altin Ghojoghi
- Department of Fisheries, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgān, Iran
| | | | | | - Sónia M R Oliveira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI), New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia
| | - Maria de Lourdes Pereira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Hamidreza Majidiani
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Samira Elhamirad
- Infectious Diseases Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, PO Box 9717853577, Birjand, Iran
| | - Wei Cong
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai, China
| | - Abdol Sattar Pagheh
- Infectious Diseases Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, PO Box 9717853577, Birjand, Iran.
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Dorsch MA, Cesar D, Bullock HA, Uzal FA, Ritter JM, Giannitti F. Fatal Toxoplasma gondii myocarditis in an urban pet dog. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2022; 27:100659. [PMID: 35012716 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2021.100659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
A 70-day-old Boxer dog from a household in Montevideo, Uruguay, died after presenting neurologic, respiratory, and gastrointestinal signs for 6 days. Autopsy findings included lymphadenomegaly, ascites and hepatomegaly. Histopathology revealed severe widespread lymphohistiocytic and plasmacytic myocarditis with cardiomyocyte necrosis, mineralization and numerous intrasarcoplasmic protozoa immunoreactive with anti-Toxoplasma gondii antisera on immunohistochemistry. The protozoa were ultrastructurally confirmed as T. gondii by transmission electron microscopy. Other lesions included diffuse centrilobular hepatocellular necrosis, multifocal lymphohistiocytic portal hepatitis and interstitial nephritis. Other causes of myocarditis, including Neospora caninum, Trypanosoma cruzi, Sarcocystis neurona, canine distemper virus, and canine parvovirus were ruled out by immunohistochemistry. Toxoplasma gondii infections in dogs are usually subclinical; however, clinical disease with fatal outcome can occur. To our knowledge, this is the first report of fatal toxoplasmosis in a dog in Uruguay. This case raises awareness for dogs as sentinels and possible sources of human toxoplasmosis in urban settings in Uruguay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías A Dorsch
- Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIA), Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Ruta 50 km 11, La Estanzuela 70000, Colonia, Uruguay
| | | | | | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety (CAHFS) Laboratory, University of California Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Jana M Ritter
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Federico Giannitti
- Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIA), Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Ruta 50 km 11, La Estanzuela 70000, Colonia, Uruguay.
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Whoriskey ST, Duignan PJ, McClain AM, Seguel M, Gulland FMD, Johnson SP, Field CL. Clinical signs, treatment, and outcome for California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) with Sarcocystis-associated polyphasic rhabdomyositis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021; 259:1196-1205. [PMID: 34727074 DOI: 10.2460/javma.20.06.0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe clinical signs, treatment, and outcome for California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) with Sarcocystis-associated polyphasic rhabdomyositis. ANIMALS 38 free-ranging juvenile to adult California sea lions examined at a rehabilitation center in California between September 2015 and December 2017. PROCEDURES Medical records at The Marine Mammal Center were reviewed to identify sea lions in which sarcocystosis had been diagnosed. RESULTS Clinical signs were highly variable and associated with polyphasic rhabdomyositis attributed to Sarcocystis neurona infection. Generalized severe muscle wasting, respiratory compromise, and regurgitation secondary to megaesophagus were the most profound clinical findings. Respiratory compromise and megaesophagus were associated with a poor prognosis. Eight of the 38 sea lions were treated and released to the wild, and 2 subsequently restranded and were euthanized. Two additional animals received no targeted treatment and were released. The remaining 28 animals were either euthanized or died during treatment. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that unlike other marine mammals, which typically develop encephalitis, California sea lions with sarcocystosis often have polyphasic rhabdomyositis with highly variable clinical signs and that extensive diagnostic testing may be required to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment with an antiprotozoal drug in combination with corticosteroids may resolve clinical disease, but the prognosis is guarded.
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7
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Bigot-Clivot A, La Carbona S, Cazeaux C, Durand L, Géba E, Le Foll F, Xuereb B, Chalghmi H, Dubey JP, Bastien F, Bonnard I, Palos Ladeiro M, Escotte-Binet S, Aubert D, Villena I, Geffard A. Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis)-A bioindicator of marine water contamination by protozoa: Laboratory and in situ approaches. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:736-746. [PMID: 34152060 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Toxoplasma gondii are identified as public health priorities and are present in a wide variety of environments including the marine ecosystem. The objective of this study was to demonstrate that the marine bivalve blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) can be used as a tool to monitor the contamination of marine waters by the three protozoa over time. METHODS AND RESULTS In order to achieve a proof of concept, mussels were exposed to three concentrations of G. duodenalis cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum/T. gondii oocysts for 21 days, followed by 21 days of depuration in clear water. Then, natural contamination by these protozoa was sought for in wild marine blue mussels along the northwest coast of France to validate their relevance as bioindicators in the field. Our results highlighted that: (a) blue mussels bioaccumulated the parasites for 21 days, according to the conditions of exposure, and parasites could still be detected during the depuration period (until 21 days); (b) the percentage of protozoa-positive M. edulis varied under the degree of protozoan contamination in water; (c) mussel samples from eight out of nine in situ sites were positive for at least one of the protozoa. CONCLUSIONS The blue mussel M. edulis can bioaccumulate protozoan parasites over long time periods, according to the degree of contamination of waters they are inhabiting, and can highlight recent but also past contaminations (at least 21 days). SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Mytilus edulis is a relevant bioaccumulators of protozoan (oo)cysts in laboratory and field conditions, hence its potential use for monitoring parasite contamination in marine waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Bigot-Clivot
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
| | | | | | - Loïc Durand
- ACTALIA Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France.,EA7510, ESCAPE, Epidémiosurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements, Faculté de Médecine, University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Elodie Géba
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France.,EA7510, ESCAPE, Epidémiosurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements, Faculté de Médecine, University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Frank Le Foll
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO, University of Le Havre Normandie, Le Havre Cedex, France
| | - Benoit Xuereb
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO, University of Le Havre Normandie, Le Havre Cedex, France
| | - Houssem Chalghmi
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO, University of Le Havre Normandie, Le Havre Cedex, France
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Fanny Bastien
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
| | - Isabelle Bonnard
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
| | - Mélissa Palos Ladeiro
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
| | - Sandie Escotte-Binet
- EA7510, ESCAPE, Epidémiosurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements, Faculté de Médecine, University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Dominique Aubert
- EA7510, ESCAPE, Epidémiosurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements, Faculté de Médecine, University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Isabelle Villena
- EA7510, ESCAPE, Epidémiosurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements, Faculté de Médecine, University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Alain Geffard
- UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques), University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
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Methods to assess the effect of meat processing on viability of Toxoplasma gondii: towards replacement of mouse bioassay by in vitro testing. Int J Parasitol 2020; 50:357-369. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Reiling SJ, Measures L, Feng S, Boone R, Merks H, Dixon BR. Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis sp. and Neospora caninum-like parasites in seals from northern and eastern Canada: potential risk to consumers. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2019; 17:e00067. [PMID: 32095635 PMCID: PMC7033983 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Zoonotic parasites of seals that are harvested for food may pose a health risk when seal meat or organ tissues of infected animals are eaten raw or undercooked. In this study, 124 tissue samples from 81 seals, comprising four species, were collected from northern and eastern Canada. Tissues from 23 ringed seals (Pusa hispida), 8 hooded seals (Cystophora cristata), 21 harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus), and 29 grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) were tested for parasites of the Sarcocystidae family including Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis spp., and Neospora spp. using nested PCR followed by Sanger sequencing. Toxoplasma gondii DNA was present in 26% of ringed seals, 63% of hooded seals, 57% of harp seals, and 31% of grey seals. Sarcocystis sp. DNA was found in 9% of ringed seals, 13% of hooded seals, 14% of harp seals, and 4% of grey seals, while N. caninum-like DNA was present in 26% of ringed seals. While it is unclear how pinnipeds may become infected with these protozoans, horizontal transmission is most likely. However, one harp seal pup (4 days old) was PCR-positive for T. gondii, suggesting vertical transmission may also occur. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S gene region indicates that Sarcocystis sp. in these seals belongs to a unique genotype. Furthermore, this study represents a new host report for T. gondii in harp seals, a new host and geographic report for N. caninum-like parasites in ringed seals, and four new hosts and geographic reports for Sarcocystis sp. These results demonstrate that parasites of the Sarcocystidae family are prevalent in northern and eastern Canadian seals. While the zoonotic potential of Sarcocystis sp. and the N. caninum-like parasite are unclear, consumption of raw or undercooked seal meat or organ tissues pose a risk of T. gondii infection to consumers. Tissues from ringed, hooded, harp and grey seals in Canada were PCR-positive for Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis and Neospora. Raw or undercooked seal meat may pose a risk for zoonotic transmission of T. gondii to consumers. The risk for zoonotic transmission of Sarcocystis sp. and the Neospora caninum-like parasite is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. Reiling
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Lena Measures
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Maurice Lamontagne Institute, Mont-Joli, QC, G5H 3Z4, Canada
| | - Sandy Feng
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Ryan Boone
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Harriet Merks
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Brent R. Dixon
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
- Corresponding author. Address: 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, A.L. 2204E, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada.
