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Francis Z, Incerti S, Zein SA, Lampe N, Guzman CA, Durante M. Monte Carlo Simulation of SARS-CoV-2 Radiation-Induced Inactivation for Vaccine Development. Radiat Res 2021; 195:221-229. [PMID: 33411888 DOI: 10.1667/rade-20-00241.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Immunization with an inactivated virus is one of the strategies currently being tested towards developing a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. One of the methods used to inactivate viruses is exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation to damage their nucleic acids. While gamma (γ) rays effectively induce lesions in the RNA, envelope proteins are also highly damaged in the process. This in turn may alter their antigenic properties, affecting their capacity to induce an adaptive immune response able to confer effective protection. Here, we modeled the effect of sparsely and densely ionizing radiation on SARS-CoV-2 using the Monte Carlo toolkit Geant4-DNA. With a realistic 3D target virus model, we calculated the expected number of lesions in the spike and membrane proteins, as well as in the viral RNA. Our findings showed that γ rays produced significant spike protein damage, but densely ionizing charged particles induced less membrane damage for the same level of RNA lesions, because a single ion traversal through the nuclear envelope was sufficient to inactivate the virus. We propose that accelerated charged particles produce inactivated viruses with little structural damage to envelope proteins, thereby representing a new and effective tool for developing vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and other enveloped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziad Francis
- Saint Joseph University, U.R. Mathématiques et Modélisation, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sebastien Incerti
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS/IN2P3, UMR5797, Centre d'Études Nucléaires de Bordeaux Gradignan, France
| | - Sara A Zein
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS/IN2P3, UMR5797, Centre d'Études Nucléaires de Bordeaux Gradignan, France
| | - Nathanael Lampe
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS/IN2P3, UMR5797, Centre d'Études Nucléaires de Bordeaux Gradignan, France
| | - Carlos A Guzman
- Helmholtz Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (HZI), Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Marco Durante
- GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, Biophysics Department, Darmstadt, Germany.,Technische Universität Darmstadt, Institute of Condensed Matter Physics, Darmstadt, Germany
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Shahabadi N, Shiri F, Hadidi S, Kashanian S. Direct effects of low-energy electrons on including sulfur bonds in proteins: a second-order Møller-Plesset perturbation (MP2) theory approach. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 39:1681-1687. [PMID: 32151206 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1740788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to describe how low-energy electrons (LEEs) damage the polypeptide chain at disulfide bridges, ab initio electronic structure estimates on LEE interactions with cysteine-cysteine (Cys-Cys) disulfide bond model have been performed. Here, the fundamental mechanisms in LEE impression on S-S and C-S bond ruptures in the Cys-Cys model have been discussed. The electronic energy was calculated using the MP2 method with a Hartree-Fock exchange during the SCF and the Møller-Plesset correlation energy correction on the converged HF orbitals with 6-311++G(d,p) atomic orbital basis set. Further, six more sets of diffuse s and p functions with extra basis on the sulfur and relevant carbon atoms were used to describe the added electron to located away as much as possible from the nuclei in anions. The bonds rupture mechanisms involve the primary placement of LEEs to the π* orbital of the model to construct the shape-resonance state following by an adiabatic or nonadiabatic electron migration to either S-S or C-S bond σ* orbital. The formed radical anion undergoes S-S or C-S bonds cleavage by energy barriers of ca. 5.68 and 9.19 kcal/mol, respectively, to produce either (2-amino-2-carboxyethyl) sulfanyl (cysteine radical), aziridine-2-carboxylic acid or mercapto-L-cysteine lesions. In SMD solvent, calculations suggest electronically stable of the formed π* and σ* states by solvation, something that induces either S-S or C-S bond break even when the electron energy is near zero. The required barrier energy of only 0 to < 0.4 eV indicates a high kinetic favorable fragmentation for involved sulfur polypeptides with LEEs.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahid Shahabadi
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.,Medical Biology Research Center (MBRC), Kermanshah University of Medical Science, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Farshad Shiri
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.,Medical Biology Research Center (MBRC), Kermanshah University of Medical Science, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Saba Hadidi
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Soheila Kashanian
