1
|
Gao X, Liu J, Sun R, Zhang J, Cao X, Zhang Y, Zhao M. Alliance between titans: combination strategies of CAR-T cell therapy and oncolytic virus for the treatment of hematological malignancies. Ann Hematol 2024; 103:2569-2589. [PMID: 37853078 DOI: 10.1007/s00277-023-05488-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
There have been several clinical studies using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy for different hematological malignancies. It has transformed the therapy landscape for hematologic malignancies dramatically. Nonetheless, in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and T cell malignancies, it still has a dismal prognosis. Even in the most promising locations, recurrence with CAR-T treatment remains a big concern. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) can directly lyse tumor cells or cause immune responses, and they can be manipulated to create therapeutic proteins, increasing anticancer efficacy. Oncolytic viruses have been proven in a rising number of studies to be beneficial in hematological malignancies. There are limitations that cannot be avoided by using either treatment alone, and the combination of CAR-T cell therapy and oncolytic virus therapy may complement the disadvantages of individual application, enhance the advantages of their respective treatment methods and improve the treatment effect. The alternatives for combining two therapies in hematological malignancies are discussed in this article.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuejin Gao
- Emergency, Tianjin First Central Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Jile Liu
- First Center Clinic College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Rui Sun
- Nankai University School of Medicine, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Jingkun Zhang
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xinping Cao
- First Center Clinic College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- First Center Clinic College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Mingfeng Zhao
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu G, Hu Q, Peng S, Ning H, Mai J, Chen X, Tao M, Liu Q, Huang H, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Zhang X, Gu J, Xie Z. The spatial and single-cell analysis reveals remodeled immune microenvironment induced by synthetic oncolytic adenovirus treatment. Cancer Lett 2024; 581:216485. [PMID: 38008394 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses are multifaceted tumor killers, which can function as tumor vaccines to boost systemic antitumor immunity. In previous study, we rationally designed a synthetic oncolytic adenovirus (SynOV) harboring a synthetic gene circuit, which can kill tumors in mouse hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) models. In this study, we demonstrated that SynOV could sense the tumor biomarkers to lyse tumors in a dosage-dependent manner, and killed PD-L1 antibody resistant tumor cells in mouse model. Meanwhile, we observed SynOV could cure liver cancer and partially alleviate the liver cancer with distant metastasis by activating systemic antitumor immunity. To understand its high efficacy, it is essential to explore the cellular and molecular features of the remodeled tumor microenvironment (TME). By combining spatial transcriptome sequencing and single-cell RNA sequencing, we successfully depicted the remodeled TME at single cell resolution. The state transition of immune cells and stromal cells towards an antitumor and normalized status exemplified the overall cancer-suppressive TME after SynOV treatment. Specifically, SynOV treatment increased the proportion of CD8+ T cells, enhanced the cell-cell communication of Cxcl9-Cxcr3, and normalized the Kupffer cells and macrophages in the TME. Furthermore, we observed that SynOV could induce distant responses to reduce tumor burden in metastatic HCC patient in the Phase I clinical trial. In summary, our results suggest that SynOV can trigger systemic antitumor immunity to induce CD8+ T cells and normalize the abundance of immune cells to remodel the TME, which promises a powerful option to treat HCC in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Beijing SyngenTech Co., LTD, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China.
| | - Qifan Hu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Shuguang Peng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hui Ning
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jiajia Mai
- Phase I Clinical Research Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin, China
| | - Xi Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Minzhen Tao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Beijing SyngenTech Co., LTD, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Huiya Huang
- Beijing SyngenTech Co., LTD, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Yun Jiang
- Beijing SyngenTech Co., LTD, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Yanhua Ding
- Phase I Clinical Research Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin, China.
| | - Xuegong Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; School of Life Sciences and School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Jin Gu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Zhen Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Bioinformatics Division, Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology, Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang X, Shen Y, Wan X, Hu X, Cai WQ, Wu Z, Xin Q, Liu X, Gui J, Xin HY, Xin HW. Oncolytic virotherapy evolved into the fourth generation as tumor immunotherapy. J Transl Med 2023; 21:500. [PMID: 37491263 PMCID: PMC10369732 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04360-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) is a promising anti-tumor modality that utilizes oncolytic viruses (OVs) to preferentially attack cancers rather than normal tissues. With the understanding particularly in the characteristics of viruses and tumor cells, numerous innovative OVs have been engineered to conquer cancers, such as Talimogene Laherparepvec (T-VEC) and tasadenoturev (DNX-2401). However, the therapeutic safety and efficacy must be further optimized and balanced to ensure the superior safe and efficient OVT in clinics, and reasonable combination therapy strategies are also important challenges worthy to be explored. MAIN BODY Here we provided a critical review of the development history and status of OVT, emphasizing the mechanisms of enhancing both safety and efficacy. We propose that oncolytic virotherapy has evolved into the fourth generation as tumor immunotherapy. Particularly, to arouse T cells by designing OVs expressing bi-specific T cell activator (BiTA) is a promising strategy of killing two birds with one stone. Amazing combination of therapeutic strategies of OVs and immune cells confers immense potential for managing cancers. Moreover, the attractive preclinical OVT addressed recently, and the OVT in clinical trials were systematically reviewed. CONCLUSION OVs, which are advancing into clinical trials, are being envisioned as the frontier clinical anti-tumor agents coming soon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xianwang Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China.
| | - Yihua Shen
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China
| | - Xingxia Wan
- College of Arts and Sciences, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China
| | - Wen-Qi Cai
- Xinzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (Xinzhou), Wuhan, 430000, Hubei, China
| | - Zijun Wu
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China
| | - Qiang Xin
- School of Graduate Students, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, Hohhot, 010110, China
| | - Xiaoqing Liu
- College of Arts and Sciences, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China
| | - Jingang Gui
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Hong-Yi Xin
- The Doctoral Scientific Research Center, People's Hospital of Lianjiang, Guangdong, 524400, China.
