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Bajer A, Beck A, Beck R, Behnke JM, Dwużnik-Szarek D, Eichenberger RM, Farkas R, Fuehrer HP, Heddergott M, Jokelainen P, Leschnik M, Oborina V, Paulauskas A, Radzijevskaja J, Ranka R, Schnyder M, Springer A, Strube C, Tolkacz K, Walochnik J. Babesiosis in Southeastern, Central and Northeastern Europe: An Emerging and Re-Emerging Tick-Borne Disease of Humans and Animals. Microorganisms 2022; 10:945. [PMID: 35630388 PMCID: PMC9146636 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
There is now considerable evidence that in Europe, babesiosis is an emerging infectious disease, with some of the causative species spreading as a consequence of the increasing range of their tick vector hosts. In this review, we summarize both the historic records and recent findings on the occurrence and incidence of babesiosis in 20 European countries located in southeastern Europe (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia), central Europe (Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland), and northern and northeastern Europe (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Iceland, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Norway), identified in humans and selected species of domesticated animals (cats, dogs, horses, and cattle). Recorded cases of human babesiosis are still rare, but their number is expected to rise in the coming years. This is because of the widespread and longer seasonal activity of Ixodes ricinus as a result of climate change and because of the more extensive use of better molecular diagnostic methods. Bovine babesiosis has a re-emerging potential because of the likely loss of herd immunity, while canine babesiosis is rapidly expanding in central and northeastern Europe, its occurrence correlating with the rapid, successful expansion of the ornate dog tick (Dermacentor reticulatus) populations in Europe. Taken together, our analysis of the available reports shows clear evidence of an increasing annual incidence of babesiosis across Europe in both humans and animals that is changing in line with similar increases in the incidence of other tick-borne diseases. This situation is of major concern, and we recommend more extensive and frequent, standardized monitoring using a "One Health" approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bajer
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (D.D.-S.); (K.T.)
| | - Ana Beck
- Ribnjak 8, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Relja Beck
- Department for Bacteriology and Parasitology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska Cesta 143, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Jerzy M. Behnke
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK;
| | - Dorota Dwużnik-Szarek
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (D.D.-S.); (K.T.)
| | - Ramon M. Eichenberger
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (R.M.E.); (M.S.)
| | - Róbert Farkas
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Mike Heddergott
- Department of Zoology, Musée National d’Historire Naturelle, 25, Rue Münster, 2160 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Infectious Disease Prepardness, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Clinical Unit of Internal Medicine Small Animals, Department/Universitätsklinik für Kleintiere und Pferde, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Wien, Austria;
| | - Valentina Oborina
- Small Animal Clinic of Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 62, 51014 Tartu, Estonia;
| | - Algimantas Paulauskas
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, K. Donelaičio str. 58, LT-44248 Kaunas, Lithuania; (A.P.); (J.R.)
| | - Jana Radzijevskaja
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, K. Donelaičio str. 58, LT-44248 Kaunas, Lithuania; (A.P.); (J.R.)
| | - Renate Ranka
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia;
| | - Manuela Schnyder
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; (R.M.E.); (M.S.)
| | - Andrea Springer
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (A.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Christina Strube
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (A.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Katarzyna Tolkacz
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (D.D.-S.); (K.T.)
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 5A Pawińskiego Str, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Julia Walochnik
- Institute for Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
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Sun Y, Jiang B, Zheng W, Wang H, Jiang R, Wang X, Jia N, Yang F, Chen H, Jiang J, Cao W. Isolation and in vitro cultivation of Babesia venatorum (Apicomplexa: Babesiidae), a zoonotic hemoprotozoan from Ixodes persulcatus ticks in China. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2021.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Gray A, Capewell P, Zadoks R, Taggart MA, French AS, Katzer F, Shiels BR, Weir W. Wild deer in the United Kingdom are a potential reservoir for the livestock parasite Babesia divergens. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PARASITOLOGY & VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES 2021; 1:100019. [PMID: 35284871 PMCID: PMC8906096 DOI: 10.1016/j.crpvbd.2021.100019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Gray
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Paul Capewell
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Ruth Zadoks
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Mark A. Taggart
- Environmental Research Institute, North Highland College, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Andrew S. French
- Environmental Research Institute, North Highland College, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Frank Katzer
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Brian R. Shiels
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - William Weir
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
- Corresponding author.
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Severe Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens Concomitant Infection in Imported Captive Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus). MACEDONIAN VETERINARY REVIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/macvetrev-2020-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases are highly prevalent in domestic and wild ruminants and they may be distributed in wide geographical ranges by animal transportation. The aim of the current study was to investigate the presence of European strains of Babesia spp. and/or Anaplasma spp. in oversea imported reindeer specimens. Imported specimens (n=7) were hospitalized with visible tick infestation (Ixodes ricinus) and signs of cachexia, anemia, and hemoglobinuria. Using blood smears, PCR, and BLAST comparisons, it was confirmed that the animals were infected with a French strain of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens which is considered to be absent in the USA. We conclude that oversea importation of reindeers must be followed with a routine check for geographically-specific strains of pathogens from the place of origin. This monitoring process must be dynamic and according to recent reports of tick-borne pathogens.