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.,Nano Drug Delivery Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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Meißner R, Feketeová L, Bayer A, Postler J, Limão‐Vieira P, Denifl S. Positive and negative ions of the amino acid histidine formed in low-energy electron collisions. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2019; 54:802-816. [PMID: 31410948 PMCID: PMC6916310 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Histidine is an aromatic amino acid crucial for the biological functioning of proteins and enzymes. When biological matter is exposed to ionising radiation, highly energetic particles interact with the surrounding tissue which leads to efficient formation of low-energy electrons. In the present study, the interaction of low-energy electrons with gas-phase histidine is studied at a molecular level in order to extend the knowledge of electron-induced reactions with amino acids. We report both on the formation of positive ions formed by electron ionisation and negative ions induced by electron attachment. The experimental data were complemented by quantum chemical calculations. Specifically, the free energies for possible fragmentation reactions were derived for the τ and the π tautomer of histidine to get insight into the structures of the formed ions and the corresponding neutrals. We report the experimental ionisation energy of (8.48 ± 0.03) eV for histidine which is in good agreement with the calculated vertical ionisation energy. In the case of negative ions, the dehydrogenated parent anion is the anion with the highest mass observed upon dissociative electron attachment. The comparison of experimental and computational results was also performed in view of a possible thermal decomposition of histidine during the experiments, since the sample was sublimated in the experiment by resistive heating of an oven. Overall, the present study demonstrates the effects of electrons as secondary particles in the chemical degradation of histidine. The reactions induced by those electrons differ when comparing positive and negative ion formation. While for negative ions, simple bond cleav ages prevail, the observed fragment cations exhibit partly restructuring of the molecule during the dissociation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Meißner
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)Universität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
- Atomic and Molecular Collisions Laboratory, CEFITEC, Department of PhysicsUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa2829‐516CaparicaPortugal
| | - Linda Feketeová
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)Universität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
- Institut de Physique Nucléaire de Lyon; CNRS/IN2P3, UMR5822Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 143 Bd du 11 novembre 191869622VilleurbanneFrance
| | - Andreas Bayer
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)Universität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Johannes Postler
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)Universität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Paulo Limão‐Vieira
- Atomic and Molecular Collisions Laboratory, CEFITEC, Department of PhysicsUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa2829‐516CaparicaPortugal
| | - Stephan Denifl
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)Universität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
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Gao L, Bu Y. Protonation-modulated localization of excess electrons in histidine aqueous solutions revealed by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations: anion-centered versus cation-centered localization. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2017; 19:13807-13818. [PMID: 28508903 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp01847a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we present an ab initio molecular dynamics simulation study on the interaction of an excess electron (EE) with histidine in its aqueous solution. Two different configurations of histidine (imidazole group protonated or not) are considered to reflect its different existing forms in neutral or slightly acidic surroundings. The simulation results indicate that localizations of EEs in different aqueous histidine solutions are quite different and are strongly affected by protonation of the side chain imidazole group and are thus pH-controlled. In neutral aqueous histidine solution, an EE localizes onto the carboxyl anionic group of the amino acid backbone after a relatively lengthy diffuse state, performing just like in an aliphatic amino acid solution. But in weakly acidic solution in which the side chain imidazole group is protonated, an EE undergoes a short lifetime diffuse state and finally localizes on the protonated imidazole group. We carefully examine these two different localization dynamics processes and analyze the competition between different dominating groups in their corresponding electron localization mechanisms. To explain the difference, we investigate the frontier molecular orbitals of these two systems and find that their energy levels and compositions are important to determine these differences. These findings can provide helpful information to understand the interaction mechanisms of low energy EEs with amino acids and even oligopeptides, especially with aromatic rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Gao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, P. R. China.