- The Doctoral Scientific Research Center, Affiliated People's Hospital of Lianjiang, Guangdong Medical University, Guangdong, 524400, China.
| | - Hong-Wu Xin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434023, Hubei, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wu YY, Sun TK, Chen MS, Munir M, Liu HJ. Oncolytic viruses-modulated immunogenic cell death, apoptosis and autophagy linking to virotherapy and cancer immune response. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1142172. [PMID: 37009515 PMCID: PMC10050605 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1142172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent reports have revealed that oncolytic viruses (OVs) play a significant role in cancer therapy. The infection of OVs such as oncolytic vaccinia virus (OVV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), parvovirus, mammalian reovirus (MRV), human adenovirus, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), avian reovirus (ARV), Orf virus (ORFV), inactivated Sendai virus (ISV), enterovirus, and coxsackievirus offer unique opportunities in immunotherapy through diverse and dynamic pathways. This mini-review focuses on the mechanisms of OVs-mediated virotherapy and their effects on immunogenic cell death (ICD), apoptosis, autophagy and regulation of the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ying Wu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Te-Kai Sun
- Tsairder Boitechnology Co. Ltd., Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Shan Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Ditmanson Medical Foundation Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Chia-Yi, Taiwan
| | - Muhammad Munir
- Department of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Hung-Jen Liu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Ph.D Program in Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Hung-Jen Liu,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
CXCL10 Chemokine: A Critical Player in RNA and DNA Viral Infections. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112445. [PMID: 36366543 PMCID: PMC9696077 DOI: 10.3390/v14112445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines constitute a group of small, secreted proteins that regulate leukocyte migration and contribute to their activation. Chemokines are crucial inflammatory mediators that play a key role in managing viral infections, during which the profile of chemokine expression helps shape the immune response and regulate viral clearance, improving clinical outcome. In particular, the chemokine ligand CXCL10 and its receptor CXCR3 were explored in a plethora of RNA and DNA viral infections. In this review, we highlight the expression profile and role of the CXCL10/CXCR3 axis in the host defense against a variety of RNA and DNA viral infections. We also discuss the interactions among viruses and host cells that trigger CXCL10 expression, as well as the signaling cascades induced in CXCR3 positive cells.
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhou Z, Tao C, Li J, Tang JCO, Chan ASC, Zhou Y. Chimeric antigen receptor T cells applied to solid tumors. Front Immunol 2022; 13:984864. [PMID: 36389701 PMCID: PMC9659902 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.984864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy is novel tumor immunotherapy that enables autologous T to express synthetic receptors to specifically recognize the surface tumor-associated antigens for exerting subsequent antitumor effects, and eliminating the resistance, metastases and recurrence of cancer. Although CAR T cells have exhibited success in eradicating hematologic malignancies, their applications to solid tumors has not yet been achieved due to obstacles such as the immune-suppressor tumor microenvironment and lack of tumor specific target antigens. In this review, we presented advancements in the development of CAR T cell therapy in solid tumors, and offered a brief summary of the challenges, as well as novel engineering and pharmaceutical interventions to overcome these barriers. Looking forward, we discussed the latest studies which are expected to reach the clinicals in the next few years, including CRISPR screens-based CAR modification and CAR T cells driven from progenitor-like T cells. Collectively, this review may inspire researchers and clinicians to develop clinical available strategies of CAR T cell therapies in solid tumor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhongguo Zhou
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Can Tao
- School of Clinical Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jianting Li
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Johnny Cheuk-on Tang
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Kamford Genetics Company Limited, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Albert Sun-chi Chan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhou
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- *Correspondence: Yuanyuan Zhou,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ravirala D, Pei G, Zhao Z, Zhang X. Comprehensive characterization of tumor immune landscape following oncolytic virotherapy by single-cell RNA sequencing. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2022; 71:1479-1495. [PMID: 34716463 PMCID: PMC10992051 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-021-03084-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
An important mechanism of oncolytic virotherapy in ameliorating cancer immunotherapy is by inducing significant changes in the immune landscape in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Despite this notion and the potential therapeutic implications, a comprehensive analysis of the immune changes in carcinomas induced by virotherapy has not yet been elucidated. We conducted single-cell RNA sequencing analysis on carcinomas treated with an HSV-2-based oncolytic virus to characterize the immunogenic changes in the TME. We specifically analyzed and compared the immune cell composition between viral treated and untreated tumors. We also applied CellChat to analyze the complex interactions among the infiltrated immune cells. Our data revealed significant infiltration of B cells in addition to other important immune cells, including CD4+, CD8+, and NK cells following virotherapy. Further analysis identified distinct subset compositions of the infiltrated immune cells and their activation status upon virotherapy. The intensive interactions among the infiltrated immune cells as revealed by CellChat analysis may further shape the immune landscape in favor of generating antitumor immunity. Our findings will facilitate the design of new strategies in incorporating immunotherapy into virotherapy for clinical translation. Moreover, the significant infiltration of B cells makes it suitable for combining virotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Divya Ravirala
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204, USA
| | - Guangsheng Pei
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Zhongming Zhao
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
- Human Genetics Center, School of Public Health, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Xiaoliu Zhang
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204, USA.
