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Bell TN, Kusi-Appiah AE, Tocci V, Lyu P, Zhu L, Zhu F, Van Winkle D, Cao H, Singh MS, Lenhert S. Scalable lipid droplet microarray fabrication, validation, and screening. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0304736. [PMID: 38968248 PMCID: PMC11226032 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0304736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
High throughput screening of small molecules and natural products is costly, requiring significant amounts of time, reagents, and operating space. Although microarrays have proven effective in the miniaturization of screening for certain biochemical assays, such as nucleic acid hybridization or antibody binding, they are not widely used for drug discovery in cell culture due to the need for cells to internalize lipophilic drug candidates. Lipid droplet microarrays are a promising solution to this problem as they are capable of delivering lipophilic drugs to cells at dosages comparable to solution delivery. However, the scalablility of the array fabrication, assay validation, and screening steps has limited the utility of this approach. Here we take several new steps to scale up the process for lipid droplet array fabrication, assay validation in cell culture, and drug screening. A nanointaglio printing process has been adapted for use with a printing press. The arrays are stabilized for immersion into aqueous solution using a vapor coating process. In addition to delivery of lipophilic compounds, we found that we are also able to encapsulate and deliver a water-soluble compound in this way. The arrays can be functionalized by extracellular matrix proteins such as collagen prior to cell culture as the mechanism for uptake is based on direct contact with the lipid delivery vehicles rather than diffusion of the drug out of the microarray spots. We demonstrate this method for delivery to 3 different cell types and the screening of 92 natural product extracts on a microarray covering an area of less than 0.1 cm2. The arrays are suitable for miniaturized screening, for instance in high biosafety level facilities where space is limited and for applications where cell numbers are limited, such as in functional precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracey N. Bell
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Aubrey E. Kusi-Appiah
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Vincent Tocci
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Pengfei Lyu
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Lei Zhu
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fanxiu Zhu
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - David Van Winkle
- Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Hongyuan Cao
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mandip S. Singh
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Steven Lenhert
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
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Barbier J, Vaillant C, Volff JN, Brunet FG, Audit B. Coupling between Sequence-Mediated Nucleosome Organization and Genome Evolution. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12060851. [PMID: 34205881 PMCID: PMC8228248 DOI: 10.3390/genes12060851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleosome is a major modulator of DNA accessibility to other cellular factors. Nucleosome positioning has a critical importance in regulating cell processes such as transcription, replication, recombination or DNA repair. The DNA sequence has an influence on the position of nucleosomes on genomes, although other factors are also implicated, such as ATP-dependent remodelers or competition of the nucleosome with DNA binding proteins. Different sequence motifs can promote or inhibit the nucleosome formation, thus influencing the accessibility to the DNA. Sequence-encoded nucleosome positioning having functional consequences on cell processes can then be selected or counter-selected during evolution. We review the interplay between sequence evolution and nucleosome positioning evolution. We first focus on the different ways to encode nucleosome positions in the DNA sequence, and to which extent these mechanisms are responsible of genome-wide nucleosome positioning in vivo. Then, we discuss the findings about selection of sequences for their nucleosomal properties. Finally, we illustrate how the nucleosome can directly influence sequence evolution through its interactions with DNA damage and repair mechanisms. This review aims to provide an overview of the mutual influence of sequence evolution and nucleosome positioning evolution, possibly leading to complex evolutionary dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémy Barbier
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Univ Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69364 Lyon, France; (J.B.); (F.G.B.)
- Laboratoire de Physique, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, F-69342 Lyon, France;
| | - Cédric Vaillant
- Laboratoire de Physique, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, F-69342 Lyon, France;
| | - Jean-Nicolas Volff
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Univ Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69364 Lyon, France; (J.B.); (F.G.B.)
- Correspondence: (J.-N.V.); (B.A.)
| | - Frédéric G. Brunet
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Univ Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, F-69364 Lyon, France; (J.B.); (F.G.B.)
| | - Benjamin Audit
- Laboratoire de Physique, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, F-69342 Lyon, France;
- Correspondence: (J.-N.V.); (B.A.)
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Cole L, Kurscheid S, Nekrasov M, Domaschenz R, Vera DL, Dennis JH, Tremethick DJ. Multiple roles of H2A.Z in regulating promoter chromatin architecture in human cells. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2524. [PMID: 33953180 PMCID: PMC8100287 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22688-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromatin accessibility of a promoter is fundamental in regulating transcriptional activity. The histone variant H2A.Z has been shown to contribute to this regulation, but its role has remained poorly understood. Here, we prepare high-depth maps of the position and accessibility of H2A.Z-containing nucleosomes for all human Pol II promoters in epithelial, mesenchymal and isogenic cancer cell lines. We find that, in contrast to the prevailing model, many different types of active and inactive promoter structures are observed that differ in their nucleosome organization and sensitivity to MNase digestion. Key aspects of an active chromatin structure include positioned H2A.Z MNase resistant nucleosomes upstream or downstream of the TSS, and a MNase sensitive nucleosome at the TSS. Furthermore, the loss of H2A.Z leads to a dramatic increase in the accessibility of transcription factor binding sites. Collectively, these results suggest that H2A.Z has multiple and distinct roles in regulating gene expression dependent upon its location in a promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Cole
- College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Sebastian Kurscheid
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Maxim Nekrasov
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Renae Domaschenz
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Daniel L Vera
- College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Paul F. Glenn Center for Biology of Aging Research, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jonathan H Dennis
- College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.