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Rezaee M, Hill RP, Jaffray DA. The Exploitation of Low-Energy Electrons in Cancer Treatment. Radiat Res 2017; 188:123-143. [PMID: 28557630 DOI: 10.1667/rr14727.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Given the distinct characteristics of low-energy electrons (LEEs), particularly at energies less than 30 eV, they can be applied to a wide range of therapeutic modalities to improve cancer treatment. LEEs have been shown to efficiently produce complex molecular damage resulting in substantial cellular toxicities. Since LEEs are produced in copious amounts from high-energy radiation beam, including photons, protons and ions; the control of LEE distribution can potentially enhance the therapeutic radio of such beams. LEEs can play a substantial role in the synergistic effect between radiation and chemotherapy, particularly halogenated and platinum-based anticancer drugs. Radiosensitizing entities containing atoms of high atomic number such as gold nanoparticles can be a source of LEE production if high-energy radiation interacts with them. This can provide a high local density of LEEs in a cell and produce cellular toxicity. Auger-electron-emitting radionuclides also create a high number of LEEs in each decay, which can induce lethal damage in a cell. Exploitation of LEEs in cancer treatment, however, faces a few challenges, such as dosimetry of LEEs and selective delivery of radiosensitizing and chemotherapeutic molecules close to cellular targets. This review first discusses the rationale for utilizing LEEs in cancer treatment by explaining their mechanism of action, describes theoretical and experimental studies at the molecular and cellular levels, then discusses strategies for achieving modification of the distribution and effectiveness of LEEs in cancerous tissue and their associated clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Rezaee
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Ontario Cancer Institute and Campbell Family Institute for Cancer Research and Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard P Hill
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Ontario Cancer Institute and Campbell Family Institute for Cancer Research and Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - David A Jaffray
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Ontario Cancer Institute and Campbell Family Institute for Cancer Research and Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Feketeová L, Khairallah GN, O'Hair RAJ, Nielsen SB. Gas-phase fragmentation of deprotonated tryptophan and its clusters [Trpn -H]- induced by different activation methods. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2015; 29:1395-1402. [PMID: 26147479 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Non-covalent amino acid clusters are the subject of intense research in diverse areas including peptide bond formation studies or the determination of proton affinities or methylating abilities of amino acids. However, most of the research has focused on positive ions and little is known about anionic clusters. METHODS Fragmentation reactions of deprotonated tryptophan (Trp), [Trp-H](-) and Trp singly deprotonated non-covalently bound clusters [Trp(n) -H](-), n = 2, 3, 4, were investigated using low-energy collision-induced dissociation (CID) with He atoms, high-energy CID with Na atoms, and electron-induced dissociation (EID) with 20-35 eV electrons. Fragmentation of the monomeric Trp anion, where all labile hydrogens were exchanged for deuterium [d(4) -Trp-D](-), was investigated using low-energy CID and EID, in order to shed light on the dissociation mechanisms. RESULTS The main fragmentation channel for Trp cluster anions, [Trp(n) -H](-), n >1, is the loss of the neutral monomer. The fragmentation of the deprotonated Trp monomer induced by electrons resembles the fragmentation induced by high-energy collisions through electronic excitation of the parent. However, the excitation must precede in a different way, shown through only monomer loss from larger clusters, n >1, in case of EID, but intracluster chemistry in the case of high-energy CID. CONCLUSIONS The anion of the indole ring C(8)H(6) N(-) has been identified in the product ion spectra of [Trp(n) -H](-) using all activation methods, thus providing a diagnostic marker ion. No evidence was found for formation of peptide bonds as a route to prebiotic peptides in the fragmentation reactions of these singly deprotonated Trp cluster ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Feketeová
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Free Radical Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Chemistry and Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, The University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Université de Lyon, 69003 Lyon, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon1; Institut de Physique Nucléaire de Lyon, CNRS/IN2P3, UMR5822, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - George N Khairallah
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Free Radical Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Chemistry and Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, The University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Richard A J O'Hair
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Free Radical Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Chemistry and Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, The University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Steen Brøndsted Nielsen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, Aarhus C, 8000, Denmark