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Remesar S, Díaz P, Prieto A, Markina F, Díaz Cao JM, López-Lorenzo G, Fernández G, López CM, Panadero R, Díez-Baños P, Morrondo P. Prevalence and distribution of Babesia and Theileria species in roe deer from Spain. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2019; 9:195-201. [PMID: 31193911 PMCID: PMC6545327 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2019.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Babesiosis and Theileriosis are important worldwide-distributed tick-borne diseases for human and animals. Their presence in a particular area depends on the presence of suitable tick-vector and host species as well as competent reservoirs such as roe deer, one of the most abundant wild cervids in Spain. Spleen samples from 174 roe deer hunted in Spain were analysed to determine the prevalence of Babesia and Theileria species. DNA of both piroplasms was firstly detected using a commercial qPCR. Then, positive samples were molecularly characterized at the 18S rRNA and ITS1 genes of Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. The possible influence of some factors such as ecological area, age and sex was also assessed. Overall, 89.7% of roe deer were positive to any of the two piroplasms. Theileria spp. was more prevalent (60.9%) than Babesia spp. (19.0%); species identification could not be achieved in 17.3% of positive samples. Babesia prevalence was significantly higher in young animals and in roe deer from Oceanic regions, in contrast to Theileria spp. Five species were identified: Theileria sp. OT3 (60.3%), Babesia capreoli (15.5%), Babesia venatorum (2.9%), Theileria sp. 3185/02 (0.6%) and Babesia bigemina (0.6%). The coinfection B. capreoli/T. sp. OT3 was the most common (4.6%) followed by B. venatorum/T. sp. OT3 (0.6%) and B. bigemina/T. sp. OT3 (0.6%). Our results reveal that Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. are prevalent piroplasms in roe deer from Spain. These cervids can act as reservoirs for several Babesia and Theileria species, including the zoonotic B. venatorum. This study represents the first description of B. venatorum and B. bigemina in roe deer from Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Remesar
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Pablo Díaz
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Alberto Prieto
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | | | - Jose Manuel Díaz Cao
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Gonzalo López-Lorenzo
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Fernández
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Ceferino M. López
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Rosario Panadero
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Pablo Díez-Baños
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
| | - Patrocinio Morrondo
- Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
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Nebbak A, Dahmana H, Almeras L, Raoult D, Boulanger N, Jaulhac B, Mediannikov O, Parola P. Co-infection of bacteria and protozoan parasites in Ixodes ricinus nymphs collected in the Alsace region, France. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 10:101241. [PMID: 31279737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Fifty nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks collected in Alsace, France, identified by morphological criteria and using MALDI-TOF MS, were tested by PCR to detect tick-associated bacteria and protozoan parasites. Seventy percent (35/50) of ticks contained at least one microorganism; 26% (9/35) contained two or more species. Several human pathogens were identified including Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. (4%), Borrelia afzelii (2%), Borrelia garinii (2%), Borrelia valaisiana (4%), Borrelia miyamotoi (2%), Rickettsia helvetica (6%) and "Babesia venatorum" (2%). Bartonella spp. (10%) and a Wolbachia spp. (8%) were also detected. The most common co-infections involved Anaplasmataceae with Borrelia spp. (4%), Anaplasmataceae with Bartonella spp. (6%) and Anaplasmataceae with Rickettsia spp. (6%). Co-infection involving three different groups of bacteria was seen between bacteria of the family Anaplasmataceae, Borrelia spp. and Bartonella spp. (2%). Results highlight the panel of infectious agents carried by Ixodes ricinus. Co-infection suggests the possibility of transmission of more than one pathogen to human and animals during tick blood feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira Nebbak
- Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France; Centre de Recherche Scientifique et Technique en Analyses Physico-Chimiques (CRAPC). Zone Industrielle, BP 384 Bou-Ismail, Tipaza Algeria.
| | - Handi Dahmana
- Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France.
| | - Lionel Almeras
- Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France; Unité de Parasitologie et Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France.
| | | | - Nathalie Boulanger
- Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France; EA7290Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de médecine, Université de Strasbourg, France.
| | - Benoit Jaulhac
- Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France; EA7290Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de médecine, Université de Strasbourg, France.
| | | | - Philippe Parola
- Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France; IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France.
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The Babesia divergens Asia Lineage Is Maintained through Enzootic Cycles between Ixodes persulcatus and Sika Deer in Hokkaido, Japan. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02491-17. [PMID: 29374041 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02491-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites of the Babesiadivergens Asia lineage, which are closely related to B. divergens in Europe and Babesia sp. strain MO1 in the United States, were recently reported in sika deer (Cervus nippon) in eastern Japan. To identify the tick vector(s) for this parasite, we conducted a field survey in Hokkaido, Japan, where the infection rate in sika deer is the highest in the country. A specific PCR system which detects and discriminates between lineages within B. divergens and between those lineages and Babesia venatorum showed that Ixodes persulcatus (11/822), but not sympatric Ixodes ovatus (0/595) or Haemaphysalis sp. (0/163) ticks, carried B. divergens Asia lineage. Genomic DNA was archived from salivary glands of partially engorged I. persulcatus females and three isolates of B. divergens Asia lineage were newly described. The 18S rRNA gene sequence of the isolates formed the Asia lineage cluster with those previously described in sika deer isolates. One salivary gland also contained parasites of Babesia microti U.S. lineage, which were subsequently isolated in a hamster in vivoB. venatorum (strain Etb5) was also detected in one I. persulcatus tick. The 18S rRNA sequence of Etb5 was 99.7% identical to that of B. venatorum (AY046575) and was phylogenetically positioned in a taxon composed of B. venatorum isolates from Europe, China, and Russia. The geographical distribution of I. persulcatus is consistent with that of B. divergens in sika deer in Japan. These results suggest that I. persulcatus is a principal vector for B. divergens in Japan and Eurasia, where I. persulcatus is predominantly distributed.IMPORTANCE The Babesiadivergens Asia lineage of parasites closely related to B. divergens in Europe and Babesia sp. MO1 in the United States was recently reported in Cervus nippon in eastern Japan. In this study, specific PCR for the Asia lineage identified 11 positives in 822 host-seeking Ixodes persulcatus ticks, a principal vector for many tick-borne disease agents. Gene sequences of three isolates obtained from DNA in salivary glands of female ticks were identical to each other and to those in C. nippon We also demonstrate the coinfection of B. divergens Asia lineage with Babesia microti U.S. lineage in a tick salivary gland and, furthermore, isolated the latter in a hamster. These results suggest that I. persulcatus is the principal vector for B. divergens as well as for B. microti, and both parasites may be occasionally cotransmitted by I. persulcatus This report will be important for public health, since infection may occur through transfusion.
