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Ahmed-Belkacem R, Sutto-Ortiz P, Delpal A, Troussier J, Canard B, Vasseur JJ, Decroly E, Debart F. 5'-cap RNA/SAM mimetic conjugates as bisubstrate inhibitors of viral RNA cap 2'-O-methyltransferases. Bioorg Chem 2024; 143:107035. [PMID: 38199140 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.107035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Viral RNA cap 2'-O-methyltransferases are considered promising therapeutic targets for antiviral treatments, as they play a key role in the formation of viral RNA cap-1 structures to escape the host immune system. A better understanding of how they interact with their natural substrates (RNA and the methyl donor SAM) would enable the rational development of potent inhibitors. However, as few structures of 2'-O-MTases in complex with RNA have been described, little is known about substrate recognition by these MTases. For this, chemical tools mimicking the state in which the cap RNA substrate and SAM cofactor are bound in the enzyme's catalytic pocket may prove useful. In this work, we designed and synthesized over 30 RNA conjugates that contain a short oligoribonucleotide (ORN with 4 or 6 nucleotides) with the first nucleotide 2'-O-attached to an adenosine by linkers of different lengths and containing S or N-heteroatoms, or a 1,2,3-triazole ring. These ORN conjugates bearing or not a cap structure at 5'-extremity mimic the methylation transition state with RNA substrate/SAM complex as bisubstrates of 2'-O-MTases. The ORN conjugates were synthesized either by the incorporation of a dinucleoside phosphoramidite during RNA elongation or by click chemistry performed on solid-phase post-RNA elongation. Their ability to inhibit the activity of the nsp16/nsp10 complex of SARS-CoV-2 and the NS5 protein of dengue and Zika viruses was assessed. Significant submicromolar IC50 values and Kd values in the µM range were found, suggesting a possible interaction of some ORN conjugates with these viral 2'-O-MTases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Adrien Delpal
- AFMB, University of Aix-Marseille, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Joris Troussier
- IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Bruno Canard
- AFMB, University of Aix-Marseille, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | | | | | - Françoise Debart
- IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France.
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2
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Tsukamoto Y, Igarashi M, Kato H. Targeting cap1 RNA methyltransferases as an antiviral strategy. Cell Chem Biol 2024; 31:86-99. [PMID: 38091983 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
Methylation is one of the critical modifications that regulates numerous biological processes. Guanine capping and methylation at the 7th position (m7G) have been shown to mature mRNA for increased RNA stability and translational efficiency. The m7G capped cap0 RNA remains immature and requires additional methylation at the first nucleotide (N1-2'-O-Me), designated as cap1, to achieve full maturation. This cap1 RNA with N1-2'-O-Me prevents its recognition by innate immune sensors as non-self. Viruses have also evolved various strategies to produce self-like capped RNAs with the N1-2'-O-Me that potentially evades the antiviral response and establishes an efficient replication. In this review, we focus on the importance of the presence of N1-2'-O-Me in viral RNAs and discuss the potential for drug development by targeting host and viral N1-2'-O-methyltransferases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Tsukamoto
- Institute of Cardiovascular Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Manabu Igarashi
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kato
- Institute of Cardiovascular Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
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3
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Mensah IK, Norvil AB, He M, Lendy E, Hjortland N, Tan H, Pomerantz RT, Mesecar A, Gowher H. Development of a sensitive microplate assay for characterizing RNA methyltransferase activity: Implications for epitranscriptomics and drug development. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105257. [PMID: 37716702 PMCID: PMC10582764 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023] Open
Abstract
RNA methylation is a ubiquitous post-transcriptional modification found in diverse RNA classes and is a critical regulator of gene expression. In this study, we used Zika virus RNA methyltransferase (MTase) to develop a highly sensitive microplate assay that uses a biotinylated RNA substrate and radiolabeled AdoMet coenzyme. The assay is fast, highly reproducible, exhibits linear progress-curve kinetics under multiple turnover conditions, has high sensitivity in competitive inhibition assays, and significantly lower background levels compared with the currently used method. Using our newly developed microplate assay, we observed no significant difference in the catalytic constants of the full-length nonstructural protein 5 enzyme and the truncated MTase domain. These data suggest that, unlike the Zika virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity, the MTase activity is unaffected by RNA-dependent RNA polymerase-MTase interdomain interaction. Given its quantitative nature and accuracy, this method can be used to characterize various RNA MTases, and, therefore, significantly contribute to the field of epitranscriptomics and drug development against infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaiah K Mensah
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Allison B Norvil