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Boulanouar O, Fromm M, Mavon C, Cloutier P, Sanche L. Dissociative electron attachment to DNA-diamine thin films: impact of the DNA close environment on the OH- and O- decay channels. J Chem Phys 2013; 139:055101. [PMID: 23927286 PMCID: PMC3813476 DOI: 10.1063/1.4815967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We measure the desorption of anions stimulated by the impact of 0-20 eV electrons on highly uniform thin films of plasmid DNA-diaminopropane. The results are accurately correlated with film thickness and composition by AFM and XPS measurements, respectively. Resonant structures in the H(-), O(-), and OH(-) yield functions are attributed to the decay of transient anions into the dissociative electron attachment (DEA) channel. The diamine induces ammonium-phosphate bridges along the DNA backbone, which suppresses the DEA O(-) channel and in counter-part increases considerably the desorption of OH(-). The close environment of the phosphate groups may therefore play an important role in modulating the rate and type of DNA damages induced by low energy electrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Boulanouar
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Rayonnements – Alain Chambaudet, LRC CEA, Université de Franche-Comté, 16 route de Gray, F-25030 Besançon cedex, France
| | - Michel Fromm
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Rayonnements – Alain Chambaudet, LRC CEA, Université de Franche-Comté, 16 route de Gray, F-25030 Besançon cedex, France
| | - Christophe Mavon
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Rayonnements – Alain Chambaudet, LRC CEA, Université de Franche-Comté, 16 route de Gray, F-25030 Besançon cedex, France
| | - Pierre Cloutier
- Groupe en Sciences des Radiations, Département de Médecine Nucléaire et de Radiobiologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Léon Sanche
- Groupe en Sciences des Radiations, Département de Médecine Nucléaire et de Radiobiologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada
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Alizadeh E, Sanche L. Precursors of solvated electrons in radiobiological physics and chemistry. Chem Rev 2012; 112:5578-602. [PMID: 22724633 DOI: 10.1021/cr300063r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Alizadeh
- Groupe en Sciences des Radiations, Département de Médecine Nucléaire et Radiobiologie, Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
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Kopyra J, Abdoul-Carime H. Dissociation of gaseous zwitterion glycine-betaine by slow electrons. J Chem Phys 2010; 132:204302. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3436718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Huels MA, Parenteau L, Sanche L. Reactive Scattering of 1−5 eV O- in Films of Tetrahydrofuran. J Phys Chem B 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/jp047385i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Huels
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1H 5N4
| | - Luc Parenteau
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1H 5N4
| | - Léon Sanche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1H 5N4
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Abdoul-Carime H, Gohlke S, Illenberger E. Degradation of N-Acetyl Tryptophan by Low-Energy (<12 eV) Electrons. J Am Chem Soc 2004; 126:12158-61. [PMID: 15382952 DOI: 10.1021/ja047517l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Secondary low-energy electrons are abundantly created during the early moments following the deposition of energy by radiation into cells. Here we show the ability of slow (<12 eV) electrons to effectively decompose gas-phase N-acetyl tryptophan (NAT) which can model a simple protein. The fragmentation of NAT, initiated via a resonant electron-molecule interaction exclusively at the peptide bridge, produces a large variety of negative species. The present findings contribute to the molecular description of the initial step in the radiation-induced damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Abdoul-Carime
- Institut für Chemie-Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Zheng Y, Cloutier P, Hunting DJ, Wagner JR, Sanche L. Glycosidic bond cleavage of thymidine by low-energy electrons. J Am Chem Soc 2004; 126:1002-3. [PMID: 14746451 DOI: 10.1021/ja0388562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Thymidine was exposed to low-energy electrons (LEE) as a thin solid film under a high vacuum. Nonvolatile radiation products, remaining on the irradiated surface, were analyzed by HPLC/UV and GC/MS. Here, we show that exposure of thymidine to 3-100 eV electrons gives thymine as a major product with a yield of 3.2 x 10-2 per electron (about one-third of the total decomposition of thymidine). The formation of thymine indicates that LEE induces cleavage of the glycosidic bond separating the base and sugar moieties, suggesting a nonionizing resonant process involving dissociative attachment (<15 eV). In contrast, this reaction is not very efficient by DNA base ionization and does not occur by the reaction of solvated electrons with DNA. These studies introduce a new mechanism of DNA damage involving the interaction of LEE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zheng
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in the Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1H 5N4
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Abdoul-Carime H, Sanche L. Alteration of Protein Constituents Induced by Low-Energy (<40 eV) Electrons. III. The Aliphatic Amino Acids. J Phys Chem B 2003. [DOI: 10.1021/jp030413x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. Abdoul-Carime
- Groupe des Instituts de Recherche en Santé du Canada, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - L. Sanche
- Groupe des Instituts de Recherche en Santé du Canada, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada
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