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Rybarova M, Honsova M, Papousek I, Siroky P. Variability of species of Babesia Starcovici, 1893 in three sympatric ticks (Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor reticulatus and Haemaphysalis concinna) at the edge of Pannonia in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2017; 64. [PMID: 28906256 DOI: 10.14411/fp.2017.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The distribution, variability and host specificity of species of Babesia Starcovici, 1893 were studied in questing ticks collected on the northwestern edge of the Pannonian Basin in the south-easternmost part of the Czech Republic and in western Slovakia. The area is characterised by relatively natural floodplain habitats and the sympatric occurrence of three tick species possessing wide host spectra, namely Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus), Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius) and Haemaphysalis concinna Koch. Analysis was carried out on 1,408 I. ricinus, 2,999 D. reticulatus and 150 H. concinna altogether, collected from 59 localities. We documented the presence of Babesia spp. not only in I. ricinus but also in H. concinna in the Czech Republic. Two isolates from I. ricinus were classified as B. venatorum Herwaldt, Cacciò, Gherlinzoni, Aspöck, Slemenda, Piccaluga, Martinelli, Edelhofer, Hollenstein, Poletti, Pampiglione, Löschenberger, Tura et Pieniazek, 2003 (formerly determined as Babesia sp. EU1), which is a zoonotic parasite and can cause human babesiosis. The rest of our amplicons were very similar to B. canis (Piana et Galli-Valerio, 1895), which is usually transmitted by D. reticulatus. Despite the huge amount of examined samples, all D. reticulatus ticks were Babesia-free. Due to this finding, we did not consider our obtained isolates to be B. canis, but other closely related species possessing a similar sequence of the studied portion of 18S rDNA. Although this genetic marker is most frequently used in PCR-based diagnostic methods of babesias, its low variability compromises its reliability in studies based only on this marker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marketa Rybarova
- Department of Biology and Wildlife Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Honsova
- Department of Biology and Wildlife Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivo Papousek
- Department of Biology and Wildlife Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic.,CEITEC-Central European Institute of Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Siroky
- Department of Biology and Wildlife Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic.,CEITEC-Central European Institute of Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
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Paul REL, Cote M, Le Naour E, Bonnet SI. Environmental factors influencing tick densities over seven years in a French suburban forest. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:309. [PMID: 27234215 PMCID: PMC4884405 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1591-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Worldwide changes in socio-economic and environmental factors and the global climate are recognised causes of variation in tick distribution and density. Thus it is of great importance that new studies address the changing risk of infection for exposed populations. In Europe, Ixodes ricinus ticks are the most common vectors of several pathogens impacting veterinary and public health that have colonised suburban habitats. Methods This study aimed to evaluate longitudinal I. ricinus questing densities and infection rates over 7 years in a French suburban forested area with high human population density. Ticks were collected in spring yearly between 2008 and 2014 and, out of a total of 8594 collected I. ricinus, a representative subset of adult females (n = 259) were individually examined for the presence of several pathogens via PCR. Results Nymph densities peaked in 2009–2011, and then declined in 2012–2014. Changes in monthly temperature only had a modest impact on this variation. In contrast, analysis revealed a complex intra-annual relationship between mean nymph density and both concurrent and lagged mean monthly temperatures. The following pathogens were detected in the studied area: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia helvetica, Babesia venatorum and B. divergens, Francisella tularensis, Borrelia miyamotoi, B. afzelii/valaisiana, B. garinii/lusitaniae and Bartonella spp. Conclusion Our findings reinforce the conclusion that ticks are important vectors of pathogenic microorganisms in suburban forests and suggest that despite complex intra-annual relationships between tick densities and temperature, there is no evidence for a climate-associated increase in infection risk over the 7-year period. Rather, tick densities are likely to be strongly influenced by population density fluctuations in vertebrate host species and wildlife management. Further detailed studies on the impact of climate change on tick population densities are required. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1591-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E L Paul
- Department of Genome and Genetics, Institut Pasteur, Unité de Génétique Fonctionnelle des Maladies Infectieuses, 28 rue du docteur Roux, 75724, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, URA3012, 28 rue du docteur Roux, 75724, Paris, France
| | - Martine Cote
- UMR BIPAR INRA-ANSES-ENVA, 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701, Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Evelyne Le Naour
- UMR BIPAR INRA-ANSES-ENVA, 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701, Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Sarah I Bonnet
- UMR BIPAR INRA-ANSES-ENVA, 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701, Maisons-Alfort cedex, France.
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Molecular detection of emerging tick-borne pathogens in Vojvodina, Serbia. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2015; 7:199-203. [PMID: 26565929 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Ticks play an important role in disease transmission globally due to their capability to serve as vectors for human and animal pathogens. The Republic of Serbia is an endemic area for a large number of tick-borne diseases. However, current knowledge on these diseases in Serbia is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of new emerging tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected from dogs and the vegetation from different parts of Vojvodina, Serbia. A total of 187 ticks, including 124 Rhipicephalus sanguineus, 45 Ixodes ricinus and 18 Dermacentor reticulatus were collected from dogs. In addition, 26 questing I. ricinus ticks were collected from the vegetation, using the flagging method, from 4 different localities in Vojvodina, Serbia. DNA was extracted from each tick individually and samples were tested by either conventional or real-time PCR assays for the presence of Rickettsia spp.-DNA (gltA and ompA gene fragments), Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp.-DNA (16S rRNA gene fragment) and Hepatozoon spp./Babesia spp.-DNA (18S rRNA gene fragment). In addition, all I. ricinus DNA samples were tested for Bartonella spp.-DNA (ITS locus) by real-time PCR. In this study, the presence of novel emerging tick-borne pathogens including Rickettsia raoultii, Rickettsia massiliae, Babesia venatorum, Babesia microti, Hepatozoon canis and Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis was identified for the first time in Serbia. Our findings also confirmed the presence of Rickettsia monacensis, Babesia canis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ticks from Serbia. The findings of the current study highlight the great diversity of tick-borne pathogens of human and animal importance in Serbia. Physicians, public health workers and veterinarians should increase alertness to the presence of these tick-borne pathogens in this country.