- University of Houston, SERC 3004, 3517 Cullen Blvd, Houston, TX, 77204, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Controlling Cell Trafficking: Addressing Failures in CAR T and NK Cell Therapy of Solid Tumours. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14040978. [PMID: 35205725 PMCID: PMC8870056 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14040978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The precision guiding of endogenous or adoptively transferred lymphocytes to the solid tumour mass is obligatory for optimal anti-tumour effects and will improve patient safety. The recognition and elimination of the tumour is best achieved when anti-tumour lymphocytes are proximal to the malignant cells. For example, the regional secretion of soluble factors, cytotoxic granules, and cell-surface molecule interactions are required for the death of tumour cells and the suppression of neovasculature formation, tumour-associated suppressor, or stromal cells. The resistance of individual tumour cell clones to cellular therapy and the hostile environment of the solid tumours is a major challenge to adoptive cell therapy. We review the strategies that could be useful to overcoming insufficient immune cell migration to the tumour cell mass. We argue that existing 'competitive' approaches should now be revisited as complementary approaches to improve CAR T and NK cell therapy.
Collapse
|
9
|
Boagni DA, Ravirala D, Zhang SX. Current strategies in engaging oncolytic viruses with antitumor immunity. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2021; 22:98-113. [PMID: 34514092 PMCID: PMC8411207 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy has produced promising yet limited results in preclinical and clinical studies. Besides direct oncolytic activity, a significant therapeutic mechanism of oncolytic virotherapy is the induction of tumor-specific immunity. Consequently, the efficacy of oncolytic viruses can be improved by the insertion of immune stimulator genes and rational combinatorial therapy with other immunotherapies. This article reviews recent efforts on arming oncolytic viruses with a variety of immune stimulator molecules, immune cell engagers, and other immune potentiating molecules. We outline what is known about the mechanisms of action and the corresponding results. The review also discusses recent preclinical and clinical studies of combining oncolytic virotherapy with immune-checkpoint inhibitors and the role of oncolytic virotherapy in changing the tumor microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Drew Ashton Boagni
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Divya Ravirala
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shaun Xiaoliu Zhang
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ravirala D, Mistretta B, Gunaratne PH, Pei G, Zhao Z, Zhang X. Co-delivery of novel bispecific and trispecific engagers by an amplicon vector augments the therapeutic effect of an HSV-based oncolytic virotherapy. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:jitc-2021-002454. [PMID: 34230110 PMCID: PMC8261877 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2021-002454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although oncolytic virotherapy has shown substantial promises as a new treatment modality for many malignancies, further improvement on its therapeutic efficacy will likely bring more clinical benefits. One plausible way of enhancing the therapeutic effect of virotherapy is to enable it with the ability to concurrently engage the infiltrating immune cells to provide additional antitumor mechanisms. Here, we report the construction and evaluation of two novel chimeric molecules (bispecific chimeric engager proteins, BiCEP and trispecific chimeric engager protein, TriCEP) that can engage both natural killer (NK) and T cells with tumor cells for enhanced antitumor activities. METHODS BiCEP was constructed by linking orthopoxvirus major histocompatibility complex class I-like protein, which can selectively bind to NKG2D with a high affinity to a mutant form of epidermal growth factor (EGF) that can strongly bind to EGF receptor. TriCEP is similarly constructed except that it also contains a modified form of interleukin-2 that can only function as a tethered form. As NKG2D is expressed on both NK and CD8+ T cells, both of which can thus be engaged by BiCEP and TriCEP. RESULTS Both BiCEP and TriCEP showed the ability to engage NK and T cells to kill tumor cells in vitro. Coadministration of BiCEP and TriCEP with an oncolytic herpes simplex virus enhanced the overall antitumor effect. Furthermore, single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed that TriCEP not only engaged NK and T cells to kill tumor cells, it also promotes the infiltration and activation of these important immune cells. CONCLUSIONS These novel chimeric molecules exploit the ability of the oncolytic virotherapy in altering the tumor microenvironment with increased infiltration of important immune cells such as NK and T cells for cancer immunotherapy. The ability of BiCEP and TriCEP to engage both NK and T cells makes them an ideal choice for arming an oncolytic virotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Divya Ravirala
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Brandon Mistretta
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,UH Seq-N-Edit Core, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Preethi H Gunaratne
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,UH Seq-N-Edit Core, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Guangsheng Pei
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Zhongming Zhao
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Xiaoliu Zhang
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Adoptive T Cell Therapy Is Complemented by Oncolytic Virotherapy with Fusogenic VSV-NDV in Combination Treatment of Murine Melanoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13051044. [PMID: 33801359 PMCID: PMC7958625 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13051044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapies have made major advancements in recent years and are becoming the prevalent treatment options for numerous tumor entities. However, substantial response rates have only been observed in specific subsets of patients since pre-existing factors determine the susceptibility of a tumor to these therapies. The development of approaches that can actively induce an anti-tumor immune response, such as adoptive cell transfer and oncolytic virotherapy, have shown clinical success in the treatment of leukemia and melanoma, respectively. Based on the immune-stimulatory capacity of oncolytic VSV-NDV virotherapy, we envisioned a combination approach to synergize with adoptive T cell transfer, in order to enhance tumor cell killing. Using the immune-competent B16 melanoma model, we demonstrate that combination treatment has beneficial effects on the suppressive microenvironment through upregulation of MHC-I and maintaining low expression levels of PD-L1 on tumor cells. The approach led to additive cytotoxic effects and improved the recruitment of T cells to virus-infected tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. We observed substantial delays in tumor growth and evidence of abscopal effects, as well as prolongation of overall survival time when administered at clinically relevant dosing conditions. Our results indicate that treatment with oncolytic VSV-NDV, combined with adoptive T cell therapy, induces multi-mechanistic and synergistic tumor responses, which supports the further development of this promising translational approach.
