Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) fruit: hidden phytochemicals and health claims

Berries and Their Active Compounds in Prevention of Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of vision loss in the elderly, significantly diminishing quality of life. Currently, there is no available treatment to reverse retinal degeneration and neuronal loss, prompting a focus on interventions that slow the progression of intermediate AMD and geographic atrophy. Berries are rich in bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and resveratrol, known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-angiogenic properties. Preclinical studies suggest that extracts from various berries, such as aronia, honeysuckle, black currant, goji, and bilberry, can improve retinal health by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Although clinical trials are limited, emerging evidence indicates that dietary intake of these compounds may enhance visual function and slow the progression of AMD. This review summarizes findings from both animal studies and clinical trials to identify specific berries that have been validated to prevent or delay AMD progression, as well as those with potential therapeutic value. Furthermore, we examine the key phytochemicals present in these berries, their mechanisms of action on macular degeneration, and their distinct properties for therapeutic application. A deeper understanding of these characteristics could enable the rational appliance of berries, especially wolfberry, and berry-derived components, such as carotenoids and anthocyanins, to optimize better therapeutic outcomes in AMD management.

Efficacy of a Dietary Supplement Extracted from Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.f.) in Overweight Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Clinical Trial

A single-center, randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled clinical trial assessed the efficacy in improving body composition and in weight management of a dietary supplement consisting of 400 mg of a standardized extract of the persimmon fruit (Diospyros kaki L.f.) in adult subjects with a BMI between 25 and 34.99 kg/m2 administered for 120 consecutive days. In total, 36 participants were assigned to the placebo group and 35 to the experimental group (registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05750342)). Primary analysis focused on overweight subjects (placebo, n = 26; experimental, n = 23). In this group, fat mass expressed in kg and percentage evaluated by both dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) decreased significantly (between-group differences p < 0.001) in those receiving the persimmon extract as compared with the placebo. No significant reduction in lean mass was observed, suggesting that the muscle mass was maintained during fat loss. The use of the investigational product improved classic anthropometric parameters to a statistically significantly greater extent than the placebo, including body weight, BMI, and waist and abdominal circumference (p < 0.001), in the overweight group. In the overall population, similar improvements were observed, with significant between-group differences (p < 0.001) in fat mass reduction and improvements in body composition. Changes in the biochemical lipidic, glycemic, and anti-inflammatory profile were not found, except for between-group significant differences (p < 0.001) in decreases in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) and increases in total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in favor of the experimental condition. There was a significant increase in fecal fat excretion in the experimental group at the end of the study in subjects with low fecal fat (9%) at baseline. Consumption of the investigational product vs. placebo improved the quality of life, with significantly greater scores in the total score and the mental health component of the SF-12 questionnaire. The persimmon extract was safe and well tolerated.

Immature Persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) Ethanol Extract Ameliorates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity by Modulating Lipid Metabolism

In this study, immature persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) ethanol extract was administered to an obese animal model fed a high-fat diet to measure weight change, adipose tissue weight, serum lipid level, and expression level of adipose-related genes to evaluate its efficacy. Administration of D. kaki ethanol extract (DKE) (100 and 500 mg/kg/d) decreased the body weight gain, adipose tissue weight, and serum triglyceride levels in mice fed a high-fat diet. Furthermore, it improved the leptin and adiponectin levels in the blood as well as gene expression in the liver. It also inhibited the expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c, inhibiting the production of triglyceride biosynthetic enzyme fatty acid synthesis and acetyl-CoA carboxylase, and decreased the expressions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins that induce adipocyte differentiation. Therefore, these data suggest that DKE exerts beneficial effects on high-fat diet-induced obesity by modulating lipid metabolism in mice fed a high-fat diet.

Influence of Climate Change on Metabolism and Biological Characteristics in Perennial Woody Fruit Crops in the Mediterranean Environment

The changes in the state of the climate have a high impact on perennial fruit crops thus threatening food availability. Indeed, climatic factors affect several plant aspects, such as phenological stages, physiological processes, disease-pest frequency, yield, and qualitative composition of the plant tissues and derived products. To mitigate the effects of climatic parameters variability, plants implement several strategies of defense, by changing phenological trends, altering physiology, increasing carbon sequestration, and metabolites synthesis. This review was divided into two sections. The first provides data on climate change in the last years and a general consideration on their impact, mitigation, and resilience in the production of food crops. The second section reviews the consequences of climate change on the industry of two woody fruit crops models (evergreen and deciduous trees). The research focused on, citrus, olive, and loquat as evergreen trees examples; while grape, apple, pear, cherry, apricot, almond, peach, kiwi, fig, and persimmon as deciduous species. Perennial fruit crops originated by a complex of decisions valuable in a long period and involving economic and technical problems that farmers may quickly change in the case of annual crops. However, the low flexibility of woody crops is balanced by resilience in the long-life cycle.