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Rizzoli A, Silaghi C, Obiegala A, Rudolf I, Hubálek Z, Földvári G, Plantard O, Vayssier-Taussat M, Bonnet S, Spitalská E, Kazimírová M. Ixodes ricinus and Its Transmitted Pathogens in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas in Europe: New Hazards and Relevance for Public Health. Front Public Health 2014; 2:251. [PMID: 25520947 PMCID: PMC4248671 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases represent major public and animal health issues worldwide. Ixodes ricinus, primarily associated with deciduous and mixed forests, is the principal vector of causative agents of viral, bacterial, and protozoan zoonotic diseases in Europe. Recently, abundant tick populations have been observed in European urban green areas, which are of public health relevance due to the exposure of humans and domesticated animals to potentially infected ticks. In urban habitats, small and medium-sized mammals, birds, companion animals (dogs and cats), and larger mammals (roe deer and wild boar) play a role in maintenance of tick populations and as reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. Presence of ticks infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus and high prevalence of ticks infected with Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., causing Lyme borreliosis, have been reported from urbanized areas in Europe. Emerging pathogens, including bacteria of the order Rickettsiales (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis," Rickettsia helvetica, and R. monacensis), Borrelia miyamotoi, and protozoans (Babesia divergens, B. venatorum, and B. microti) have also been detected in urban tick populations. Understanding the ecology of ticks and their associations with hosts in a European urbanized environment is crucial to quantify parameters necessary for risk pre-assessment and identification of public health strategies for control and prevention of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annapaola Rizzoli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige , Trento , Italy
| | - Cornelia Silaghi
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Vetsuisse-Faculty, Swiss National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute for Parasitology, University of Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Anna Obiegala
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig , Leipzig , Germany
| | - Ivo Rudolf
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Gábor Földvári
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Olivier Plantard
- INRA, UMR1300 BioEpAR , Nantes , France ; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Ecole nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, UMR BioEpAR , Nantes , France
| | - Muriel Vayssier-Taussat
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Sarah Bonnet
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Eva Spitalská
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
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12
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Michel AO, Mathis A, Ryser-Degiorgis MP. Babesia spp. in European wild ruminant species: parasite diversity and risk factors for infection. Vet Res 2014; 45:65. [PMID: 24925474 PMCID: PMC4070358 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-45-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia are tick-borne parasites that are increasingly considered as a threat to animal and public health. We aimed to assess the role of European free-ranging wild ruminants as maintenance mammalian hosts for Babesia species and to determine risk factors for infection. EDTA blood was collected from 222 roe deer (Capreolus c. capreolus), 231 red deer (Cervus e. elaphus), 267 Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) and 264 Alpine ibex (Capra i. ibex) from all over Switzerland and analysed by PCR with pan-Babesia primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene, primers specific for B. capreoli and Babesia sp. EU1, and by sequencing. Babesia species, including B. divergens, B. capreoli, Babesia sp. EU1, Babesia sp. CH1 and B. motasi, were detected in 10.7% of all samples. Five individuals were co-infected with two Babesia species. Infection with specific Babesia varied widely between host species. Cervidae were significantly more infected with Babesia spp. than Caprinae. Babesia capreoli and Babesia sp. EU1 were mostly found in roe deer (prevalences 17.1% and 7.7%, respectively) and B. divergens and Babesia sp. CH1 only in red deer. Factors significantly associated with infection were low altitude and young age. Identification of Babesia sp. CH1 in red deer, co-infection with multiple Babesia species and infection of wild Caprinae with B. motasi and Babesia sp. EU1 are novel findings. We propose wild Caprinae as spillover or accidental hosts for Babesia species but wild Cervidae as mammalian reservoir hosts for B. capreoli, possibly Babesia sp. EU1 and Babesia sp. CH1, whereas their role regarding B. divergens is more elusive.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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Bonnet S, Michelet L, Moutailler S, Cheval J, Hébert C, Vayssier-Taussat M, Eloit M. Identification of parasitic communities within European ticks using next-generation sequencing. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2753. [PMID: 24675738 PMCID: PMC3967966 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Risk assessment of tick-borne and zoonotic disease emergence necessitates sound knowledge of the particular microorganisms circulating within the communities of these major vectors. Assessment of pathogens carried by wild ticks must be performed without a priori, to allow for the detection of new or unexpected agents. Methodology/Principal Findings We evaluated the potential of Next-Generation Sequencing techniques (NGS) to produce an inventory of parasites carried by questing ticks. Sequences corresponding to parasites from two distinct genera were recovered in Ixodes ricinus ticks collected in Eastern France: Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. Four Babesia species were identified, three of which were zoonotic: B. divergens, Babesia sp. EU1 and B. microti; and one which infects cattle, B. major. This is the first time that these last two species have been identified in France. This approach also identified new sequences corresponding to as-yet unknown organisms similar to tropical Theileria species. Conclusions/Significance Our findings demonstrate the capability of NGS to produce an inventory of live tick-borne parasites, which could potentially be transmitted by the ticks, and uncovers unexpected parasites in Western Europe. Diseases transmitted by ticks have diverse etiology (viral, bacterial, parasitic) and are responsible for high morbidity and mortality rates around the world, both in humans and animals. The emergence or re-emergence of tick-borne diseases is increasingly becoming a problem as the geographical distribution of several tick species is expanding, as well as the numbers of potential or known tick-borne pathogens are constantly evolving. It is thus necessary to know which microorganisms circulate within communities of this major vector to ensure adequate epidemiological surveillance. In this study, we evaluated the potential of Next-Generation Sequencing techniques (NGS) to produce, without a priori, an inventory of both predicted and non-expected parasites carried by Ixodes ricinus, the most prevalent human biting tick in France. Our findings suggest that NGS strategies could be used to produce an inventory of live parasites residing in ticks from a selected area, thereby expanding our knowledge base of tick-associated parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bonnet
- USC INRA Bartonella-tiques, UMR BIPAR ENVA-ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Lorraine Michelet
- USC INRA Bartonella-tiques, UMR BIPAR ENVA-ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sara Moutailler
- USC INRA Bartonella-tiques, UMR BIPAR ENVA-ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | | | | | | | - Marc Eloit
- PathoQuest SAS, Paris, France
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, UMR 1161 Virologie ENVA, INRA, ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