Collapse
|
12
|
Feist M, Zhu Z, Dai E, Ma C, Liu Z, Giehl E, Ravindranathan R, Kowalsky SJ, Obermajer N, Kammula US, Lee AJH, Lotze MT, Guo ZS, Bartlett DL. Oncolytic virus promotes tumor-reactive infiltrating lymphocytes for adoptive cell therapy. Cancer Gene Ther 2021; 28:98-111. [PMID: 32632271 PMCID: PMC9718357 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-020-0189-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) using tumor-specific tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) has demonstrated success in patients where tumor-antigen specific TILs can be harvested from the tumor, expanded, and re-infused in combination with a preparatory regimen and IL2. One major issue for non-immunogenic tumors has been that the isolated TILs lack tumor specificity and thus possess limited in vivo therapeutic function. An oncolytic virus (OV) mediates an immunogenic cell death for cancer cells, leading to elicitation and dramatic enhancement of tumor-specific TILs. We hypothesized that the tumor-specific TILs elicited and promoted by an OV would be a great source for ACT for solid cancer. In this study, we show that a local injection of oncolytic poxvirus in MC38 tumor with low immunogenicity in C57BL/6 mice, led to elicitation and accumulation of tumor-specific TILs in the tumor tissue. Our analyses indicated that IL2-armed OV-elicited TILs contain lower quantities of exhausted PD-1hiTim-3+ CD8+ T cells and regulatory T cells. The isolated TILs from IL2-expressing OV-treated tumor tissue retained high tumor specificity after expansion ex vivo. These TILs resulted in significant tumor regression and improved survival after adoptive transfer in mice with established MC38 tumor. Our study showcases the feasibility of using an OV to induce tumor-reactive TILs that can be expanded for ACT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Feist
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Surgery, CCM/CVK, Charité - Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zhi Zhu
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Enyong Dai
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, The Third Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Congrong Ma
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Zuqiang Liu
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Surgery, CCM/CVK, Charité - Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Esther Giehl
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Surgery, CCM/CVK, Charité - Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roshni Ravindranathan
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stacy J Kowalsky
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Natasa Obermajer
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Udai S Kammula
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Andrew J H Lee
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Michael T Lotze
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Zong Sheng Guo
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - David L Bartlett
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
- Allegheny Health Network-Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, 15212, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
Tumors represent a hostile environment for the effector cells of cancer immunosurveillance. Immunosuppressive receptors and soluble or membrane-bound ligands are abundantly exposed and released by malignant entities and their stromal accomplices. As a consequence, executioners of antitumor immunity inefficiently navigate across cancer tissues and fail to eliminate malignant targets. By inducing immunogenic cancer cell death, oncolytic viruses profoundly reshape the tumor microenvironment. They trigger the local spread of danger signals and tumor-associated (as well as viral) antigens, thus attracting antigen-presenting cells, promoting the activation and expansion of lymphocytic populations, facilitating their infiltration in the tumor bed, and reinvigorating cytotoxic immune activity. The present review recapitulates key chemokines, growth factors and other cytokines that orchestrate this ballet of antitumoral leukocytes upon oncolytic virotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Pol
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, INSERM, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Villejuif, France.
| | - Samuel T Workenhe
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Prathyusha Konda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Shashi Gujar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, INSERM, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Villejuif, France; Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France; Suzhou Institute for Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Suzhou, China; Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Guo F, Cui J. CAR-T in solid tumors: Blazing a new trail through the brambles. Life Sci 2020; 260:118300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
15
|
Fu X, Tao L, Wu W, Zhang X. Arming HSV-Based Oncolytic Viruses with the Ability to Redirect the Host's Innate Antiviral Immunity to Attack Tumor Cells. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2020; 19:33-46. [PMID: 33024817 PMCID: PMC7530262 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2020.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
One of the major hurdles for cancer immunotherapy is the host's innate antiviral defense mechanisms. They include innate immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages, which can be recruited within hours to the site of injection to clear the introduced oncolytic viruses. Here, we report a strategy to redirect these infiltrating innate immune cells to attack tumor cells instead by arming herpes simplex virus (HSV)-derived oncolytic viruses with secreted chimeric molecules that can engage these innate immune cells with tumor cells to kill the latter. These chimeric molecules have, at their N terminus, a custom-binding moiety for a tumor-associated antigen (TAA) and at their C terminus, protein L (PL) that binds to immunoglobulins (Igs). The binding of PL to Igs exposes the Fc to the Fc receptors on the surface of the innate immune cells, trigging them to attack the engaged tumor cells. In vitro and in vivo evaluation in a murine tumor model with limited permissiveness to oncolytic HSVs showed that arming the viruses with these chimeric molecules significantly boosts the killing effect and therapeutic activity. Moreover, our data also showed that the combined killing effect from the engaged innate immune cells and the oncolytic virus resulted in a more efficient stimulation of neoantigen-specific antitumor immunity than the virotherapy alone. Our data suggest that arming an oncolytic virus with this strategy represents a unique and pragmatic way of potentiating the oncolytic and immunotherapeutic effect of virotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinping Fu
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry and Center for Nuclear Receptor and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lihua Tao
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry and Center for Nuclear Receptor and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Wanfu Wu
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry and Center for Nuclear Receptor and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Xiaoliu Zhang