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10
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Kirejczyk SGM, Burns RE, Hyatt MW, Yabsley MJ, Ter Beest JM, Gyimesi ZS, Ossiboff RJ, Waltman A, Seimon TA, McManamon R. Fatal Sarcocystis falcatula Infection in Three Penguins. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:340. [PMID: 31649941 PMCID: PMC6795683 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcocystis falcatula is a well-known cause of fatal pneumonia in some birds, particularly Old World psittacines. Here we describe fatal sarcosystosis due to S. falcatula in 3 penguins (Family Spheniscidae) under managed care, including one African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), and two Southern rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome). Randomly distributed foci of necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltrates, edema, and variable numbers of round to elongated protozoal schizonts were observed in sections of lung. Protozoal organisms exhibited strong immunoreactivity for Sarcocystis sp. antigen by immunohistochemistry. Apicomplexan and Sarcocystis genus-specific PCR assays and sequence analysis confirmed S. falcatula as the etiologic agent. These cases of fatal pneumonia attributed to S. falcatula expand the list of aberrant intermediate avian hosts, with particular implications for penguins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon G M Kirejczyk
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Rachel E Burns
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | | | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | | | | | | | - Amelia Waltman
- The Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, United States
| | | | - Rita McManamon
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Zoo and Exotic Animal Pathology Service and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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11
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Scotter SE, Tryland M, Nymo IH, Hanssen L, Harju M, Lydersen C, Kovacs KM, Klein J, Fisk AT, Routti H. Contaminants in Atlantic walruses in Svalbard part 1: Relationships between exposure, diet and pathogen prevalence. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 244:9-18. [PMID: 30317087 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated relationships between organohalogen compound (OHC) exposure, feeding habits, and pathogen exposure in a recovering population of Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from the Svalbard Archipelago, Norway. Various samples were collected from 39 free-living, apparently healthy, adult male walruses immobilised at three sampling locations during the summers of 2014 and 2015. Concentrations of lipophilic compounds (polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) were analysed in blubber samples, and concentrations of perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) were determined in plasma samples. Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen were measured in seven tissue types and surveys for three infectious pathogens were conducted. Despite an overall decline in lipophilic compound concentrations since this population was last studied (2006), the contaminant pattern was similar, including extremely large inter-individual variation. Stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen showed that the variation in OHC concentrations could not be explained by some walruses consuming higher trophic level diets, since all animals were found to feed at a similar trophic level. Antibodies against the bacteria Brucella spp. and the parasite Toxoplasma gondii were detected in 26% and 15% of the walruses, respectively. Given the absence of seal-predation, T. gondii exposure likely took place via the consumption of contaminated bivalves. The source of exposure to Brucella spp. in walruses is still unknown. Parapoxvirus DNA was detected in a single individual, representing the first documented evidence of parapoxvirus in wild walruses. Antibody prevalence was not related to contaminant exposure. Despite this, dynamic relationships between diet composition, contaminant bioaccumulation and pathogen exposure warrant continuing attention given the likelihood of climate change induced habitat and food web changes, and consequently OHC exposure, for Svalbard walruses in the coming decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie E Scotter
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9019, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Morten Tryland
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9019, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ingebjørg H Nymo
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9019, Tromsø, Norway; Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Stakkevollveien 23, N-9010, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Linda Hanssen
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Fram Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Mikael Harju
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Fram Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Kit M Kovacs
- Norwegian Polar Institute, FRAM Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jörn Klein
- University College of Southeast Norway (USN), Post Box 235, N-3603, Kongsberg, Norway
| | - Aaron T Fisk
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Heli Routti
- Norwegian Polar Institute, FRAM Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway.
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12
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Wyrosdick H, Chapman A, Mignucci-Giannoni AA, Rivera-Pérez CI, Bonde RK. Internal parasites of the two subspecies of the West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 130:145-152. [PMID: 30198489 DOI: 10.3354/dao03270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus is divided into 2 subspecies: the Antillean (T. m. manatus) and Florida (T. m. latirostris) manatees. This study reports sample prevalence of manatee parasites from populations of these 2 subspecies in different geographical locations. Although necropsy is a valuable diagnostic tool for parasite infections, the need for antemortem diagnostic techniques is important. Fecal samples collected during necropsies of Antillean manatees (n = 3) in Puerto Rico and Florida manatees (n = 10) in Crystal River, Florida, as well as from live-captured Florida manatees (n = 11) were evaluated using centrifugal flotation with sucrose and ethyl acetate sedimentation to compare parasites from each of the populations. Although both fecal examination methods provided similar results, the centrifugal flotation method required less time for diagnosis. The most common parasite eggs found in both populations included the trematodes Pulmonicola cochleotrema and Nudacotyle undicola, oocysts of the coccidian Eimeria spp., and eggs of the ascarid Heterocheilus tunicatus. Eggs of the trematode Chiorchis groschafti were found in both populations of manatees; however, eggs of a related species, Chiorchis fabaceus, were abundant in the Florida samples, but not found in Puerto Rico populations. Trematode eggs of Moniligerum blairi were found in both populations, but were more common in the Florida manatee (42%) than the Antillean manatee (33%). To our knowledge, this is the first report of both Eimeria manatus and Eimeria nodulosa oocysts in Antillean manatees from Puerto Rico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Wyrosdick
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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13
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Namroodi S, Shirazi AS, Khaleghi SR, N. Mills J, Kheirabady V. Frequency of exposure of endangered Caspian seals to Canine distemper virus, Leptospira interrogans, and Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196070. [PMID: 29698496 PMCID: PMC5919510 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV), Leptospira interrogans, and Toxoplasma gondii are potentially lethal pathogens associated with decline in marine mammal populations. The Caspian Sea is home for the endangered Caspian seal (Pusa caspica). In the late 1990s and early 2000s, CDV caused a series of mortality events involving at least several thousand Caspian seals. To assess current infection status in Caspian seals, we surveyed for antibodies to three pathogens with potential to cause mortality in marine mammals. During 2015–2017, we tested serum samples from 36, apparently healthy, Caspian seals, accidentally caught in fishing nets in the Caspian Sea off Northern Iran, for antibodies to CDV, L. interrogans, and T. gondii, by virus neutralization, microscopic agglutination, and modified agglutination, respectively. Twelve (33%), 6 (17%), and 30 (83%) samples were positive for CDV, L. interrogans and T. gondii antibodies, respectively. The highest titers of CDV, L. interrogans, and T. gondii antibodies were 16, 400, and 50, respectively. Frequencies of antibody to these pathogens were higher in seals >1 year old compared to seals <1 year old. Two serovars of L. interrogans (Pomona and Canicola) were detected. Our results suggest a need for additional studies to clarify the impact of these pathogens on Caspian seal population decline and the improvement of management programs, including systematic screening to detect and protect the remaining population from disease outbreaks.