- Institut Pasteur, Laboratory of Pathogen Discovery, Paris, France
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14
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Rizzoli A, Silaghi C, Obiegala A, Rudolf I, Hubálek Z, Földvári G, Plantard O, Vayssier-Taussat M, Bonnet S, Spitalská E, Kazimírová M. Ixodes ricinus and Its Transmitted Pathogens in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas in Europe: New Hazards and Relevance for Public Health. Front Public Health 2014. [PMID: 25520947 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00251.pmid:25520947;pmcid:pmc4248671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases represent major public and animal health issues worldwide. Ixodes ricinus, primarily associated with deciduous and mixed forests, is the principal vector of causative agents of viral, bacterial, and protozoan zoonotic diseases in Europe. Recently, abundant tick populations have been observed in European urban green areas, which are of public health relevance due to the exposure of humans and domesticated animals to potentially infected ticks. In urban habitats, small and medium-sized mammals, birds, companion animals (dogs and cats), and larger mammals (roe deer and wild boar) play a role in maintenance of tick populations and as reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. Presence of ticks infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus and high prevalence of ticks infected with Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., causing Lyme borreliosis, have been reported from urbanized areas in Europe. Emerging pathogens, including bacteria of the order Rickettsiales (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis," Rickettsia helvetica, and R. monacensis), Borrelia miyamotoi, and protozoans (Babesia divergens, B. venatorum, and B. microti) have also been detected in urban tick populations. Understanding the ecology of ticks and their associations with hosts in a European urbanized environment is crucial to quantify parameters necessary for risk pre-assessment and identification of public health strategies for control and prevention of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annapaola Rizzoli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige , Trento , Italy
| | - Cornelia Silaghi
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Vetsuisse-Faculty, Swiss National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute for Parasitology, University of Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Anna Obiegala
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig , Leipzig , Germany
| | - Ivo Rudolf
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Gábor Földvári
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Olivier Plantard
- INRA, UMR1300 BioEpAR , Nantes , France ; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Ecole nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, UMR BioEpAR , Nantes , France
| | - Muriel Vayssier-Taussat
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Sarah Bonnet
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Eva Spitalská
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
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15
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Yabsley MJ, Shock BC. Natural history of Zoonotic Babesia: Role of wildlife reservoirs. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2013; 2:18-31. [PMID: 24533312 PMCID: PMC3862492 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Babesiosis is an emerging zoonotic disease on all inhabited continents and various wildlife species are the principal reservoir hosts for zoonotic Babesia species. The primary vectors of Babesia are Ixodid ticks, with the majority of zoonotic species being transmitted by species in the genus Ixodes. Species of Babesia vary in their infectivity, virulence and pathogenicity for people. Various factors (e.g., increased interactions between people and the environment, increased immunosuppression, changes in landscape and climate, and shifts in host and vector species abundance and community structures) have led to an increase in tick-borne diseases in people, including babesiosis. Furthermore, because babesiosis is now a reportable disease in several states in the United States, and it is the most common blood transfusion-associated parasite, recognized infections are expected to increase. Because of the zoonotic nature of these parasites, it is essential that we understand the natural history (especially reservoirs and vectors) so that appropriate control and prevention measures can be implemented. Considerable work has been conducted on the ecology of Babesia microti and Babesia divergens, the two most common causes of babesiosis in the United States and Europe, respectively. However, unfortunately, for many of the zoonotic Babesia species, the reservoir(s) and/or tick vector(s) are unknown. We review the current knowledge regarding the ecology of Babesia among their reservoir and tick hosts with an emphasis of the role on wildlife as reservoirs. We hope to encourage the molecular characterization of Babesia from potential reservoirs and vectors as well from people. These data are necessary so that informed decisions can be made regarding potential vectors and the potential role of wildlife in the ecology of a novel Babesia when it is detected in a human patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Yabsley
- Corresponding author. Address: The Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, 589 DW Brooks Drive, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. Tel.: +1 706 542 1741; fax: +1 706 542 5865.
| | - Barbara C. Shock
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- The Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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16
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Coipan EC, Jahfari S, Fonville M, Maassen CB, van der Giessen J, Takken W, Takumi K, Sprong H. Spatiotemporal dynamics of emerging pathogens in questing Ixodes ricinus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:36. [PMID: 23908971 PMCID: PMC3726834 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Ixodes ricinus transmits Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the etiological agent of Lyme disease. Previous studies have also detected Rickettsia helvetica, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, and several Babesia species in questing ticks in The Netherlands. In this study, we assessed the acarological risk of exposure to several tick-borne pathogens (TBPs), in The Netherlands. Questing ticks were collected monthly between 2006 and 2010 at 21 sites and between 2000 and 2009 at one other site. Nymphs and adults were analysed individually for the presence of TBPs using an array-approach. Collated data of this and previous studies were used to generate, for each pathogen, a presence/absence map and to further analyse their spatiotemporal variation. R. helvetica (31.1%) and B. burgdorferi sensu lato (11.8%) had the highest overall prevalence and were detected in all areas. N. mikurensis (5.6%), A. phagocytophilum (0.8%), and Babesia spp. (1.7%) were detected in most, but not all areas. The prevalences of pathogens varied among the study areas from 0 to 64%, while the density of questing ticks varied from 1 to 179/100 m2. Overall, 37% of the ticks were infected with at least one pathogen and 6.3% with more than one pathogen. One-third of the Borrelia-positive ticks were infected with at least one other pathogen. Coinfection of B. afzelii with N. mikurensis and with Babesia spp. occurred significantly more often than single infections, indicating the existence of mutual reservoir hosts. Alternatively, coinfection of R. helvetica with either B. afzelii or N. mikurensis occurred significantly less frequent. The diversity of TBPs detected in I. ricinus in this study and the frequency of their coinfections with B. burgdorferi s.l., underline the need to consider them when evaluating the risks of infection and subsequently the risk of disease following a tick bite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Claudia Coipan
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and Environment-RIVM, Bilthoven, Netherlands.