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry and Center for Nuclear Receptor and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Burchett R, Walsh S, Wan Y, Bramson JL. A rational relationship: Oncolytic virus vaccines as functional partners for adoptive T cell therapy. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2020; 56:149-159. [PMID: 32665126 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Tumours employ a variety of immune-evasion and suppression mechanisms to impair development of functional tumor-specific T cells and subvert T cell-mediated immunity in the tumour microenvironment. Adoptive T cell therapy (ACT) aims to overcome these barriers and overwhelm tumor defenses with a bolus of T cells that were selectively expanded ex vivo. Although this strategy has been effective in liquid tumors and melanomas, many tumors appear to be resistant to ACT. Several factors are thought to play into this resistance, including poor engraftment and persistence of transferred cells, tumour cell heterogeneity and antigen loss, poor immune cell recruitment and infiltration into the tumour, and susceptibility to local immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. Oncolytic viruses (OV) have been identified as powerful stimulators of the anti-tumour immune response. As such, OVs are inherently well-positioned to act in synergy with ACT to bolster the anti-tumour T cell response. Further, OV vaccines, wherein tumour-associated antigens are encoded into the viral backbone, have proven to be remarkable in boosting antigen-specific T cell response. Pre-clinical studies have revealed remarkable therapeutic outcomes when OV vaccines are paired with ACT. In this scenario, OV vaccines are thought to function in a "push and pull" manner, where push refers to expanding T cells in the periphery and pull refers to recruiting those cells into the tumour that has been rendered amenable to T cell attack by the actions of the OV. In this review, we discuss barriers that limit eradication of tumors by T cells, highlight attributes of OVs that break down these barriers and present strategies for rational combinations of ACT with OV vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Burchett
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Scott Walsh
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Yonghong Wan
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan L Bramson
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ajina A, Maher J. Synergistic combination of oncolytic virotherapy with CAR T-cell therapy. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2019; 164:217-292. [PMID: 31383406 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
For patients with advanced hematological malignancies the therapeutic landscape has been transformed by the emergence of adoptive cell transfer utilizing autologous chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-redirected T-cells. However, solid tumors have proved far more resistant to this approach. Here, we summarize the numerous challenges faced by CAR T-cells designed to target solid tumors, highlighting, in particular, issues related to impaired trafficking, expansion, and persistence. In parallel, we draw attention to exciting developments in the burgeoning field of oncolytic virotherapy and posit strategies for the synergistic combination of oncolytic viruses with CAR T-cells to improve outcomes for patients with advanced solid tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ajina
- King's College London, Division of Cancer Studies, Guy's Hospital, London, United Kingdom.
| | - John Maher
- King's College London, Division of Cancer Studies, Guy's Hospital, London, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; Department of Immunology, Eastbourne Hospital, East Sussex, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wang L, Yao R, Zhang L, Fan C, Ma L, Liu J. Chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy and other therapeutics for malignancies: Combination and opportunity. Int Immunopharmacol 2019; 70:498-503. [PMID: 30875561 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy provides possibility for the treatment of malignancies since clinical trials have shown that CAR-T therapy has a significant anti-tumor effect. Although many efforts have been made to improve the efficacy and reduce the side effects of CAR-T therapy, there are still many problems to solve. With the rapid development of this field, combination immunotherapy has been proved to improve the efficacy of CAR-T therapy. Studies have shown that radiotherapy, chemotherapy, oncolytic virotherapy, BTK inhibitors and immune checkpoint blockade-based therapy may further enhance the efficacy of CAR-T therapy while CRISPR/Cas9 technology and IL-1 blockade may improve the safety. In this review, we summarized the advantages and the mechanisms of the combination immunotherapy based on CAR-T cell therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, China
| | - Ruixue Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, China
| | - Lifa Zhang
- 401 Hospital of the People's Liberation Army, China
| | - Chuanbo Fan
- Department of Hematology, Qingdao Hiser Medical Center, China
| | - Leina Ma
- Cancer Institute, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266061, China; Qingdao Cancer Institute, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, China.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Zhang W, Wang F, Hu X, Liang J, Liu B, Guan Q, Liu S. Inhibition of colorectal cancer liver metastasis in BALB/c mice following intratumoral injection of oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 2 for the induction of specific antitumor immunity. Oncol Lett 2018; 17:815-822. [PMID: 30655834 PMCID: PMC6313052 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.9720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver metastasis represents the most prominent metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC) and is the leading cause of CRC mortality, making the early prevention of this event very important. While current CRC therapies include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, no effective treatment option for CRC liver metastasis (CRLM) exists. Furthermore, the effects of currently available metastatic CRC drugs are frequently limited by their toxicity and side effects. Oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 2 (oHSV2) selectively infects tumor cells and also induces an antitumor immune response. The present study investigated the cytopathic effects of oHSV2 on CT-26 cells in vitro and tested its inhibitory effect on CRLM. In vitro experimental data demonstrated that oHSV2 effectively inhibited the growth of CT-26 cells. In vivo study data demonstrated that treatment with oHSV2 alone slowed the growth of subcutaneous xenograft tumors without inducing weight loss and also inhibited CRLM by increasing the numbers of cluster of differentiation (CD)4+ T, CD8+ T and natural killer cells. In summary, oHSV2 shows potential as a safe and effective therapeutic agent for inhibiting the metastasis of CT-26 CRC cells to the liver.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen Zhang
- Department of Immunology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China
| | - Feifei Wang
- Department of Immunology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China.,Inner Mongolia University For Nationalities, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia 028000, P.R. China
| | - Xiao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China
| | - Jing Liang
- Department of Pathology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China
| | - Binlei Liu
- Department of Immunology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China.,Hubei Provincial Cooperative, Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 30068, P.R. China
| | - Qi Guan
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, The Second Clinical Medical School of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Yakeshi, Inner Mongolia 022150, P.R. China
| | - Shangmei Liu