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MESH Headings
- Aging
- Animals
- Antibodies, Bacterial/blood
- Antibodies, Protozoan/blood
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Distemper/epidemiology
- Distemper/pathology
- Distemper/virology
- Distemper Virus, Canine/immunology
- Distemper Virus, Canine/pathogenicity
- Dogs
- Leptospira interrogans/immunology
- Leptospira interrogans/pathogenicity
- Leptospirosis/epidemiology
- Leptospirosis/pathology
- Leptospirosis/veterinary
- Seals, Earless/microbiology
- Seals, Earless/parasitology
- Seals, Earless/virology
- Toxoplasma/immunology
- Toxoplasma/pathogenicity
- Toxoplasmosis, Animal/epidemiology
- Toxoplasmosis, Animal/parasitology
- Toxoplasmosis, Animal/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Namroodi
- Department of Environmental sciences, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences & Natural Resources, Gorgan, Golestan Province, Iran
- * E-mail:
| | - Amir S. Shirazi
- Caspian Seal Treatment and Research Center, Ashooradeh Island, Gorgan, Golestan Province, Iran
| | - Seyyed Reza Khaleghi
- Department of Environmental sciences, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences & Natural Resources, Gorgan, Golestan Province, Iran
| | - James N. Mills
- Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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14
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Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and association with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: A case–control study of Californian horses. Vet J 2017; 224:38-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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15
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Smith LN, Waltzek TB, Rotstein DS, Francis-Floyd R, Walsh MT, Wellehan JFX, Gerhold R, Chapman AE, de Wit M. Disseminated toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii in a wild Florida manatee Trichechus manatus latirostris and seroprevalence in two wild populations. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2016; 122:77-83. [PMID: 27901507 DOI: 10.3354/dao03055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Marine mammals are important indicators for ecosystem health and serve as sentinel species for infectious agents including zoonoses. Histological examination of tissues from a stranded Florida manatee Trichechus manatus latirostris revealed protozoal cysts in the cerebrum and intrahistiocytic tachyzoites in the liver and caudal mesenteric lymph node. Disseminated Toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region of formalin-fixed tissues. The lack of baseline information on Florida manatees' exposure to this pathogen prompted a study into the seroprevalence of T. gondii in 2 separate geographic habitats in Florida, USA, during the winters from 2011-2014. Serum was collected during routine health assessments of 44 apparently healthy manatees from Crystal River (n = 26) on the west central coast of Florida and Brevard County (n = 18) on the east coast of Florida. Serum was screened for detection of T. gondii immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies via the modified agglutination test. Two animals from Crystal River from 2011 and 2012 (7.7%) and one animal from Brevard County from 2011 (5.6%) tested positive for T. gondii antibodies. Overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was low in the 2 sampled populations and may reflect a low seroprevalence or animal susceptibility. However, continued monitoring of this pathogen in aquatic ecosystems is warranted due to both possible anthropogenic sources and zoonotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N Smith
- Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo, 1101 W Sligh Avenue, Tampa, FL 33604, USA
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16
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Barbieri MM, Kashinsky L, Rotstein DS, Colegrove KM, Haman KH, Magargal SL, Sweeny AR, Kaufman AC, Grigg ME, Littnan CL. Protozoal-related mortalities in endangered Hawaiian monk seals Neomonachus schauinslandi. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2016; 121:85-95. [PMID: 27667806 DOI: 10.3354/dao03047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Protozoal infections have been widely documented in marine mammals and may cause morbidity and mortality at levels that result in population level effects. The presence and potential impact on the recovery of endangered Hawaiian monk seals Neomonachus schauinslandi by protozoal pathogens was first identified in the carcass of a stranded adult male with disseminated toxoplasmosis and a captive monk seal with hepatitis. We report 7 additional cases and 2 suspect cases of protozoal-related mortality in Hawaiian monk seals between 2001 and 2015, including the first record of vertical transmission in this species. This study establishes case definitions for classification of protozoal infections in Hawaiian monk seals. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry were the primary diagnostic modalities used to define cases, given that these analyses establish a direct link between disease and pathogen presence. Findings were supported by serology and molecular data when available. Toxoplasma gondii was the predominant apicomplexan parasite identified and was associated with 100% of mortalities (n = 8) and 50% of suspect cases (n = 2). Incidental identification of sarcocysts in the skeletal muscle without tissue inflammation occurred in 4 seals, including one co-infected with T. gondii. In 2015, 2 cases of toxoplasmosis were identified ante-mortem and shared similar clinical findings, including hematological abnormalities and histopathology. Protozoal-related mortalities, specifically due to toxoplasmosis, are emerging as a threat to the recovery of this endangered pinniped and other native Hawaiian taxa. By establishing case definitions, this study provides a foundation for measuring the impact of these diseases on Hawaiian monk seals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Barbieri
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Protected Species Division, Hawaiian Monk Seal Research Program, Honolulu, HI 96818, USA
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17
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Del Piero F, Stremme DW, Habecker PL, Cantile C. West Nile Flavivirus Polioencephalomyelitis in a Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina). Vet Pathol 2016; 43:58-61. [PMID: 16407488 DOI: 10.1354/vp.43-1-58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A 12-year-old male harbor seal presented with progressive signs of neurologic dysfunction including head tremors, muzzle twitching, clonic spasms, and weakness. Lesions included polioenceph-alomyelitis with glial nodules, spheroids, neuronophagia, ring hemorrhages, and a few neutrophils. Neurons, fibers, and glial nodules were multifocally colonized with intracytoplasmic West Nile flavivirus antigens that were demonstrated using indirect immunohistochemical analysis. Flavivirus on cultured cells also was isolated and was identified by use of monoclonal antibodies and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis. Clinical signs of disease and lesion morphology and distribution were similar to those of equine West Nile virus infection. Similar to horses, alpacas, humans, dogs, and reptiles, seals can be dead-end hosts of West Nile virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Del Piero
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, 382 West Street Road, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA.
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18
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Gozalo AS, Montali RJ, St Claire M, Barr B, Rejmanek D, Ward JM. Chronic Polymyositis Associated with Disseminated Sarcocystosis in a Captive-born Rhesus Macaque. Vet Pathol 2016; 44:695-9. [PMID: 17846244 DOI: 10.1354/vp.44-5-695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A 2–year-old, captive-born, clinically healthy male, rhesus macaque, was euthanatized as part of an experimental study. At necropsy, diffuse pale streaking of the trunk, lumbar, and limb muscles were noted macroscopically. On histology, numerous elongated cysts that contained crescent-shaped basophilic spores were found in the fibers of skeletal muscles. Scattered affected myofibers were degenerate and accompanied by eosinophilic-to-granulomatous inflammation. Sarcocysts had prominent villus-like projections with the morphology of a type 11 sarcocyst wall similar to Sarcocystis neurona but possessing many more villus microtubules than is reported for S. neurona. In addition, bradyzoites were very long, up to approximately 12 um in length. The protozoa were consistent with a Sarcocystis sp., based on histology and ultrastructure, however, a definitive identification of the species was not possible. Nonspecific immunohistochemical crossreaction with Sarcocystis cruzi antisera was observed. The 18S ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid sequence showed 91% similarity to Sarcocystis hominis, 90% similarity to Sarcocystis buffalonis, and 89% similarity to Sarcocystis hirsuta. Interestingly, the ITSI sequence showed very little homology to any sequence in GenBank, suggesting that this is possibly a unique Sarcocystis sp. Sarcocystosis is often considered an incidental finding, particularly in wild-caught animals, with little clinical significance. However, as demonstrated in this report and others, disseminated sarcocystosis can occur in captive-born rhesus macaques with or without clinical signs. In some cases interference with research results can occur; including death in fulminant cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Gozalo
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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19
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Koch MO, Weiss RR, Cruz AA, Soccol VT, Gonçalves KA, Bertol MAF, Beltrame OC, Dittrich RL. Detection and isolation ofToxoplasma gondiifrom fresh semen of naturally infected dogs in Southern Brazil. Reprod Domest Anim 2016; 51:550-4. [DOI: 10.1111/rda.12718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- MO Koch
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - RR Weiss
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Bioprocessos e Biotecnologia; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - AA Cruz
- Laboratório de Bioquímica; Faculdade de Ciências Veterinárias; Universidade de Camagüey; Camagüey Cuba
| | - VT Soccol
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Bioprocessos e Biotecnologia; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - KA Gonçalves
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - MAF Bertol
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Bioprocessos e Biotecnologia; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - OC Beltrame
- Laboratório de Patologia Clínica Veterinária; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
| | - RL Dittrich
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias; Universidade Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Paraná Brazil
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20
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California mussels (Mytilus californianus) as sentinels for marine contamination with Sarcocystis neurona. Parasitology 2016; 143:762-9. [PMID: 27003262 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182016000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is a terrestrial parasite that can cause fatal encephalitis in the endangered Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). To date, neither risk factors associated with marine contamination nor the route of S. neurona infection to marine mammals has been described. This study evaluated coastal S. neurona contamination using California mussels (Mytilus californianus) as sentinels for pathogen pollution. A field investigation was designed to test the hypotheses that (1) mussels can serve as sentinels for S. neurona contamination, and (2) S. neurona contamination in mussels would be highest during the rainy season and in mussels collected near freshwater. Initial validation of molecular assays through sporocyst spiking experiments revealed the ITS-1500 assay to be most sensitive for detection of S. neurona, consistently yielding parasite amplification at concentrations ⩾5 sporocysts/1 mL mussel haemolymph. Assays were then applied on 959 wild-caught mussels, with detection of S. neurona confirmed using sequence analysis in three mussels. Validated molecular assays for S. neurona detection in mussels provide a novel toolset for investigating marine contamination with this parasite, while confirmation of S. neurona in wild mussels suggests that uptake by invertebrates may serve as a route of transmission to susceptible marine animals.