In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion of Persimmon and Derived Products: A Review

The link between nutrition and health has focused on the strategy of diet-based programs to deal with various physiological threats, such as cardiovascular disease, oxidative stress, and diabetes. Therefore, the consumption of fruits and vegetables as a safeguard for human health is increasingly important. Among fruits, the intake of persimmon is of great interest because several studies have associated its consumption with health benefits due to its high content of bioactive compounds, fiber, minerals, and vitamins. However, during digestion, some changes take place in persimmon nutritional compounds that condition their subsequent use by the human body. In vitro studies indicate different rates of recovery and bioaccessibility depending on the bioactive compound and the matrix in which they are found. In vivo studies show that the pharmacological application of persimmon or its functional components, such as proanthocyanidins, can help to prevent hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia. Thus, persimmon and persimmon derived products have the potential to be a fruit recommended for diet therapy. This review aims to compile an updated review of the benefits of persimmon and its derived products, focusing on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of the main nutrients and bioactive compounds.

On the Effect of Microwave Heating on Quality Characteristics and Functional Properties of Persimmon Juice and Its Residue

In this study, it was investigated whether integration of microwave-heating into the pretreatment step of persimmon juice processing allows the concomitant production of both functional juice and added-value solid residue from the Diospyros Kaki "Jiro" cultivar. In this direction, persimmon pulp was treated under three different microwave-heating conditions (0.7, 4.2, and 8.4 kJ/g) prior to enzymatic maceration and compared to the non-heated material. Irrespective of microwave energy employed, the proposed hybrid treatment was highly efficient in terms of juice yield (70% w/w). The mildest heating conditions resulted in juice and residue that were both of inferior quality. Intensification of the microwave energy reduced the microbial load of the juice up to 2-log without compromising the content in total soluble solids, sugars, and L-ascorbic acid. Under the most drastic conditions, the juice was enriched in gallic acid, polyphenols, and potent DPPH● scavengers, but its orange color faded and was more acidic. In parallel, the solid juice residue retained pro-vitamin A carotenoids (~278 µg retinol activity equivalents) and low-methoxy pectin (9 g/100 g DW). Overall, our findings can assist the efforts of the local juice processing industry to utilize persimmon fruits through energy-efficient technologies in a sustainable approach.

From Diospyros kaki L. (Persimmon) Phytochemical Profile and Health Impact to New Product Perspectives and Waste Valorization

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) fruit's phytochemical profile includes carotenoids, proanthocyanidins, and gallic acid among other phenolic compounds and vitamins. A huge antioxidant potential is present given this richness in antioxidant compounds. These bioactive compounds impact on health benefits. The intersection of nutrition and sustainability, the key idea behind the EAT-Lancet Commission, which could improve human health and decrease the global impact of food-related health conditions such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and obesity, bring the discussion regarding persimmon beyond the health effects from its consumption, but also on the valorization of a very perishable food that spoils quickly. A broad option of edible products with better storage stability or solutions that apply persimmon and its byproducts in the reinvention of old products or even creating new products, or with new and better packaging for the preservation of food products with postharvest technologies to preserve and extend the shelf-life of persimmon food products. Facing a global food crisis and the climate emergency, new and better day-to-day solutions are needed right now. Therefore, the use of persimmon waste has also been discussed as a good solution to produce biofuel, eco-friendly alternative reductants for fabric dyes, green plant growth regulator, biodegradable and edible films for vegetable packaging, antimicrobial activity against foodborne methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus found in retail pork, anti-Helicobacter pylori agents from pedicel extracts, and persimmon pectin-based emulsifiers to prevent lipid peroxidation, among other solutions presented in the revised literature. It has become clear that the uses for persimmon go far beyond the kitchen table and the health impact consumption demonstrated over the years. The desired sustainable transition is already in progress, however, mechanistic studies and clinical trials are essential and scaling-up is fundamental to the future.