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Ming He
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Emma Lendy
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Nicole Hjortland
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Hern Tan
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Richard T Pomerantz
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrew Mesecar
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Humaira Gowher
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
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4
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Kozielski F, Sele C, Talibov VO, Lou J, Dong D, Wang Q, Shi X, Nyblom M, Rogstam A, Krojer T, Fisher Z, Knecht W. Identification of fragments binding to SARS-CoV-2 nsp10 reveals ligand-binding sites in conserved interfaces between nsp10 and nsp14/nsp16. RSC Chem Biol 2022; 3:44-55. [PMID: 35128408 PMCID: PMC8729259 DOI: 10.1039/d1cb00135c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in 2019, Covid-19 has developed into a serious threat to our health, social and economic systems. Although vaccines have been developed in a tour-de-force and are now increasingly available, repurposing of existing drugs has been less successful. There is a clear need to develop new drugs against SARS-CoV-2 that can also be used against future coronavirus infections. Non-structural protein 10 (nsp10) is a conserved stimulator of two enzymes crucial for viral replication, nsp14 and nsp16, exhibiting exoribonuclease and methyltransferase activities. Interfering with RNA proofreading or RNA cap formation represents intervention strategies to inhibit replication. We applied fragment-based screening using nano differential scanning fluorometry and X-ray crystallography to identify ligands targeting SARS-CoV-2 nsp10. We identified four fragments located in two distinct sites: one can be modelled to where it would be located in the nsp14-nsp10 complex interface and the other in the nsp16-nsp10 complex interface. Microscale thermophoresis (MST) experiments were used to quantify fragment affinities for nsp10. Additionally, we showed by MST that the interaction by nsp14 and 10 is weak and thereby that complex formation could be disrupted by small molecules. The fragments will serve as starting points for the development of more potent analogues using fragment growing techniques and structure-based drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Kozielski
- School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Céleste Sele
- Department of Biology & Lund Protein Production Platform, Lund University Sölvegatan 35 22362 Lund Sweden +46 46 2227785
| | | | - Jiaqi Lou
- School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Danni Dong
- School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Qian Wang
- School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Xinyue Shi
- School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AX UK
| | - Maria Nyblom
- Department of Biology & Lund Protein Production Platform, Lund University Sölvegatan 35 22362 Lund Sweden +46 46 2227785
| | - Annika Rogstam
- Department of Biology & Lund Protein Production Platform, Lund University Sölvegatan 35 22362 Lund Sweden +46 46 2227785
| | - Tobias Krojer
- BioMAX beamline, MAX IV Laboratory Fotongatan 2 22484 Lund Sweden
| | - Zoë Fisher
- Department of Biology & Lund Protein Production Platform, Lund University Sölvegatan 35 22362 Lund Sweden +46 46 2227785
- European Spallation Source ERIC P.O. Box 176 22100 Lund Sweden +46 721792250
| | - Wolfgang Knecht
- Department of Biology & Lund Protein Production Platform, Lund University Sölvegatan 35 22362 Lund Sweden +46 46 2227785
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Zhao R, Wang M, Cao J, Shen J, Zhou X, Wang D, Cao J. Flavivirus: From Structure to Therapeutics Development. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11070615. [PMID: 34202239 PMCID: PMC8303334 DOI: 10.3390/life11070615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses are still a hidden threat to global human safety, as we are reminded by recent reports of dengue virus infections in Singapore and African-lineage-like Zika virus infections in Brazil. Therapeutic drugs or vaccines for flavivirus infections are in urgent need but are not well developed. The Flaviviridae family comprises a large group of enveloped viruses with a single-strand RNA genome of positive polarity. The genome of flavivirus encodes ten proteins, and each of them plays a different and important role in viral infection. In this review, we briefly summarized the major information of flavivirus and further introduced some strategies for the design and development of vaccines and anti-flavivirus compound drugs based on the structure of the viral proteins. There is no doubt that in the past few years, studies of antiviral drugs have achieved solid progress based on better understanding of the flavivirus biology. However, currently, there are no fully effective antiviral drugs or vaccines for most flaviviruses. We hope that this review may provide useful information for future development of anti-flavivirus drugs and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Meiyue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Jing Cao
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Jing Shen
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Medical Imaging, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China;
| | - Deping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
- Correspondence: (D.W.); (J.C.)
| | - Jimin Cao
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; (R.Z.); (M.W.); (J.C.); (J.S.)
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
- Correspondence: (D.W.); (J.C.)