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17
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Esch KJ, Petersen CA. Transmission and epidemiology of zoonotic protozoal diseases of companion animals. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26:58-85. [PMID: 23297259 PMCID: PMC3553666 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00067-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Over 77 million dogs and 93 million cats share our households in the United States. Multiple studies have demonstrated the importance of pets in their owners' physical and mental health. Given the large number of companion animals in the United States and the proximity and bond of these animals with their owners, understanding and preventing the diseases that these companions bring with them are of paramount importance. Zoonotic protozoal parasites, including toxoplasmosis, Chagas' disease, babesiosis, giardiasis, and leishmaniasis, can cause insidious infections, with asymptomatic animals being capable of transmitting disease. Giardia and Toxoplasma gondii, endemic to the United States, have high prevalences in companion animals. Leishmania and Trypanosoma cruzi are found regionally within the United States. These diseases have lower prevalences but are significant sources of human disease globally and are expanding their companion animal distribution. Thankfully, healthy individuals in the United States are protected by intact immune systems and bolstered by good nutrition, sanitation, and hygiene. Immunocompromised individuals, including the growing number of obese and/or diabetic people, are at a much higher risk of developing zoonoses. Awareness of these often neglected diseases in all health communities is important for protecting pets and owners. To provide this awareness, this review is focused on zoonotic protozoal mechanisms of virulence, epidemiology, and the transmission of pathogens of consequence to pet owners in the United States.
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18
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Detection and molecular characterization of Theileria sp. in fallow deer (Dama dama) and ticks from an Italian natural preserve. Res Vet Sci 2011; 91:110-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Revised: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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19
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Burri C, Dupasquier C, Bastic V, Gern L. Pathogens of Emerging Tick-Borne Diseases,Anaplasma phagocytophilum,Rickettsiaspp., andBabesiaspp., inIxodesTicks Collected from Rodents at Four Sites in Switzerland (Canton of Bern). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:939-44. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Burri
- Laboratory of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasites, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Christèle Dupasquier
- Laboratory of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasites, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Viktoria Bastic
- Laboratory of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasites, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Lise Gern
- Laboratory of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasites, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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20
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Hasle G, Leinaas HP, Røed KH, Øines Ø. Transport of Babesia venatorum-infected Ixodes ricinus to Norway by northward migrating passerine birds. Acta Vet Scand 2011; 53:41. [PMID: 21699719 PMCID: PMC3132728 DOI: 10.1186/1751-0147-53-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bovine babesiosis is regarded as a limited health problem for Norwegian cows, and the incidence has decreased markedly since the 1930s. Rare cases of babesiosis in splenectomised humans from infection with Babesia divergens and B.venatorum have been described. The objective of this study was to determine whether birds can introduce Babesia-infected ticks. There are between 30 and 85 million passerine birds that migrate to Norway every spring. Methods Passerine birds were examined for ticks at four bird observatories along the southern Norwegian coast during the spring migrations of 2003, 2004 and 2005. The presence of Babesia was detected in the nymphs of Ixodes ricinus by real-time PCR. Positive samples were confirmed using PCR, cloning and phylogenetic analyses. Results Of 512 ticks examined, real-time PCR revealed five to be positive (1.0%). Of these, four generated products that indicated the presence of Babesia spp.; each of these were confirmed to be from Babesia venatorum (EU1). Two of the four B. venatorum-positive ticks were caught from birds having an eastern migratory route (P< 0.001). Conclusions Birds transport millions of ticks across the North Sea, the Skagerrak and the Kattegat every year. Thus, even with the low prevalence of Babesia-infected ticks, a substantial number of infected ticks will be transported into Norway each year. Therefore, there is a continuous risk for introduction of new Babesia spp. into areas where I. ricinus can survive.
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Katargina O, Geller J, Vasilenko V, Kuznetsova T, Järvekülg L, Vene S, Lundkvist Å, Golovljova I. Detection and characterization of Babesia species in Ixodes ticks in Estonia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:923-8. [PMID: 21395407 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of Babesia spp. was studied in 2603 Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks collected at seven sites in Estonia. By reverse line blot screening, Babesia spp. was detected in 36 (1.4%) ticks, among them 18 (0.7%) were further recognized by a Babesia microti probe, 3 (0.1%) by a Babesia divergens probe, and the other 15 (0.6%) were recognized only by the universal Babesia spp. "catch all" probe. Sequence analyses of 6 of these 15 samples revealed that all of them belonged to Babesia sp. EU1. B. microti was detected in both tick species I. ricinus and I. persulcatus at the seven sites, whereas B. divergens-like and Babesia sp. EU1 were found only in I. persulcatus and I. ricinus, respectively. Genetic characterization based on partial 18S rRNA showed that the Estonian sequences of B. microti, B. divergens-like, and Babesia sp. EU1 share a high rate of similarity and are closely related to sequences from other European countries, Siberia, and United States. The present study demonstrated for the first time the existence and distribution of Babesia spp. in I. persulcatus and I. ricinus ticks in Estonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Katargina
- Department of Virology, National Institute for Health Development, Tallinn, Estonia
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22
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Reis C, Cote M, Paul REL, Bonnet S. Questing ticks in suburban forest are infected by at least six tick-borne pathogens. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2010; 11:907-16. [PMID: 21158500 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of Ixodes ricinus ticks in the transmission of pathogens of public health importance such as Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. is widely recognized and is suspected in several emerging vector-borne pathogens in Europe. Here, we assess prevalence rates of several endemic and emerging zoonotic pathogens in tick populations in an area of high human population density in France, to contribute to a risk assessment for potential transmission to humans. Pathogen prevalence rates were evaluated by polymerase chain reaction detection and sequencing in questing ticks, individually for adults and in pools of 10 for nymphs. In addition to finding micro-organisms corresponding to symbionts, we found high prevalence rates of B. burgdorferi s.l. (32% of adult females and 10% of nymphs) and low to moderate ones of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (~1%), spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. (~6%), Babesia sp. EU1 (~1%), Bartonella birtlesii (0.1%), and Francisella tularensis (!1%). Our findings extend the knowledge of the geographical distribution of these endemic and emergent pathogens and support the conclusion that ticks are important vectors of pathogenic micro-organisms in suburban forests. Moreover, tick coinfection with multiple pathogens was found to occur frequently, which poses a serious challenge for diagnosis and appropriate treatment. The incrimination of these pathogens in potentially severe pathologies requires widespread surveillance to assess the risk of infection, thereby facilitating diagnosis and treatment, as well as raising local awareness of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Reis
- USC INRA Bartonella-Tiques, ANSES, Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
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Cassini R, Bonoli C, Montarsi F, Tessarin C, Marcer F, Galuppi R. Detection of Babesia EU1 in Ixodes ricinus ticks in northern Italy. Vet Parasitol 2010; 171:151-4. [PMID: 20363562 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Babesia EU1, a potentially important emerging zoonotic pathogen, already detected in ticks and wild ruminants of different European Countries, was found in three pools of Ixodes ricinus nymphs in three different sites located in a single District of north-eastern Italy. Totally 356 ticks (60 pools) were collected from the environment during a surveillance activity in the year 2006. Babesia EU1 estimated individual tick prevalence in the area is 0.85%. The finding that also in northern Italy the tick population is carrying Babesia EU1 suggests a wide geographical spreading of this zoonotic pathogen in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudi Cassini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Sperimentali Veterinarie, Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy.