- Department of Pathology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Rosewell Shaw A, Suzuki M. Oncolytic Viruses Partner With T-Cell Therapy for Solid Tumor Treatment. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2103. [PMID: 30298067 PMCID: PMC6160535 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Adoptive T-cell immunotherapies, including chimeric antigen receptor-modified T-cells (CAR-T cells), have revolutionized cancer treatment, especially for hematologic malignancies. Clinical success of CAR-T cell monotherapy in solid tumors however, has been only modest. Oncolytic viruses provide direct cancer cell lysis, stimulate systemic immune responses, and have the capacity to provide therapeutic transgenes. Oncolytic virotherapy has shown great promise in many preclinical solid tumor models and the first oncolytic virus has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of advanced melanoma. As monotherapies for solid tumors, oncolytic virotherapy provides only moderate anti-tumor effects. However, due to their complementary modes of action, oncolytic virus and T-cell therapies can be combined to overcome the inherent limitations of each agent. This review focuses on the aspects of oncolytic viruses that enable them to synergize with adoptive T-cell immunotherapies to enhance anti-tumor effects for solid tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Rosewell Shaw
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States.,Baylor College of Medicine, Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Masataka Suzuki
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States.,Baylor College of Medicine, Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Gujar S, Pol JG, Kroemer G. Heating it up: Oncolytic viruses make tumors 'hot' and suitable for checkpoint blockade immunotherapies. Oncoimmunology 2018; 7:e1442169. [PMID: 30221036 PMCID: PMC6136862 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1442169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockade is less efficient in patients bearing immunologically ‘cold’ tumors. Oncolytic viruses, which were originally discovered for their ability to preferentially kill malignant cells, can recondition the tumor microenvironment. Supporting this hypothesis, two new studies published in Science Translational Medicine show that adjuvant-like activities of oncolytic viruses make brain and breast tumors ‘hot’ and sensitize them for subsequent immune checkpoint blockade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shashi Gujar
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Health Sciences Research, Quality and System Performance, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Jonathan G Pol
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France.,Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France.,Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Ajina A, Maher J. Prospects for combined use of oncolytic viruses and CAR T-cells. J Immunother Cancer 2017; 5:90. [PMID: 29157300 PMCID: PMC5696728 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-017-0294-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
With the approval of talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) for inoperable locally advanced or metastatic malignant melanoma in the USA and Europe, oncolytic virotherapy is now emerging as a viable therapeutic option for cancer patients. In parallel, following the favourable results of several clinical trials, adoptive cell transfer using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-redirected T-cells is anticipated to enter routine clinical practice for the management of chemotherapy-refractory B-cell malignancies. However, CAR T-cell therapy for patients with advanced solid tumours has proved far less successful. This Review draws upon recent advances in the design of novel oncolytic viruses and CAR T-cells and provides a comprehensive overview of the synergistic potential of combination oncolytic virotherapy with CAR T-cell adoptive cell transfer for the management of solid tumours, drawing particular attention to the methods by which recombinant oncolytic viruses may augment CAR T-cell trafficking into the tumour microenvironment, mitigate or reverse local immunosuppression and enhance CAR T-cell effector function and persistence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ajina
- Department of Oncology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - John Maher
- King’s College London, CAR Mechanics Group, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guy’s Hospital Campus, Great Maze Pond, London, SE1 9RT UK
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Department of Immunology, Eastbourne Hospital, East Sussex, UK
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Howells A, Marelli G, Lemoine NR, Wang Y. Oncolytic Viruses-Interaction of Virus and Tumor Cells in the Battle to Eliminate Cancer. Front Oncol 2017; 7:195. [PMID: 28944214 PMCID: PMC5596080 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2017.00195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are an emerging treatment option for many cancer types and have recently been the focus of extensive research aiming to develop their therapeutic potential. The ultimate aim is to design a virus which can effectively replicate within the host, specifically target and lyse tumor cells and induce robust, long lasting tumor-specific immunity. There are a number of viruses which are either naturally tumor-selective or can be modified to specifically target and eliminate tumor cells. This means they are able to infect only tumor cells and healthy tissue remains unharmed. This specificity is imperative in order to reduce the side effects of oncolytic virotherapy. These viruses can also be modified by various methods including insertion and deletion of specific genes with the aim of improving their efficacy and safety profiles. In this review, we have provided an overview of the various virus species currently being investigated for their oncolytic potential and the positive and negative effects of a multitude of modifications used to increase their infectivity, anti-tumor immunity, and treatment safety, in particular focusing on the interaction of tumor cells and OVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anwen Howells
- Centre for Molecular Oncology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Giulia Marelli
- Centre for Molecular Oncology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R Lemoine
- Centre for Molecular Oncology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom.,National Centre for International Research in Cell and Gene Therapy, Sino-British Research Centre for Molecular Oncology, Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yaohe Wang
- Centre for Molecular Oncology, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom.,National Centre for International Research in Cell and Gene Therapy, Sino-British Research Centre for Molecular Oncology, Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Oncolytic measles virus enhances antitumour responses of adoptive CD8 +NKG2D + cells in hepatocellular carcinoma treatment. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5170. [PMID: 28701757 PMCID: PMC5507973 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05500-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need for novel effective treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Oncolytic viruses (OVs) not only directly lyse malignant cells, but also induce potent antitumour immune responses. The potency and precise mechanisms of antitumour immune activation by attenuated measles virus remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the potency of the measles virus vaccine strain Edmonston (MV-Edm) in improving adoptive CD8+NKG2D+ cells for HCC treatment. We show that MV-Edm-infected HCC enhanced the antitumour activity of CD8+NKG2D+ cells, mediated by at least three distinct mechanisms. First, MV-Edm infection compelled HCC cells to express the specific NKG2D ligands MICA/B, which may contribute to the activation of CD8+NKG2D+ cells. Second, MV-Edm-infected HCC cells stimulated CD8+NKG2D+ cells to express high level of FasL resulting in enhanced induction of apoptosis. Third, intratumoural administration of MV-Edm enhanced infiltration of intravenously injected CD8+NKG2D+ cells. Moreover, we found that MV-Edm and adoptive CD8+NKG2D+ cells, either administered alone or combined, upregulated the immune suppressive enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) in HCC. Elimination of IDO1 by fludarabine enhanced antitumour responses. Taken together, our data provide a novel and clinically relevant strategy for treatment of HCC.