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21
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Girard YA, Johnson CK, Fritz HM, Shapiro K, Packham AE, Melli AC, Carlson-Bremer D, Gulland FM, Rejmanek D, Conrad PA. Detection and characterization of diverse coccidian protozoa shed by California sea lions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2015; 5:5-16. [PMID: 27141438 PMCID: PMC4840268 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Tissue-cyst forming coccidia in the family Sarcocystidae are etiologic agents of protozoal encephalitis in marine mammals including the federally listed Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris). California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), whose coastal habitat overlaps with sea otters, are definitive hosts for coccidian protozoa provisionally named Coccidia A, B and C. While Coccidia A and B have unknown clinical effects on aquatic wildlife hosts, Coccidia C is associated with severe protozoal disease in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). In this study, we conducted surveillance for protozoal infection and fecal shedding in hospitalized and free-ranging California sea lions on the Pacific Coast and examined oocyst morphology and phenotypic characteristics of isolates via mouse bioassay and cell culture. Coccidia A and B were shed in similar frequency, particularly by yearlings. Oocysts shed by one free-ranging sea lion sampled at Año Nuevo State Park in California were previously unidentified in sea lions and were most similar to coccidia infecting Guadalupe fur seals (Arctocephalus townsendi) diagnosed with protozoal disease in Oregon (USA). Sporulated Coccidia A and B oocysts did not replicate in three strains of mice or in African green monkey kidney cells. However, cultivation experiments revealed that the inoculum of fecally-derived Coccidia A and B oocysts additionally contained organisms with genetic and antigenic similarity to Sarcocystis neurona; despite the absence of detectable free sporocysts in fecal samples by microscopic examination. In addition to the further characterization of Coccidia A and B in free-ranging and hospitalized sea lions, these results provide evidence of a new role for sea lions as putative mechanical vectors of S. neurona, or S. neurona-like species. Future work is needed to clarify the distribution, taxonomical status, and pathogenesis of these parasites in sea lions and other marine mammals that share their the near-shore marine environment. Diverse coccidian protozoa shed by California sea lions (CSL) were characterized. Oocyst shedding patterns, taxonomy, morphology and pathogenicity were examined. Mice and cell cultures were not susceptible to Coccidia A or B of CSL origin. Sarcocystis neurona-like zoites grew in cells inoculated with CSL fecal samples. California sea lions may serve as mechanical vectors of an S. neurona-like organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette A Girard
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Christine K Johnson
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Heather M Fritz
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Karen Shapiro
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Andrea E Packham
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ann C Melli
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Patricia A Conrad
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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22
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Barbosa L, Johnson CK, Lambourn DM, Gibson AK, Haman KH, Huggins JL, Sweeny AR, Sundar N, Raverty SA, Grigg ME. A novel Sarcocystis neurona genotype XIII is associated with severe encephalitis in an unexpectedly broad range of marine mammals from the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Int J Parasitol 2015; 45:595-603. [PMID: 25997588 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2015.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is an important cause of protozoal encephalitis among marine mammals in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. To characterise the genetic type of S. neurona in this region, samples from 227 stranded marine mammals, most with clinical or pathological evidence of protozoal disease, were tested for the presence of coccidian parasites using a nested PCR assay. The frequency of S. neurona infection was 60% (136/227) among pinnipeds and cetaceans, including seven marine mammal species not previously known to be susceptible to infection by this parasite. Eight S. neurona fetal infections identified this coccidian parasite as capable of being transmitted transplacentally. Thirty-seven S. neurona-positive samples were multilocus sequence genotyped using three genetic markers: SnSAG1-5-6, SnSAG3 and SnSAG4. A novel genotype, referred to as Type XIII within the S. neurona population genetic structure, has emerged recently in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and is significantly associated with an increased severity of protozoal encephalitis and mortality among multiple stranded marine mammal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorraine Barbosa
- Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Christine K Johnson
- Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | | | - Amanda K Gibson
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Katherine H Haman
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Fisheries Centre, Marine Mammal Research Unit, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | | | - Amy R Sweeny
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Natarajan Sundar
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Stephen A Raverty
- University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Fisheries Centre, Marine Mammal Research Unit, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; Animal Health Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Abbotsford, British Columbia V3G 2M3, Canada
| | - Michael E Grigg
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, NIAID, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Fisheries Centre, Marine Mammal Research Unit, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OFTOXOPLASMA GONDIIIN FREE-RANGING CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS (ZALOPHUS CALIFORNIANUS). J Wildl Dis 2015; 51:362-73. [DOI: 10.7589/2014-08-205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Systems-based analysis of the Sarcocystis neurona genome identifies pathways that contribute to a heteroxenous life cycle. mBio 2015; 6:mBio.02445-14. [PMID: 25670772 PMCID: PMC4337577 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02445-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is a member of the coccidia, a clade of single-celled parasites of medical and veterinary importance including Eimeria, Sarcocystis, Neospora, and Toxoplasma. Unlike Eimeria, a single-host enteric pathogen, Sarcocystis, Neospora, and Toxoplasma are two-host parasites that infect and produce infectious tissue cysts in a wide range of intermediate hosts. As a genus, Sarcocystis is one of the most successful protozoan parasites; all vertebrates, including birds, reptiles, fish, and mammals are hosts to at least one Sarcocystis species. Here we sequenced Sarcocystis neurona, the causal agent of fatal equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. The S. neurona genome is 127 Mbp, more than twice the size of other sequenced coccidian genomes. Comparative analyses identified conservation of the invasion machinery among the coccidia. However, many dense-granule and rhoptry kinase genes, responsible for altering host effector pathways in Toxoplasma and Neospora, are absent from S. neurona. Further, S. neurona has a divergent repertoire of SRS proteins, previously implicated in tissue cyst formation in Toxoplasma. Systems-based analyses identified a series of metabolic innovations, including the ability to exploit alternative sources of energy. Finally, we present an S. neurona model detailing conserved molecular innovations that promote the transition from a purely enteric lifestyle (Eimeria) to a heteroxenous parasite capable of infecting a wide range of intermediate hosts. Sarcocystis neurona is a member of the coccidia, a clade of single-celled apicomplexan parasites responsible for major economic and health care burdens worldwide. A cousin of Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium, Theileria, and Eimeria, Sarcocystis is one of the most successful parasite genera; it is capable of infecting all vertebrates (fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals—including humans). The past decade has witnessed an increasing number of human outbreaks of clinical significance associated with acute sarcocystosis. Among Sarcocystis species, S. neurona has a wide host range and causes fatal encephalitis in horses, marine mammals, and several other mammals. To provide insights into the transition from a purely enteric parasite (e.g., Eimeria) to one that forms tissue cysts (Toxoplasma), we present the first genome sequence of S. neurona. Comparisons with other coccidian genomes highlight the molecular innovations that drive its distinct life cycle strategies.