Removal of astringency in persimmon fruits (Diospyros kaki) subjected to different freezing temperature treatments

The effects of two different freezing temperatures (- 20 °C and - 80 °C) on the astringency trait of persimmon fruits during 15 to 60 days of storage were investigated. The levels of soluble and insoluble tannins, proanthocyanidins and other physicochemical characteristics were evaluated. Storage at - 20 °C and - 80 °C temperatures up to 60 days has been found to be an effective method to remove astringency of persimmon fruits. Proanthocyanidin concentration was negligible at both temperatures during storage. Total soluble solid contents were decreased as 3.34 from 4.59 (mg/g DW) whereas, insoluble tannin contents were increased as 20.30 from 16.45 (mg/g DW) by freezing temperatures treatment during storage. Comparatively, higher soluble tannin content 11.68 (mg/g DW) and lower insoluble tannin content 10.02 (mg/g DW) was observed in control (day 0). Therefore, the astringency of persimmon fruits incubated at - 20 °C and - 80 °C was markedly reduced and after 15 up to 60 days of storage, the astringent taste virtually disappeared. The proanthocyanidin contents were decreased as 0.02 from 0.52 (mg/g DW) at - 20 °C storage and 0.17 from 0.47 (mg/g DW) at - 80 °C storage, in comparison with the control 2.65 (mg/g DW). The moreover, along with the removal of astringency, other physicochemical parameters including color, pH, moisture content, total soluble solid, and sensory attributes were also conserved on freezing at both the temperatures. These findings suggest that freezing temperature treatments aid the removal of astringency from persimmon fruits which could be used in different food preparations or as supplements.

Stress and Cardiometabolic Disease Risk for Indigenous Populations throughout the Lifespan

BACKGROUND

Indigenous people experience the greatest cardiometabolic disease disparity in the Unites States, yet high cardiometabolic disease risk factors do not fully explain the extent of the cardiometabolic disease disparity for Indigenous people. Stress, trauma, and racism occur at high rates within Indigenous communities and have not been well explored as significant contributors to cardiometabolic disease disparities despite emerging literature, and therefore will be described here.

METHODS

This descriptive study explores the relationship between cardiometabolic disease risks and Indigenous-specific stressors (e.g., early childhood stress and trauma, adulthood stress and trauma, and historical and intergenerational trauma) using current literature. Indigenous-specific protective factors against cardiometabolic disease are also reviewed.

RESULTS

Increasing research indicates that there is a relationship between Indigenous-specific stressful and traumatic life experiences and increased cardiometabolic disease risk. Mental health and psychophysiology play an important role in this relationship. Effective interventions to reduce cardiometabolic disease risk in Indigenous communities focus on ameliorating the negative effects of these stressors through the use of culturally specific health behaviors and activities.

CONCLUSIONS

There is increasing evidence that cultural connection and enculturation are protective factors for cardiometabolic disease, and may be galvanized through Indigenous-led training, research, and policy change.

Changes in the physicochemical components, polyphenol profile, and flavor of persimmon wine during spontaneous and inoculated fermentation

Changes in the oenological parameters, total phenols, total flavonoids, and individual phenols of persimmon during spontaneous and inoculated fermentation were investigated. The volatile compounds and sensory character of the persimmon wine were compared and evaluated simultaneously. Results show that at the end of fermentation, spontaneous persimmon wine (SPW) has higher contents of total flavonoids, total phenols yet lower concentrations of alcohol and volatile compounds than inoculated persimmon wine (IPW). Catechin, salicylic acid, quercetin, and vanillic acid were the main phenolic compounds in both types of persimmon wine. There are six volatile components in the IPW with an OAV greater than 1, which are isoamyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, methyl octanoate, ethyl octanoate, phenethyl acetate, and 2, 4-di-tert-butylphenol, and these compounds contribute to the IPW with brandy and fruity sensory properties, while only three volatile components in SPW have OAV greater than 1, which are isoamyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, and ethyl octanoate. Spontaneous fermentation increased the proportion of esters and alcohols in the overall volatile compounds. During sensory evaluation, IPW was characterized by "brandy," "bitterness," and low "sweetness," and SPW has a high score of "sweetness," "balance," desirable "color," and "body."