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Malandrin L, Jouglin M, Sun Y, Brisseau N, Chauvin A. Redescription of Babesia capreoli (Enigk and Friedhoff, 1962) from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): isolation, cultivation, host specificity, molecular characterisation and differentiation from Babesia divergens. Int J Parasitol 2009; 40:277-84. [PMID: 19733572 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 08/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The recent use of the sole molecular identification of Babesia infecting European cervids has led to confusion between the closely related Babesia divergens and Babesia capreoli, and to their grouping together as "B. divergens-like". In order to clarify this taxonomic confusion, Babesia from roe deer, cattle and human blood were isolated, cultured and their biological as well as molecular characteristics compared. On this basis, we conclude that: (i) the parasites isolated from roe deer blood are B. capreoli; (ii) there are no intraspecific variations in the 18S rDNA within B. capreoli and B. divergens spp.; (iii) these two species are closely related as demonstrated by their morphology, serological cross-reactions and 99.83% identity in their 18S rDNA; (iv) these two species are distinct as demonstrated by their different abilities to grow in vitro in cattle, human and sheep erythrocytes, by their infectivity for gerbils, and by a conserved three bases difference at positions 631, 663 and 1637 of their 18S rDNA; (v) B. capreoli does not pose a threat to either humans or livestock. An integrated description is given of the host range, geographical distribution, biological and molecular characterisation of B. capreoli, and reference materials have been deposited at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Malandrin
- INRA, UMR1300 Bio-agression, Epidémiologie et Analyse de Risque, F-44307 Nantes, France.
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Becker CAM, Bouju-Albert A, Jouglin M, Chauvin A, Malandrin L. Natural transmission of Zoonotic Babesia spp. by Ixodes ricinus ticks. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15:320-2. [PMID: 19193284 PMCID: PMC2657642 DOI: 10.3201/eid1502.081247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine characteristics of natural transmission of Babesia sp. EU1 and B.divergens by adult Ixodes ricinus ticks, we examined tick salivary gland contents. We found that I. ricinus is a competent vector for EU1 and that their sporozoites directly invade erythrocytes. We conclude that EU1 is naturally transmitted by I.ricinus.
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Bonnet S, Brisseau N, Hermouet A, Jouglin M, Chauvin A. Experimental in vitro transmission of Babesia sp. (EU1) by Ixodes ricinus. Vet Res 2009; 40:21. [PMID: 19210953 PMCID: PMC2695036 DOI: 10.1051/vetres/2009004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia sp. (EU1), first characterized in 2003, has been implicated in human cases of babesiosis in Italy, Austria and Germany. It has been identified in roe deer and in its suspected tick vector, Ixodes ricinus, in several European countries. The aim of the present study was to validate the competence of I. ricinus as a vector of Babesia sp. (EU1) via experimental infections. For this purpose, a parasite strain isolated from roe deer was cloned in sheep erythrocytes. After experimental infections, parasite DNA was successfully amplified by PCR in both eggs and larvae originating from infected I. ricinus females and in the salivary glands of females exposed to Babesia sp. (EU1) as nymphs. We also demonstrate that infected females were able to transmit parasite DNA during a new blood meal. Together with previous epidemiological studies, these results validate I. ricinus as a competent vector for Babesia sp. (EU1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bonnet
- UMR ENVN, INRA 1300 BIOEPAR, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Nantes, Interactions Hôte-Parasite-Milieu, Atlanpole-La Chantrerie, BP 40706, 44307 Nantes Cedex 03, France.
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Wielinga PR, Fonville M, Sprong H, Gaasenbeek C, Borgsteede F, Giessen JWVD. Persistent Detection ofBabesiaEU1 andBabesia microtiinIxodes ricinusin The Netherlands During a 5-Year Surveillance: 2003–2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2009; 9:119-22. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter R. Wielinga
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Laboratory for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Manoj Fonville
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Laboratory for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Sprong
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Laboratory for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Cor Gaasenbeek
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Fred Borgsteede
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Joke W.B. van der Giessen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Laboratory for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Tampieri MP, Galuppi R, Bonoli C, Cancrini G, Moretti A, Pietrobelli M. Wild ungulates as Babesia hosts in northern and central Italy. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8:667-74. [PMID: 18454592 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia and Theileria species were investigated in wild ungulates of Northern and Central Italy. Of 355 blood samples examined, 108 (30.4%) were positive to molecular diagnostics (polymerase chain reaction [PCR] with specific primers and sequencing). The sequence analysis showed that the roe deer is a susceptible host for several piroplasms belonging both to Babesia (31%) and Theileria (14.2%) species, whereas fallow deer and wild boar harbor only Theileria species (49% and 2.6%, respectively). Strains related to B. divergens are highly present (28.3%) in the roe deer, which, however, also harbors Babesia MO1 type and Babesia microti-like organisms. Babesia EU1 type is described for the first time in a roe deer in Italy. The finding in roe deer of Babesia species involved in human babesiosis is of concern for public health, mainly because ecological changes in progress cause the increase of both the deer species and the vector tick populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Paola Tampieri
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Animal Pathology, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Italy.