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Dubey JP, Howe DK, Furr M, Saville WJ, Marsh AE, Reed SM, Grigg ME. An update on Sarcocystis neurona infections in animals and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM). Vet Parasitol 2015; 209:1-42. [PMID: 25737052 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a serious disease of horses, and its management continues to be a challenge for veterinarians. The protozoan Sarcocystis neurona is most commonly associated with EPM. S. neurona has emerged as a common cause of mortality in marine mammals, especially sea otters (Enhydra lutris). EPM-like illness has also been recorded in several other mammals, including domestic dogs and cats. This paper updates S. neurona and EPM information from the last 15 years on the advances regarding life cycle, molecular biology, epidemiology, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - D K Howe
- M.H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546-0099, USA
| | - M Furr
- Marion du Pont Scott Equine Medical Center, Virginia Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, 17690 Old Waterford Road, Leesburg, VA 20176, USA
| | - W J Saville
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - A E Marsh
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - S M Reed
- Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
| | - M E Grigg
- Molecular Parasitology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, National Institutes of Allergy, and Infectious Diseases, 4 Center Drive, Room B1-06, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Greig DJ, Gulland FMD, Smith WA, Conrad PA, Field CL, Fleetwood M, Harvey JT, Ip HS, Jang S, Packham A, Wheeler E, Hall AJ. Surveillance for zoonotic and selected pathogens in harbor seals Phoca vitulina from central California. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2014; 111:93-106. [PMID: 25266897 DOI: 10.3354/dao02762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The infection status of harbor seals Phoca vitulina in central California, USA, was evaluated through broad surveillance for pathogens in stranded and wild-caught animals from 2001 to 2008, with most samples collected in 2007 and 2008. Stranded animals from Mendocino County to San Luis Obispo County were sampled at a rehabilitation facility: The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC, n = 175); wild-caught animals were sampled at 2 locations: San Francisco Bay (SF, n = 78) and Tomales Bay (TB, n = 97), that differed in degree of urbanization. Low prevalences of Salmonella, Campylobacter, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium were detected in the feces of stranded and wild-caught seals. Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli were more prevalent in the feces of stranded (58% [78 out of 135] and 76% [102 out of 135]) than wild-caught (42% [45 out of 106] and 66% [68 out of 106]) seals, whereas Vibrio spp. were 16 times more likely to be cultured from the feces of seals from SF than TB or TMMC (p < 0.005). Brucella DNA was detected in 3.4% of dead stranded harbor seals (2 out of 58). Type A influenza was isolated from feces of 1 out of 96 wild-caught seals. Exposure to Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis neurona, and type A influenza was only detected in the wild-caught harbor seals (post-weaning age classes), whereas antibody titers to Leptospira spp. were detected in stranded and wild-caught seals. No stranded (n = 109) or wild-caught (n = 217) harbor seals had antibodies to phocine distemper virus, although a single low titer to canine distemper virus was detected. These results highlight the role of harbor seals as sentinel species for zoonotic and terrestrial pathogens in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise J Greig
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 8LB, UK
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Donahoe SL, Rose K, Slapeta J. Multisystemic toxoplasmosis associated with a type II-like Toxoplasma gondii strain in a New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) from New South Wales, Australia. Vet Parasitol 2014; 205:347-53. [PMID: 25123611 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We report the first confirmed case of toxoplasmosis in an Australian pinniped. Presence of Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in the brain of a free-ranging subadult New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) with nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis, hypophysitis, posterior uveitis, retrobulbar cellulitis, and myocarditis associated with protozoan cysts and tachyzoites. The emaciated seal stranded moribund on a beach in northern Sydney in New South Wales. Histopathology coupled with specific immunohistochemistry and PCR assays confirmed the presence of T. gondii. The T. gondii sample (NZfs8825) identified in this study has an identical genotype as the type II (ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #1) based on the direct sequencing and virtual RFLP of multilocus DNA markers including SAG1, 5'- and 3'-SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico. Direct sequencing of T. gondii B1 DNA marker from the T. gondii sample (NZfs8825) identified a type II-like strain, based on presence of non-archetypal B1 gene polymorphisms previously reported as unique to Australia. This study suggests that T. gondii oocysts originating from mainland Australia, which has a large population of feral cats, may act as a disease threat to native marine fauna. Therefore, emerging toxoplasmosis in the Arctic has a relevant parallel in the Southern Ocean within Australian waters with yet unknown relevance to Antarctica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon L Donahoe
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Karrie Rose
- Taronga Conservation Society Australia, Mosman, NSW, Australia; School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Jan Slapeta
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Giannitti F, Schapira A, Anderson M, Clothier K. Suppurative otitis and ascending meningoencephalitis associated with Bacteroides tectus and Porphyromonas gulae in a captive Parma wallaby (Macropus parma) with toxoplasmosis. J Vet Diagn Invest 2014; 26:683-8. [PMID: 25057163 DOI: 10.1177/1040638714543676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A 6-year-old female Parma wallaby (Macropus parma) at a zoo in California developed acute ataxia and left-sided circling. Despite intensive care, clinical signs progressed to incoordination and prostration, and the animal was euthanized. At necropsy, the left tympanic cavity was filled with homogeneous suppurative exudate that extended into the cranium expanding the meninges and neuroparenchyma in the lateral and ventral aspect of the caudal ipsilateral brainstem and medulla oblongata. Microscopically, the brainstem showed regional severe suppurative meningoencephalitis with large numbers of neutrophils, fewer macrophages, and lymphocytes admixed with fibrin, necrotic cellular debris, hemorrhage, and mineralization, with numerous intralesional Gram-negative bacilli. Bacteroides spp. and Porphyromonas spp. were isolated on anaerobic culture from the meninges, and the bacteria were further characterized by partial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing as Bacteroides tectus and Porphyromonas gulae. Bacterial aerobic culture from the meninges yielded very low numbers of mixed flora and Proteus spp., which were considered contaminants. Culture of Mycoplasma spp. from middle ear and meninges was negative. Additionally, Toxoplasma gondii cysts were detected by immunohistochemistry in the heart and brain, and anti-Toxoplasma antibodies were detected in serum. The genera Bacteroides and Porphyromonas have been associated with oral disease in marsupials; but not with otitis and meningoencephalitis. The results of the present work highlight the importance of performing anaerobic cultures in the diagnostic investigation of cases of suppurative otitis and meningoencephalitis in macropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Giannitti
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Giannitti, Anderson, Clothier)School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Schapira)
| | - Andrea Schapira
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Giannitti, Anderson, Clothier)School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Schapira)
| | - Mark Anderson
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Giannitti, Anderson, Clothier)School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Schapira)
| | - Kristin Clothier
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Giannitti, Anderson, Clothier)School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Schapira)
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VanWormer E, Miller MA, Conrad PA, Grigg ME, Rejmanek D, Carpenter TE, Mazet JAK. Using molecular epidemiology to track Toxoplasma gondii from terrestrial carnivores to marine hosts: implications for public health and conservation. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2852. [PMID: 24874796 PMCID: PMC4038486 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental transmission of the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is shed only by felids, poses risks to human and animal health in temperate and tropical ecosystems. Atypical T. gondii genotypes have been linked to severe disease in people and the threatened population of California sea otters. To investigate land-to-sea parasite transmission, we screened 373 carnivores (feral domestic cats, mountain lions, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes) for T. gondii infection and examined the distribution of genotypes in 85 infected animals sampled near the sea otter range. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Nested PCR-RFLP analyses and direct DNA sequencing at six independent polymorphic genetic loci (B1, SAG1, SAG3, GRA6, L358, and Apico) were used to characterize T. gondii strains in infected animals. Strains consistent with Type X, a novel genotype previously identified in over 70% of infected sea otters and four terrestrial wild carnivores along the California coast, were detected in all sampled species, including domestic cats. However, odds of Type X infection were 14 times higher (95% CI: 1.3-148.6) for wild felids than feral domestic cats. Type X infection was also linked to undeveloped lands (OR = 22, 95% CI: 2.3-250.7). A spatial cluster of terrestrial Type II infection (P = 0.04) was identified in developed lands bordering an area of increased risk for sea otter Type II infection. Two spatial clusters of animals infected with strains consistent with Type X (P ≤ 0.01) were detected in less developed landscapes. CONCLUSIONS Differences in T. gondii genotype prevalence among domestic and wild felids, as well as the spatial distribution of genotypes, suggest co-existing domestic and wild T. gondii transmission cycles that likely overlap at the interface of developed and undeveloped lands. Anthropogenic development driving contact between these cycles may increase atypical T. gondii genotypes in domestic cats and facilitate transmission of potentially more pathogenic genotypes to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth VanWormer
- Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Melissa A. Miller
- Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Santa Cruz, California, United States of America
| | - Patricia A. Conrad
- Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Michael E. Grigg
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Rejmanek
- Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | | | - Jonna A. K. Mazet
- Wildlife Health Center, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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Dubey JP, Black SS, Verma SK, Calero-Bernal R, Morris E, Hanson MA, Cooley AJ. Sarcocystis neurona schizonts-associated encephalitis, chorioretinitis, and myositis in a two-month-old dog simulating toxoplasmosis, and presence of mature sarcocysts in muscles. Vet Parasitol 2014; 202:194-200. [PMID: 24680604 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is an unusual species of the genus Sarcocystis. Opossums (Didelphis virginianus, D. albiventris) are the definitive hosts and several other species, including dogs, cats, marine mammals, and horses are intermediate or aberrant hosts. Sarcocysts are not known to form in aberrant hosts. Sarcocystis neurona causes fatal disease in horses (Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis, EPM). There are numerous reports of fatal EPM-like infections in other species, usually with central nervous system signs and associated with the schizont stage of S. neurona. Here, we report fatal disseminated S. neurona infection in a nine-week-old golden retriever dog from Mississippi, USA. Protozoal merozoites were identified in smears of the cerebrospinal fluid. Microscopically, lesions and protozoa were identified in eyes, tongue, heart, liver, intestines, nasal turbinates, skeletal muscle and brain, which reacted intensely with S. neurona polyclonal antibodies. Mature sarcocysts were seen in sections of muscles. These sarcocysts were ultrastructurally similar to those of S. neurona from experimentally infected animals. These data suggest that the dog is another intermediate host for S. neurona. Data suggest that the dog was transplacentally infected.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - S S Black
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, 240 Wise Center Drive, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
| | - S K Verma
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - R Calero-Bernal
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - E Morris
- Joint Pathology Center, Veterinary Pathology Services, 606 Stephen Sitter Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - M A Hanson
- Joint Pathology Center, Veterinary Pathology Services, 606 Stephen Sitter Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - A J Cooley
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, 240 Wise Center Drive, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
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PATHOGEN EXPOSURE AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY IN THE WASHINGTON, USA POPULATION OF NORTHERN SEA OTTERS (ENHYDRA LUTRIS KENYONI). J Wildl Dis 2013; 49:887-99. [DOI: 10.7589/2013-03-053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Waap H, Cardoso R, Leitão A, Nunes T, Vilares A, Gargaté MJ, Meireles J, Cortes H, Ângelo H. In vitro isolation and seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in stray cats and pigeons in Lisbon, Portugal. Vet Parasitol 2012; 187:542-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Carlson-Bremer DP, Gulland FMD, Johnson CK, Colegrove KM, Van Bonn WG. Diagnosis and treatment ofSarcocystis neurona–induced myositis in a free-ranging California sea lion. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012; 240:324-8. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.240.3.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Wendte JM, Gibson AK, Grigg ME. Population genetics of Toxoplasma gondii: new perspectives from parasite genotypes in wildlife. Vet Parasitol 2011; 182:96-111. [PMID: 21824730 PMCID: PMC3430134 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, a zoonotic protozoal parasite, is well-known for its global distribution and its ability to infect virtually all warm-blooded vertebrates. Nonetheless, attempts to describe the population structure of T. gondii have been primarily limited to samples isolated from humans and domesticated animals. More recent studies, however, have made efforts to characterize T. gondii isolates from a wider range of host species and geographic locales. These findings have dramatically changed our perception of the extent of genetic diversity in T. gondii and the relative roles of sexual recombination and clonal propagation in the parasite's lifecycle. In particular, identification of novel, disease-causing T. gondii strains in wildlife has raised concerns from both a conservation and public health perspective as to whether distinct domestic and sylvatic parasite gene pools exist. If so, overlap of these cycles may represent regions of high probability of disease emergence. Here, we attempt to answer these key questions by reviewing recent studies of T. gondii infections in wildlife, highlighting those which have advanced our understanding of the genetic diversity and population biology of this important zoonotic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jered M. Wendte
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0425, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Stillwater, OK, 74074, USA
| | - Amanda K. Gibson
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0425, USA
| | - Michael E. Grigg
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0425, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Stillwater, OK, 74074, USA
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Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in North-eastern Atlantic harbor seal (Phoca vitulina vitulina) and grey seal (Halichoerus grypus). Vet Parasitol 2011; 179:253-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Revised: 12/03/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Colegrove KM, Grigg ME, Carlson-Bremer D, Miller RH, Gulland FMD, Ferguson DJP, Rejmanek D, Barr BC, Nordhausen R, Melli AC, Conrad PA. Discovery of three novel coccidian parasites infecting California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), with evidence of sexual replication and interspecies pathogenicity. J Parasitol 2011; 97:868-77. [PMID: 21495828 DOI: 10.1645/ge-2756.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric protozoal infection was identified in 5 stranded California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Microscopically, the apical cytoplasm of distal jejunal enterocytes contained multiple stages of coccidian parasites, including schizonts with merozoites and spherical gametocytes, which were morphologically similar to coccidians. By histopathology, organisms appeared to be confined to the intestine and accompanied by only mild enteritis. Using electron microscopy, both sexual (microgametocytes, macrogamonts) and asexual (schizonts, merozoites) coccidian stages were identified in enterocytes within parasitophorous vacuoles, consistent with apicomplexan development in a definitive host. Serology was negative for tissue cyst-forming coccidians, and immunohistochemistry for Toxoplasma gondii was inconclusive and negative for Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis neurona. Analysis of ITS-1 gene sequences amplified from frozen or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded intestinal sections identified DNA sequences with closest homology to Neospora sp. (80%); these novel sequences were referred to as belonging to coccidian parasites "A," "B," and "C." Subsequent molecular analyses completed on a neonatal harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) with protozoal lymphadenitis, hepatitis, myocarditis, and encephalitis showed that it was infected with a coccidian parasite bearing the "C" sequence type. Our results indicate that sea lions likely serve as definitive hosts for 3 newly described coccidian parasites, at least 1 of which is pathogenic in a marine mammal intermediate host species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Colegrove
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine at Urbana-Champaign, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA.
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Wainwright KE, Miller MA, Barr BC, Gardner IA, Melli AC, Essert T, Packham AE, Truong T, Lagunas-Solar M, Conrad PA. Chemical inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in water. J Parasitol 2010; 93:925-31. [PMID: 17918377 DOI: 10.1645/ge-1063r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is increasingly recognized as a waterborne pathogen. Infection can be acquired by drinking contaminated water and conventional water treatments may not effectively inactivate tough, environmentally resistant oocysts. The present study was performed to assess the efficacy of 2 commonly used chemicals, sodium hypochlorite and ozone, to inactivate T. gondii oocysts in water. Oocysts were exposed to 100 mg/L of chlorine for 30 min, or for 2, 4, 8, 16, and 24 hr, or to 6 mg/L of ozone for 1, 2, 4, 8, or 12 min. Oocyst viability was determined by mouse bioassay. Serology, immunohistochemistry, and in vitro parasite isolation were used to evaluate mice for infection. Initially, mouse bioassay experiments were conducted to compare the analytical sensitivity of these 3 detection methods prior to completing the chemical inactivation experiments. Toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed by at least 1 of the 3 detection methods in mice inoculated with all doses (10(5)-10(0)) of oocysts. Results of the chemical exposure experiments indicate that neither sodium hypochlorite nor ozone effectively inactivate T. gondii oocysts, even when used at high concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katlyn E Wainwright
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, 1 Shields Avenue, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Morphologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular characterization of a novel Lankesterella protozoan in two White's tree frogs (Litoria caerulea). J Zoo Wildl Med 2010; 41:242-8. [PMID: 20597215 DOI: 10.1638/2009-0184r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Two White's tree frogs (Litoria caerulea) housed at a zoological park died after a short period of lethargy, weight loss, and edema. Detailed postmortem examinations were performed on both frogs, including bacterial cultures and complete histologic examinations. Intracytoplasmatic as well as free protozoan parasites were identified in multiple organs from both frogs. The parasites were identified within erythrocytes, leukocytes, endothelial cells, and hepatocytes. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated a cross-reaction with Toxoplasma gondii antisera. Parasite ultrastructural analysis was performed by transmission electron microscopy. The parasites demonstrated an apical complex containing a conoid, rhoptries, and micronemes, demonstrating it was a member of the phylum Apicomplexa. In addition, the parasites had bipolar paranuclear bodies, organelles that are typical of coccidian sporozoites. The organisms were tentatively identified as members of the genus Lankesterella on the basis of histologic and ultrastructural morphology. A portion of the 18s ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene was amplified via a polymerase chain reaction, sequenced, and used in a Basic Local Alignment Search Tool search of the GenBank database. The 18s rRNA gene sequence was found to be most similar to gene sequences isolated from Lankesterella organisms (88%). In aggregate, these data support the classification of these protozoa as a novel species of Lankesterella. A causal relationship between frog morbidity and protozoal parasitism was not determined. This is the first report of Lankesterella sp. in White's tree frogs.