Influence of reflective foil on persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) fruit peel colour and selected bioactive compounds

The purpose of this work was to investigate how to overcome the negative effect of anti-hail netting on the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) in persimmon trees and persimmon fruit colour, flesh firmness, total soluble solids (TSS) and individual carotenoid and phenolic compound contents (determined via HPLC-MS) under a hail net with the use of reflective foil. Reflective foil increased the PPFD on the lower side of the fruits, while there was no significant difference on the upper side compared to those of the control group. The CIE colour parameters a* and h° indicated more intense red colouration of the fruits in the foil treatment than those in the control. Among carotenoids, the content of β-carotene increased, and the content of zeaxanthin decreased in fruits in the reflective foil treatment group, while the content of other carotenoids was not affected by the reflective foil. Among individual phenolic compounds in the persimmon peel, greater light intensity significantly influenced all three phenolic compound subgroups: phenolic acids, flavan-3-ols and flavonols. The content of gallic acid in the persimmon flesh increased the most, while other phenolics did not show any significant differences in concentrations between the foil and control groups. This study is the first to examine the influence of reflective foil on bioactive compounds in persimmon fruit. The use of reflective foil in persimmon orchards improves persimmon fruit colour and selected bioactive compound contents.

The Intraocular Pressure-Lowering Effect of Persimmon leaves (Diospyros kaki) in a Mouse Model of Glaucoma

The aim of this study was to evaluate the pharmacological efficacy of persimmon leaves in two glaucoma models, microbeads-induced ocular hypertension (OHT) and DBA/2 mouse. Thus, we demonstrated that Ethanol Extract of Diospyros kaki (EEDK) reduced elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) in both mouse models of glaucoma by measurements with a tonometer. In particular, we revealed that retinal ganglion cell loss and optic nerve damage caused by IOP elevation were markedly diminished as assessed by TUNEL assay, H&E staining, and fluorescent staining, while the expression of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGCα-1) increased, when EEDK was administered, as revealed by western blot. Moreover, the b-wave magnitude indicating functional scotopic vision was significantly improved in EEDK-administered DBA/2 mice during the 10-week follow-up study, as observed with electroretinography. Collectively, our results suggested that EEDK could be an effective therapeutic and IOP-lowering agent for preventing and treating retinal degenerative diseases such as glaucoma.

Anti-inflammatory activities of astringent persimmons (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) stalks of various cultivar types based on the stages of maturity in the Gyeongnam province

Background

Natural products play a significant role in human health in relation to the prevention and treatment of inflammatory conditions. One of the plants with great medicinal potentials is Diospyros kaki which is mainly cultivated in Asian countries including Korea, Japan, and China. Astringent D. kaki is a wild species with an astringent taste until they are Ripened. kaki calyx is a traditional Korean medicine (TKM) made from the stalks of astringent D. kaki and is used in treating bed-wetting, vomiting, and hiccupping. The present study was designed to investigate the potential anti-inflammatory activities of astringent D. kaki stalks based on cultivar types and stages of maturity.

Methods

The anti-inflammatory effects of the stalk extracts of local astringent D. kaki cultivar species were evaluated on RAW 264.7 cells. Cell viability was measured using a Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) method. The anti-inflammatory effects were determined by measuring the nitric oxide (NO) concentration of the supernatant. Cellular signaling pathways were determined by quantitative polymerase chain reactions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Protein expression of iNOS and phospho-p65 was determined using western blot, and the nuclear localization of p65 was determined using confocal imaging in RAW 264.7 cells.

Results

We found that the stage 1 (8–9 month) samples all showed a high percentage of tannic acid content and Gojongsi (Hamyang) stalks had the highest content. The stage 1 samples also showed the highest inhibition of NO production. Decreases in the expression of iNOS and phosphorylated p65, and in the nuclear localization of p65, were dose-dependent. All the extracts were nontoxic under 100 μg/ml concentration.

Conclusion

This study provides insight into the changes in tannic acid content in astringent D. kaki and their anti-inflammatory effects, in relation to their stage of maturity. These results are expected to be useful in the verification of the efficacy of oriental medicine and the timing of proper harvest for medical use.