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Abstract
Babesiosis is a tick-transmitted disease of veterinary and medical importance. The first Austrian case of human babesiosis was recently recorded. In the current study, ticks at all life cycle stages (instars), including 853 Ixodes ricinus and 11 Haemaphysalis concinna ticks, from sampling sites throughout Austria were examined for the presence of Babesia spp. by using 18S rRNA gene PCR and sequencing, and the overall mean infection rate was 51.04%. The infection rates for sampling sites were highly variable, ranging from 0% to almost 100%. Different instars and different sexes were infected almost equally. Babesia isolates occurring in Austrian ticks were identified as Babesia divergens, Babesia divergens-like, and Babesia sp. strain DD by sequencing a fragment of the heat shock protein 70 gene and internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2. To our knowledge, this is the first investigation of Babesia spp. in Austrian ticks.
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Schmid N, Deplazes P, Hoby S, Ryser-Degiorgis MP, Edelhofer R, Mathis A. Babesia divergens-like organisms from free-ranging chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) and roe deer (Capreolus c. capreolus) are distinct from B. divergens of cattle origin – An epidemiological and molecular genetic investigation. Vet Parasitol 2008; 154:14-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2007] [Revised: 01/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Bonnet S, Jouglin M, L'Hostis M, Chauvin A. Babesia sp. EU1 from roe deer and transmission within Ixodes ricinus. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13:1208-10. [PMID: 17953093 PMCID: PMC2828078 DOI: 10.3201/eid1308.061560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
We report in vitro culture of zoonotic Babesia sp. EU1 from blood samples of roe deer in France. This study provides evidence of transovarial and transstadial transmission of the parasite within Ixodes ricinus, which suggests that this tick could be a vector and reservoir of EU1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bonnet
- Department of Santé Animale, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Nantes, France.
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García-Sanmartín J, Aurtenetxe O, Barral M, Marco I, Lavin S, García-Pérez AL, Hurtado A. Molecular detection and characterization of piroplasms infecting cervids and chamois in Northern Spain. Parasitology 2006; 134:391-8. [PMID: 17076924 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182006001569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Revised: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 08/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Wildlife can act as reservoir of different tick-borne pathogens of veterinary and zoonotic importance. To investigate the role of wild ruminants as reservoir of piroplasm infection, 28 red deer, 69 roe deer and 38 chamois from Northern Spain were examined by reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization. The survey detected a prevalence of 85.7% in red deer, 62.3% in roe deer and 28.9% in chamois. Four different piroplasms were identified: Theileria sp. OT3 (previously described in sheep) as the most prevalent (85.7% in red deer, 46.4% in roe deer and 26.3% in chamois); Theileria sp. 3185/02 (previously described in a red deer in Central Spain) more abundant in red deer (53.6%) than in roe deer (10.1%) but absent from chamois; Babesia divergens detected in 6 roe deer; Theileria ovis present in 1 chamois. Mixed infections (Theileria sp. OT3 and Theileria sp. 3185/02) were only found in red and roe deer. Sequencing analysis of the 18S rRNA gene confirmed the RLB results and showed 99.7% identity between Theileria sp. 3185/02 and T. capreoli, suggesting that they are the same species. Tick distribution and contact of wild ruminants with domestic animals are discussed in terms of piroplasm infection. The results suggest that a considerable number of wildlife ruminants are asymptomatic carriers that may serve as reservoirs of the infection posing a serious concern in terms of piroplasmosis control.
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Affiliation(s)
- J García-Sanmartín
- Department of Animal Health, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Berreaga 1, 48160 Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
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Borggraefe I, Yuan J, Telford SR, Menon S, Hunter R, Shah S, Spielman A, Gelfand JA, Wortis HH, Vannier E. Babesia microti primarily invades mature erythrocytes in mice. Infect Immun 2006; 74:3204-12. [PMID: 16714547 PMCID: PMC1479280 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01560-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia microti is a tick-borne red blood cell parasite that causes babesiosis in people. Its most common vertebrate reservoir is the white-footed mouse. To determine whether B. microti invades reticulocytes, as does the canine pathogen B. gibsoni, we infected the susceptible inbred mouse strains C.B-17.scid and DBA/2 with a clinical isolate of B. microti. Staining of fixed permeabilized red blood cells with 4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole or YOYO-1, a sensitive nucleic acid stain, revealed parasite nuclei as large bright dots. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that parasite DNA is primarily found in mature erythrocytes that expressed Babesia antigens but not the transferrin receptor CD71. In contrast, CD71-positive reticulocytes rarely contained Babesia nuclei and failed to express Babesia antigens. Accordingly, the frequency of YOYO-1-positive, CD71-negative cells strongly correlated with parasitemia, defined as the frequency of infected red blood cells assessed on Giemsa-stained blood smears. Importantly, the absolute numbers generated by the two techniques were similar. Parasitemia was modest and transient in DBA/2 mice but intense and sustained in C.B-17.scid mice. In both strains, parasitemia preceded reticulocytosis, but reticulocytes remained refractory to B. microti. In immunocompetent C.B-17 mice, reticulocytosis developed early, despite a marginal and short-lived parasitemia. Likewise, an early reticulocytosis developed in resistant BALB/cBy and B10.D2 mice. These studies establish that B. microti has a tropism for mature erythrocytes. Although reticulocytes are rarely infected, the delayed reticulocytosis in susceptible strains may result from parasite or host activities to limit renewal of the mature erythrocyte pool, thereby preventing an overwhelming parasitemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Borggraefe
- Tufts-New England Medical Center, Division of Geographic Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Box #41, 750 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
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Abstract
We describe cervids as potential reservoir hosts of Babesia EU1 and B. divergens. Both babesial parasites were found in roe deer. Sequence analysis of 18S rRNA showed 99.7% identity of roe deer Babesia EU1 with the human EU1 strain. B. divergens detected in cervids was 99.6% identical to bovine B. divergens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darja Duh
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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