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Miller MA, Conrad PA, Harris M, Hatfield B, Langlois G, Jessup DA, Magargal SL, Packham AE, Toy-Choutka S, Melli AC, Murray MA, Gulland FM, Grigg ME. A protozoal-associated epizootic impacting marine wildlife: mass-mortality of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) due to Sarcocystis neurona infection. Vet Parasitol 2010; 172:183-94. [PMID: 20615616 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 05/20/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
During April 2004, 40 sick and dead southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) were recovered over 18km of coastline near Morro Bay, California. This event represented the single largest monthly spike in mortality ever recorded during 30 years of southern sea otter stranding data collection. Because of the point-source nature of the event and clinical signs consistent with severe, acute neurological disease, exposure to a chemical or marine toxin was initially considered. However, detailed postmortem examinations revealed lesions consistent with an infectious etiology, and further investigation confirmed the protozoan parasite Sarcocystis neurona as the underlying cause. Tissues from 94% of examined otters were PCR-positive for S. neurona, based on DNA amplification and sequencing at the ITS-1 locus, and 100% of tested animals (n=14) had elevated IgM and IgG titers to S. neurona. Evidence to support the point-source character of this event include the striking spatial and temporal clustering of cases and detection of high concentrations of anti-S. neurona IgM in serum of stranded animals. Concurrent exposure to the marine biotoxin domoic acid may have enhanced susceptibility of affected otters to S. neurona and exacerbated the neurological signs exhibited by stranded animals. Other factors that may have contributed to the severity of this epizootic include a large rainstorm that preceded the event and an abundance of razor clams near local beaches, attracting numerous otters close to shore within the affected area. This is the first report of a localized epizootic in marine wildlife caused by apicomplexan protozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Miller
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
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40
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Molecular characterization of Sarcocystis neurona strains from opossums (Didelphis virginiana) and intermediate hosts from Central California. Vet Parasitol 2010; 170:20-9. [PMID: 20226596 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.12.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Revised: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is a significant cause of neurological disease in horses and other animals, including the threatened Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). Opossums (Didelphis virginiana), the only known definitive hosts for S. neurona in North America, are an introduced species in California. S. neurona DNA isolated from sporocysts and/or infected tissues of 10 opossums, 6 horses, 1 cat, 23 Southern sea otters, and 1 harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) with natural infections was analyzed based on 15 genetic markers, including the first internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1) region; the 25/396 marker; S. neurona surface antigen genes (snSAGs) 2, 3, and 4; and 10 different microsatellites. Based on phylogenetic analysis, most of the S. neurona strains segregated into three genetically distinct groups. Additionally, fifteen S. neurona samples from opossums and several intermediate hosts, including sea otters and horses, were found to be genetically identical across all 15 genetic markers, indicating that fatal encephalitis in Southern sea otters and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in horses is strongly linked to S. neurona sporocysts shed by opossums.
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41
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Esmerini PO, Gennari SM, Pena HFJ. Analysis of marine bivalve shellfish from the fish market in Santos city, São Paulo state, Brazil, for Toxoplasma gondii. Vet Parasitol 2010; 170:8-13. [PMID: 20197214 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2009] [Revised: 01/18/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine if Toxoplasma gondii are present in oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae) and mussels (Mytella guyanensis) under natural conditions using a bioassay in mice and molecular detection methods. We first compared two standard protocols for DNA extraction, phenol-chloroform (PC) and guanidine-thiocyanate (GT), for both molluscs. A total of 300 oysters and 300 mussels were then acquired from the fish market in Santos city, São Paulo state, Brazil, between March and August of 2008 and divided into 60 groups of 5 oysters and 20 groups of 15 mussels. To isolate the parasite, five mice were orally inoculated with sieved tissue homogenates from each group of oysters or mussels. For molecular detection of T. gondii, DNA from mussels was extracted using the PC method and DNA from oysters was extracted using the GT method. A nested-PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) based on the amplification of a 155 bp fragment from the B1 gene of T. gondii was then performed. Eleven PCR-RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) markers, SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, CS3 and Apico, were used to genotype positive samples. There was no isolation of the parasite by bioassay in mice. T. gondii was not detected in any of the groups of mussels by nested-PCR. DNA of T. gondii was apparently detected by nested-PCR in 2 groups of oysters (3.3%). Genotyping of these two positive samples was not successful. The results suggest that oysters of the species C. rhizophorae, the most common species from the coast of São Paulo, can filter and retain T. gondii oocysts from the marine environment. Ingestion of raw oysters as a potential transmission source of T. gondii to humans and marine mammals should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia O Esmerini
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, CEP 05508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
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42
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Di Guardo G, Proietto U, Di Francesco CE, Marsilio F, Zaccaroni A, Scaravelli D, Mignone W, Garibaldi F, Kennedy S, Forster F, Iulini B, Bozzetta E, Casalone C. Cerebral toxoplasmosis in striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) stranded along the Ligurian Sea coast of Italy. Vet Pathol 2009; 47:245-53. [PMID: 20118319 DOI: 10.1177/0300985809358036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This article reports the results of necropsy, parasitologic, microbiologic, histopathologic, immunohistochemical, indirect immunofluorescence, biomolecular, and serologic investigations on 8 striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) found stranded from August to December 2007 on the Ligurian Sea coast of Italy. Severe, nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis was found in 4 animals, as characterized by prominent perivascular mononuclear cell cuffing and macrophage accumulations in neuropil. These lesions were associated with mild lymphocytic-plasmacytic infiltration of choroid plexuses in 1 dolphin. Toxoplasma gondii cysts and zoites, confirmed by immunohistochemical labeling, were scattered throughout the brain parenchyma of 2 of the 4 dolphins. No viral inclusions were seen in the brain of any animal. Other findings included severe bronchointerstitial pneumonia and pulmonary atelectasis, consolidation, and emphysema. Parasites were identified in a variety of organs, including lung (Halocerchus lagenorhynchi). Microbiologic and serologic examinations for Brucella spp were negative on all 8 dolphins. The 4 animals with meningoencephalitis had serum antibodies against T gondii (titers ranging from 1:80 to 1:320) but not against morbillivirus. In contrast, the other 4 dolphins were seropositive for morbillivirus (with titers ranging from 1:10 to 1:40) but seronegative for T gondii. No morbillivirus antigen or nucleic acid was detected in the tissues of any dolphin. It is concluded that the severe lung and brain lesions were the cause of death and that T gondii was the likely etiologic agent of the cerebral lesions. Morbillivirus infection was not considered to have contributed to death of these animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Di Guardo
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.