Antioxidant activity and mechanism of commercial Rama Forte persimmon fruits (Diospyros kaki)

This study aimed to characterize the antioxidant properties of Rama Forte persimmon, a tannin-rich fruit variety produced in Brazil. Extracts prepared with lyophilized pulps from fruits obtained in local markets were analyzed individually to evaluate the extent of antioxidant protection and investigate the antioxidant mechanism. Iron-mediated hydroxylation of 5,5-dimethyl-1-pirrolidine-N-oxide, determined by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and oxidative degradation of 2-deoxyribose (2-DR) were inhibited by fruit extracts in a dose-dependent manner. There was a considerable individual variability in inhibition of 2-DR degradation by individual fruits. Higher protection of 2-DR degradation (by the extracts) was observed in Fe(III)-citrate/ascorbate in comparison with Fe(III)-EDTA/ascorbate system; however, antioxidant effectiveness of fruit extracts was not diminished by increasing EDTA concentration by 10-fold. Other competition experiments using the 2-DR assay (varying pre-incubation time and 2-DR concentration) indicated that protection comes mainly from free radical scavenging, rather that metal chelation antioxidant activity. Persimmon extracts prevented iron-mediated lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenates, which correlated significantly with the inhibition of 2-DR oxidation. Finally, sugar content of individual fruits correlated inversely with inhibition of 2-DR degradation, which could indicate that maturation decreases soluble antioxidant concentration or efficiency. In conclusion, lipid peroxidation, 2-DR and EPR experiments indicated that extracts from commercial fruits showed mainly radical-scavenger activity and relevant antioxidant activity.

Ethyl Acetate Fraction from Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) Ameliorates Cerebral Neuronal Loss and Cognitive Deficit via the JNK/Akt Pathway in TMT-Induced Mice

This study was conducted to assess the antioxidant capacity and protective effect of the ethyl acetate fraction from persimmon (Diospyros kaki) (EFDK) on H₂O₂-induced hippocampal HT22 cells and trimethyltin chloride (TMT)-induced Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice. EFDK had high antioxidant activities and neuroprotective effects in HT22 cells. EFDK ameliorated behavioral and memory deficits in Y-maze, passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests. Also, EFDK restored the antioxidant system by regulating malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced gluthathione (GSH), and the cholinergic system by controlling the acetylcholine (ACh) level and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and expression. EFDK enhanced mitochondrial function by regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Ultimately, EFDK regulated the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway and apoptotic pathway by suppressing the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1pSer), phosphorylated JNK (p-JNK), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), phosphorylated nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (p-NF-κB), Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) and cytosolic cytochrome c, and increasing the expression of phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and mitochondrial cytochrome c. This study suggested that EFDK had antioxidant activity and a neuroprotective effect, and ameliorated cognitive abnormalities in TMT-induced mice by regulating the JNK/Akt and apoptotic pathway.

The leaves of Diospyros kaki exert beneficial effects on a benzalkonium chloride-induced murine dry eye model

PURPOSE

In this study, the beneficial effects of the oral administration of ethanol extract of Diospyros kaki (EEDK) were tested on a mouse dry eye model induced by benzalkonium chloride (BAC).

METHODS

A solution of 0.2% BAC was administered topically to mouse eyes for 14 days, twice daily, to induce dry eye. Various concentrations of EEDK were administrated daily by oral gavage for 14 days after BAC treatment. Preservative-free eye drops were instilled in the positive-control group. The tear secretion volume (Schirmer's test), tear break-up time (BUT), and fluorescein score were measured on the ocular surface. BAC-induced corneal damage was tested with hematoxylin-eosin staining. Moreover, apoptotic cell death in the corneal epithelial layer was investigated with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining. The protein expression level of interleukin-1alpha (IL-1α), IL-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor- alpha (TNF-α), and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) was determined with western blot analysis. Furthermore, squamous metaplasia in the corneal epithelial layer was detected with immunofluorescent staining for cytokeratine-10. The cellular proliferation in the cornea was examined with immunohistochemical staining for Ki-67.

RESULTS

EEDK treatment resulted in prolonged BUT, decreased fluorescein score, increased tear volume, and smoother epithelial cells compared with BAC treatment alone in the cornea. Moreover, EEDK treatment inhibited the inflammatory response and corneal epithelial cell death in a BAC-induced murine dry eye model, and changes in squamous cells were inhibited. Proliferative activity in the corneal epithelium cells was improved with EEDK.

CONCLUSIONS

EEDK could be a potential therapeutic agent in the clinical treatment of dry eye.