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6
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Chagas M, Rocha W, Moraes A. Dynamics and allostery of Zika virus non-structural protein 5 methyltransferase. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 39:5526-5538. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1792343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Chagas
- Departamento de Química, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Willian Rocha
- Departamento de Química, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Adolfo Moraes
- Departamento de Química, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Department of NMR-based Structural Biology, Max-Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
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7
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Sariyer IK, Gordon J, Burdo TH, Wollebo HS, Gianti E, Donadoni M, Bellizzi A, Cicalese S, Loomis R, Robinson JA, Carnevale V, Steiner J, Ozdener MH, Miller AD, Amini S, Klein ML, Khalili K. Suppression of Zika Virus Infection in the Brain by the Antiretroviral Drug Rilpivirine. Mol Ther 2019; 27:2067-2079. [PMID: 31653397 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is associated with microcephaly in neonates and Guillain-Barré syndrome in adults. ZIKV produces a class of nonstructural (NS) regulatory proteins that play a critical role in viral transcription and replication, including NS5, which possesses RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) activity. Here we demonstrate that rilpivirine (RPV), a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) used in the treatment of HIV-1 infection, inhibits the enzymatic activity of NS5 and suppresses ZIKV infection and replication in primary human astrocytes. Similarly, other members of the NNRTI family, including etravirine and efavirenz, showed inhibitory effects on viral infection of brain cells. Site-directed mutagenesis identified 14 amino acid residues within the NS5 RdRp domain (AA265-903), which are important for the RPV interaction and the inhibition of NS5 polymerase activity. Administration of RPV to ZIKV-infected interferon-alpha/beta receptor (IFN-A/R) knockout mice improved the clinical outcome and prevented ZIKV-induced mortality. Histopathological examination of the brains from infected animals revealed that RPV reduced ZIKV RNA levels in the hippocampus, frontal cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum. Repurposing of NNRTIs, such as RPV, for the inhibition of ZIKV replication offers a possible therapeutic strategy for the prevention and treatment of ZIKV-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilker Kudret Sariyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Jennifer Gordon
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Tricia H Burdo
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Hassen S Wollebo
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Eleonora Gianti
- Department of Chemistry, Institute for Computational Molecular Science, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, 1901 N. 12(th) Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Martina Donadoni
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Anna Bellizzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Stephanie Cicalese
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Regina Loomis
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Jake A Robinson
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Vincenzo Carnevale
- Department of Chemistry, Institute for Computational Molecular Science, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, 1901 N. 12(th) Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Joseph Steiner
- Translational Neuroscience Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mehmet H Ozdener
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Andrew D Miller
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, T5-006A Veterinary Research Tower, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Shohreh Amini
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Michael L Klein
- Department of Chemistry, Institute for Computational Molecular Science, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, 1901 N. 12(th) Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Kamel Khalili
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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8
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Hu Y, Sun L. Systematic Analysis of Structure Similarity between Zika Virus and Other Flaviviruses. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:1070-1080. [PMID: 31038920 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection has caused global concern because of its association with fetal microcephaly and serious neurological complications in adults since 2016. Currently, no specific anti-ZIKV therapy is available to control ZIKV infection. During the last couple of years, the intensive investigation of ZIKV structure has provided significant information for structure-based vaccine and drug design. In this review, we summarized the research progress on the structures of ZIKV and its component proteins. We analyzed the structure identity and the differences between ZIKV and other flaviviruses. This information is crucial to guiding structure-based anti-ZIKV inhibitors and vaccine discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxia Hu
- The Fifth People’s Hospital of Shanghai and Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, 131 Dongan Road, Shanghai 20032, China
| | - Lei Sun
- The Fifth People’s Hospital of Shanghai and Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, 131 Dongan Road, Shanghai 20032, China
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Rusanov T, Kent T, Saeed M, Hoang TM, Thomas C, Rice CM, Pomerantz RT. Identification of a Small Interface between the Methyltransferase and RNA Polymerase of NS5 that is Essential for Zika Virus Replication. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17384. [PMID: 30478404 PMCID: PMC6255901 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35511-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) has caused an international health emergency due to its ability to cause microcephaly in infants. Yet, our knowledge of how ZIKV replicates at the molecular level is limited. For example, how the non-structural protein 5 (NS5) performs replication, and in particular whether the N-terminal methytransferase (MTase) domain is essential for the function of the C-terminal RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) remains unclear. In contrast to previous reports, we find that MTase is absolutely essential for all activities of RdRp in vitro. For instance, the MTase domain confers stability onto the RdRp elongation complex (EC) and and is required for de novo RNA synthesis and nucleotide incorporation by RdRp. Finally, structure function analyses identify key conserved residues at the MTase-RdRp interface that specifically activate RdRp elongation and are essential for ZIKV replication in Huh-7.5 cells. These data demonstrate the requirement for the MTase-RdRp interface in ZIKV replication and identify a specific site within this region as a potential site for therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timur Rusanov
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research, Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biochemistry, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tatiana Kent
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research, Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biochemistry, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mohsan Saeed
- Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease, Center for the Study of Hepatitis C, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Trung M Hoang
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research, Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biochemistry, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Crystal Thomas
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research, Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biochemistry, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Charles M Rice
- Laboratory of Virology and Infectious Disease, Center for the Study of Hepatitis C, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard T Pomerantz
- Fels Institute for Cancer Research, Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biochemistry, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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