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43
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Wendte JM, Miller MA, Nandra AK, Peat SM, Crosbie PR, Conrad PA, Grigg ME. Limited genetic diversity among Sarcocystis neurona strains infecting southern sea otters precludes distinction between marine and terrestrial isolates. Vet Parasitol 2009; 169:37-44. [PMID: 20071081 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2009] [Revised: 12/12/2009] [Accepted: 12/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is an apicomplexan parasite identified as a cause of fatal neurological disease in the threatened southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). In an effort to characterize virulent S. neurona strains circulating in the marine ecosystem, this study developed a range of markers relevant for molecular genotyping. Highly conserved sequences within the 18S ribosomal gene array, the plastid-encoded RNA polymerase (RPOb) and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 mitochondrial gene (CO1) were assessed for their ability to distinguish isolates at the genus and species level. For within-species comparisons, five surface antigens (SnSAG1-SnSAG5) and one high resolution microsatellite marker (Sn9) were developed as genotyping markers to evaluate intra-strain diversity. Molecular analysis at multiple loci revealed insufficient genetic diversity to distinguish terrestrial isolates from strains infecting marine mammals. Furthermore, SnSAG specific primers applied against DNA from the closely related species, Sarcocystis falcatula, lead to the discovery of highly similar orthologs to SnSAG2, 3, and 4, calling into question the specificity of diagnostic tests based on these antigens. The results of this study suggest a population genetic structure for S. neurona similar to that reported for the related parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, dominated by a limited number of successful genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Wendte
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0425, USA
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44
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In vitro culture combined with quantitative TaqMan PCR for the assessment of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cyst viability. Vet Parasitol 2009; 164:167-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Revised: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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45
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Rejmanek D, Vanwormer E, Miller MA, Mazet JAK, Nichelason AE, Melli AC, Packham AE, Jessup DA, Conrad PA. Prevalence and risk factors associated with Sarcocystis neurona infections in opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from central California. Vet Parasitol 2009; 166:8-14. [PMID: 19735983 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2009] [Revised: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 08/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona, a protozoal parasite shed by opossums (Didelphis virginiana), has been shown to cause significant morbidity and mortality in horses, sea otters, and other marine mammals. Over the course of 3 years (fall 2005-summer 2008), opossums from central California were tested for infection with S. neurona. Of 288 opossums sampled, 17 (5.9%) were infected with S. neurona based on the molecular characterization of sporocysts from intestinal scrapings or feces. Risk factors evaluated for association with S. neurona infection in opossums included: age, sex, location, season, presence of pouch young in females, concomitant infection, and sampling method (live-trapped or traffic-killed). Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified that opossums in the Central Valley were 9 times more likely to be infected than those near the coast (p=0.009). Similarly, opossum infection was 5 times more likely to be detected during the reproductive season (March-July; p=0.013). This first investigation of S. neurona infection prevalence and associated risk factors in opossums in the western United States can be used to develop management strategies aimed at reducing the incidence of S. neurona infections in susceptible hosts, including horses and threatened California sea otters (Enhydra lutris neries).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Rejmanek
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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46
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Concurrent occipital bone malformation and atlantoaxial subluxation in a neonatal harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). J Zoo Wildl Med 2009; 40:385-8. [PMID: 19569493 DOI: 10.1638/2008-0147.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A stranded male harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) neonate with progressive clinical signs of ataxia, tremors, and deteriorating consciousness was evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging for suspected cerebellar brain disease prior to euthanasia because of grave prognosis. Magnetic resonance imaging identified occipital bone dysplasia with cerebellar herniation and concurrent atlantoaxial subluxation with spinal cord compression. These imaging findings elucidated the cause of histopathology changes including gliosis of the cerebellum and axonal degeneration and dilation of myelin sheaths of the dorsal funiculus of the spinal cord. Occipital bone dysplasia and/ or atlantoaxial subluxation should be considered as differentials for abnormal neurologic signs in harbor seal neonates. Magnetic resonance imaging is a valuable modality for antemortem diagnosis.
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47
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Abstract
To date, little is known about the dynamics of vertical transmission of Toxoplasma gondii in Australian marsupials. Studies in mice demonstrate that vertical transmission of T. gondii is common and that chronically infected mice can transmit T. gondii to successive generations. In this study, PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to detect T. gondii in chronically infected marsupial dams and their offspring. T. gondii was detected in the unfurred pouch young of 2 out of 10 chronically infected western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) and in the unfurred pouch young of a brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata). Results of the study suggest that vertical transmission of T. gondii can occur in chronically infected Australian marsupials.
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48
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Miller MA, Barr BC, Nordhausen R, James ER, Magargal SL, Murray M, Conrad PA, Toy-Choutka S, Jessup DA, Grigg ME. Ultrastructural and molecular confirmation of the development of Sarcocystis neurona tissue cysts in the central nervous system of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Int J Parasitol 2009; 39:1363-72. [PMID: 19527725 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2008] [Revised: 04/05/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In 2004, three wild sea otters were diagnosed with putative Sarcocystis neurona-associated meningoencephalitis by histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Schizonts, free merozoites and tissue cysts were observed in the brains of all three infected animals. Tissue cysts walls from sea otter 1 (SO1) stained positively using anti-S. neurona polyclonal antiserum. However, positive staining does not preclude infection by closely related or cross-reactive tissue cyst-forming coccidian parasites. Two immature tissue cysts in the brain of SO1 were examined using transmission electron microscopy. Ultrastructural features included cyst walls with thin villous projections up to 1 microm long with tapered ends and a distinctive, electron-dense outer lining layer composed of linearly-arranged, semi-circular structures with a "hobnailed" surface contour. Small numbers of microtubules extended down through the villi into the underlying granular layer. Metrocytes were short and plump with an anterior apical complex, 22 sub-pellicular microtubules, numerous free ribosomes and no rhoptries. Some metrocytes appeared to be dividing, with two adjacent nuclear profiles. Collectively these ultrastructural features were compatible with developing protozoal cysts and were similar to prior descriptions of S. neurona tissue cysts. Panspecific 18S rDNA primers were utilized to identify protozoa infecting the brains of these otters and DNA amplification and additional sequencing at the ITS1 locus confirmed that all three otters were infected with S. neurona. No other Sarcocystis spp. were detected in the brains or skeletal muscles of these animals by immunohistochemistry or PCR. We believe this is the first ultrastructural and molecular confirmation of the development of S. neurona tissue cysts in the CNS of any animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Miller
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Game, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
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49
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Dubey JP, Mergl J, Gehring E, Sundar N, Velmurugan GV, Kwok OCH, Grigg ME, Su C, Martineau D. Toxoplasmosis in captive dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and walrus (Odobenus rosmarus). J Parasitol 2009; 95:82-5. [PMID: 19245284 DOI: 10.1645/ge-1764.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection in marine mammals is intriguing and indicative of contamination of the ocean environment and coastal waters with oocysts. Toxoplasma gondii infection was detected in captive marine mammals at a sea aquarium in Canada. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in all 7 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) tested. Two of these dolphins, as well as a walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) at the facility, died. Encephalitis and T. gondii tissue cysts were identified in histological sections of the brain of 1 dolphin (dolphin no. 1). Another dolphin (dolphin no. 2) had mild focal encephalitis without visible organisms, but viable T. gondii was isolated by bioassay in mice and cats from its brain and skeletal muscle; this strain was designated TgDoCA1. The PCR-RFLP typing using 11 markers (B1, SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico) identified a Type II strain. The DNA sequencing of B1 and SAG1 alleles amplified from TgDoCA1 and directly from the brains of dolphin no. 1 and the walrus showed archetypal alleles consistent with infection by a Type II strain. No unique polymorphisms were detected. This is apparently the first report of isolation of T. gondii from a marine mammal in Canada.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705-2350, USA.
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50
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Parameswaran N, O'Handley RM, Grigg ME, Fenwick SG, Thompson RCA. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild kangaroos using an ELISA. Parasitol Int 2009; 58:161-5. [PMID: 19567231 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2009.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2008] [Revised: 01/13/2009] [Accepted: 01/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Infection with Toxoplasma gondii is a significant problem in Australian marsupials, and can lead to devastating disease and predispose animals to predation. T. gondii infection in kangaroos is also of public health significance due to the kangaroo meat trade. A moderate seroprevalence of T. gondii was observed in a study of western grey kangaroos located in the Perth metropolitan area in Western Australia. Of 219 kangaroos tested, 15.5% (95%CI: 10.7-20.3) were positive for T. gondii antibodies using an ELISA developed to detect T. gondii IgG in macropod marsupials. When compared with the commercially available MAT (modified agglutination test), the ELISA developed was in absolute agreement and yielded a kappa coefficient of 1.00. Of 18 kangaroos tested for the presence of T. gondii DNA by PCR, the 9 ELISA positive kangaroos tested PCR positive and the 9 ELISA negative kangaroos tested PCR negative indicating the ELISA protocol was both highly specific and sensitive and correlated 100% with the more labour intensive PCR assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Parameswaran
- WHO Collaborating Centre for the Molecular Epidemiology of Parasitic Infections, School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.
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