Collapse
|
25
|
Yin L, Zhao C, Han J, Li Z, Zhen Y, Xiao R, Xu Z, Sun Y. Antitumor effects of oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 2 against colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2017; 13:117-130. [PMID: 28223815 PMCID: PMC5308569 DOI: 10.2147/tcrm.s128575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) is on the rise. Furthermore, late-stage diagnoses and limited efficacious treatment options make CRC a complex clinical challenge. Therefore, a new therapeutic regimen with a completely novel therapeutic mechanism is necessary for CRC. In the present study, the therapeutic efficacy of oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 2 (oHSV2) in CRC was assessed in vitro and in vivo. oHSV2 is an oncolytic agent derived from herpes simplex virus type 2 that encodes granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Materials and methods We investigated the cytopathic effects of oHSV2 in CRC cell lines using the MTT assay. Then, cell cycle progression and apoptosis of oHSV2 were examined by flow cytometry. We generated a model of CRC with mouse CRC cell CT26 in BALB/c mice. The antitumor effects and adaptive immune response of oHSV2 were assessed in tumor-bearing mice. The therapeutic efficacy of oHSV2 was compared with the traditional chemotherapeutic agent, 5-fluorouracil. Results The in vitro data showed that oHSV2 infected the CRC cell lines successfully and that the tumor cells formed a significant number of syncytiae postinfection. The oHSV2 killed cancer cells independent of the cell cycle and mainly caused tumor cells necrosis. The in vivo results showed that oHSV2 significantly inhibited tumor growth and prolonged survival of tumor-bearing mice without weight loss. With virus replication, oHSV2 not only resulted in a reduction of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells in the spleen, but also increased the number of mature dendritic cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes and the effective CD4+T and CD8+T-cells in the tumor microenvironment. Conclusion Our study provides the first evidence that oHSV2 induces cell death in CRC in vitro and in vivo. These findings indicate that oHSV2 is an effective therapeutic cancer candidate that causes an oncolytic effect and recruits adaptive immune responses for an enhanced therapeutic impact, thus providing a potential therapeutic tool for treatment of CRC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yin
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan-Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan; Department of Gastrointestinal Cancer Surgery, Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan; Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Chunhong Zhao
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Jixia Han
- Department of General Surgery, The Sixth People's Hospital of Jinan, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Zengjun Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal Cancer Surgery, Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Yanan Zhen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Ruixue Xiao
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Zhongfa Xu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| | - Yanlai Sun
- Department of Gastrointestinal Cancer Surgery, Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Speranza MC, Kasai K, Lawler SE. Preclinical Mouse Models for Analysis of the Therapeutic Potential of Engineered Oncolytic Herpes Viruses. ILAR J 2017; 57:63-72. [PMID: 27034396 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilw002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
After more than two decades of research and development, oncolytic herpes viruses (oHSVs) are moving into the spotlight due to recent encouraging clinical trial data. oHSV and other oncolytic viruses function through direct oncolytic cancer cell-killing mechanisms and by stimulating antitumor immunity. As further viruses are developed and optimized for the treatment of various types of cancer, appropriate predictive preclinical models will be of great utility. This review will discuss existing data in this area, focusing on the mouse tumor models that are commonly used.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Carmela Speranza
- Maria-Carmela Speranza, PhD, is a post-doctoral fellow; Kazue Kasai, PhD, is a Research Specialist; and Sean E. Lawler, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Harvey Cushing Neurooncology Laboratories in the Department of Neurosurgery at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kazue Kasai
- Maria-Carmela Speranza, PhD, is a post-doctoral fellow; Kazue Kasai, PhD, is a Research Specialist; and Sean E. Lawler, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Harvey Cushing Neurooncology Laboratories in the Department of Neurosurgery at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sean E Lawler
- Maria-Carmela Speranza, PhD, is a post-doctoral fellow; Kazue Kasai, PhD, is a Research Specialist; and Sean E. Lawler, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Harvey Cushing Neurooncology Laboratories in the Department of Neurosurgery at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Capitalizing on Cancer Specific Replication: Oncolytic Viruses as a Versatile Platform for the Enhancement of Cancer Immunotherapy Strategies. Biomedicines 2016; 4:biomedicines4030021. [PMID: 28536388 PMCID: PMC5344262 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines4030021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The past decade has seen considerable excitement in the use of biological therapies in treating neoplastic disease. In particular, cancer immunotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy have emerged as two frontrunners in this regard with the first FDA approvals for agents in both categories being obtained in the last 5 years. It is becoming increasingly apparent that these two approaches are not mutually exclusive and that much of the therapeutic benefit obtained from the use of oncolytic viruses (OVs) is in fact the result of their immunotherapeutic function. Indeed, OVs have been shown to recruit and activate an antitumor immune response and much of the current work in this field centers around increasing this activity through strategies such as engineering genes for immunomodulators into OV backbones. Because of their broad immunostimulatory functions, OVs can also be rationally combined with a variety of other immunotherapeutic approaches including cancer vaccination strategies, adoptive cell transfer and checkpoint blockade. Therefore, while they are important therapeutics in their own right, the true power of OVs may lie in their ability to enhance the effectiveness of a wide range of immunotherapies.
Collapse
|
28
|
Oncolytic viruses-immunotherapeutics on the rise. J Mol Med (Berl) 2016; 94:979-91. [PMID: 27492706 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-016-1453-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The oncolytic virus (OV) field has entered an exciting period in its evolution in which our basic understanding of viral biology and anti-cancer potential are being actively translated into viable therapeutic options for aggressive malignancies. OVs are naturally occurring or engineered viruses that are able to exploit cancer-specific changes in cellular signaling to specifically target cancers and their microenvironment. The direct cytolytic effect of OVs on cancer cells is known to release antigens, which can begin a cascade of events that results in the induction of anti-cancer adaptive immunity. This response is now regarded as the most critical mechanism of OV action and harnessing it can lead to the elimination of distant micrometastases as well as provide long-term anti-cancer immune surveillance. In this review, we highlight the development of the OV field, why OVs are gaining an increasingly elevated standing as members of the cancer immunotherapy armamentarium, and finally, ongoing clinical studies that are aimed at translating unique OV therapies into approved therapies for aggressive cancers.
Collapse
|
29
|
Tsun A, Miao XN, Wang CM, Yu DC. Oncolytic Immunotherapy for Treatment of Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 909:241-83. [PMID: 27240460 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-7555-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapy entails the treatment of disease by modulation of the immune system. As detailed in the previous chapters, the different modes of achieving immune modulation are many, including the use of small/large molecules, cellular therapy, and radiation. Oncolytic viruses that can specifically attack, replicate within, and destroy tumors represent one of the most promising classes of agents for cancer immunotherapy (recently termed as oncolytic immunotherapy). The notion of oncolytic immunotherapy is considered as the way in which virus-induced tumor cell death (known as immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD)) allows the immune system to recognize tumor cells and provide long-lasting antitumor immunity. Both immune responses toward the virus and ICD together contribute toward successful antitumor efficacy. What is now becoming increasingly clear is that monotherapies, through any of the modalities detailed in this book, are neither sufficient in eradicating tumors nor in providing long-lasting antitumor immune responses and that combination therapies may deliver enhanced efficacy. After the rise of the genetic engineering era, it has been possible to engineer viruses to harbor combination-like characteristics to enhance their potency in cancer immunotherapy. This chapter provides a historical background on oncolytic virotherapy and its future application in cancer immunotherapy, especially as a combination therapy with other treatment modalities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Tsun
- Innovent Biologics, Inc., 168 Dongping Street, Suzhou Industrial Park, 215123, China
| | - X N Miao
- Innovent Biologics, Inc., 168 Dongping Street, Suzhou Industrial Park, 215123, China
| | - C M Wang
- Innovent Biologics, Inc., 168 Dongping Street, Suzhou Industrial Park, 215123, China
| | - D C Yu
- Innovent Biologics, Inc., 168 Dongping Street, Suzhou Industrial Park, 215123, China.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
de Gruijl TD, Janssen AB, van Beusechem VW. Arming oncolytic viruses to leverage antitumor immunity. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2015; 15:959-71. [PMID: 25959450 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2015.1044433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Over the past decade, the cytolytic capabilities of oncolytic viruses (OVs), exploited to selectively eliminate neoplastic cells, have become secondary to their use to elicit a tumor-directed immune response. AREAS COVERED Here, based on an NCBI-PubMed literature survey, we review the efforts undertaken to arm OVs in order to improve therapeutic antitumor responses upon administration of these agents. Specifically, we explore the different options to modulate immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and to facilitate the generation of effective antitumor responses that have been investigated in conjunction with OVs in recent years. EXPERT OPINION Their induction of immunogenic tumor cell death and association with pro-inflammatory signals make OVs attractive immunotherapeutic modalities. The first promising clinical results with immunologically armed OVs warrant their further optimization and development. OVs should be modified to avoid detrimental effects of pre-existent anti-OV immunity as well as for increased tumor targeting and selectivity, so as to ultimately allow for systemic administration while achieving local immune potentiation and tumor elimination in the TME. In particular, a combination of trans-genes encoding bispecific T-cell engagers, immune checkpoint blockers and antigen-presenting cell enhancers will remove suppressive hurdles in the TME and allow for optimal antitumor efficacy of armed OVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tanja D de Gruijl
- VU University Medical Center - Cancer Center Amsterdam, Department of Medical Oncology , Room VUmc-CCA 2.44, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam , The Netherlands +31 20 4444063 ;
| | | | | |
Collapse
|