| | - David J Tremethick
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
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MNase Profiling of Promoter Chromatin in Salmonella typhimurium-Stimulated GM12878 Cells Reveals Dynamic and Response-Specific Nucleosome Architecture. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2020; 10:2171-2178. [PMID: 32404364 PMCID: PMC7341138 DOI: 10.1534/g3.120.401266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The nucleosome is the primary unit of chromatin structure and commonly imputed as a regulator of nuclear events, although the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Recent studies have shown that certain nucleosomes can have different sensitivities to micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion, resulting in the release of populations of nucleosomes dependent on the concentration of MNase. Mapping MNase sensitivity of nucleosomes at transcription start sites genome-wide reveals an important functional nucleosome organization that correlates with gene expression levels and transcription factor binding. In order to understand nucleosome distribution and sensitivity dynamics during a robust genome response, we mapped nucleosome position and sensitivity using multiple concentrations of MNase. We used the innate immune response as a model system to understand chromatin-mediated regulation. Herein we demonstrate that stimulation of a human lymphoblastoid cell line (GM12878) with heat-killed Salmonella typhimurium (HKST) results in changes in nucleosome sensitivity to MNase. We show that the HKST response alters the sensitivity of -1 nucleosomes at highly expressed promoters. Finally, we correlate the increased sensitivity with response-specific transcription factor binding. These results indicate that nucleosome sensitivity dynamics reflect the cellular response to HKST and pave the way for further studies that will deepen our understanding of the specificity of genome response.
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Parvathaneni RK, Bertolini E, Shamimuzzaman M, Vera DL, Lung PY, Rice BR, Zhang J, Brown PJ, Lipka AE, Bass HW, Eveland AL. The regulatory landscape of early maize inflorescence development. Genome Biol 2020; 21:165. [PMID: 32631399 PMCID: PMC7336428 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-020-02070-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The functional genome of agronomically important plant species remains largely unexplored, yet presents a virtually untapped resource for targeted crop improvement. Functional elements of regulatory DNA revealed through profiles of chromatin accessibility can be harnessed for fine-tuning gene expression to optimal phenotypes in specific environments. RESULT Here, we investigate the non-coding regulatory space in the maize (Zea mays) genome during early reproductive development of pollen- and grain-bearing inflorescences. Using an assay for differential sensitivity of chromatin to micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion, we profile accessible chromatin and nucleosome occupancy in these largely undifferentiated tissues and classify at least 1.6% of the genome as accessible, with the majority of MNase hypersensitive sites marking proximal promoters, but also 3' ends of maize genes. This approach maps regulatory elements to footprint-level resolution. Integration of complementary transcriptome profiles and transcription factor occupancy data are used to annotate regulatory factors, such as combinatorial transcription factor binding motifs and long non-coding RNAs, that potentially contribute to organogenesis, including tissue-specific regulation between male and female inflorescence structures. Finally, genome-wide association studies for inflorescence architecture traits based solely on functional regions delineated by MNase hypersensitivity reveals new SNP-trait associations in known regulators of inflorescence development as well as new candidates. CONCLUSIONS These analyses provide a comprehensive look into the cis-regulatory landscape during inflorescence differentiation in a major cereal crop, which ultimately shapes architecture and influences yield potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Md Shamimuzzaman
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO 63132 USA
- Current address: USDA-ARS Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center, Fargo, ND 58102 USA
| | - Daniel L. Vera
- The Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
- Current address: Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Pei-Yau Lung
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
| | - Brian R. Rice
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
| | - Jinfeng Zhang
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
| | - Patrick J. Brown
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Alexander E. Lipka
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
| | - Hank W. Bass
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
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Oruba A, Saccani S, van Essen D. Role of cell-type specific nucleosome positioning in inducible activation of mammalian promoters. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1075. [PMID: 32103026 PMCID: PMC7044431 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14950-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The organization of nucleosomes across functional genomic elements represents a critical layer of control. Here, we present a strategy for high-resolution nucleosome profiling at selected genomic features, and use this to analyse dynamic nucleosome positioning at inducible and cell-type-specific mammalian promoters. We find that nucleosome patterning at inducible promoters frequently resembles that at active promoters, even before stimulus-driven activation. Accordingly, the nucleosome profile at many inactive inducible promoters is sufficient to predict cell-type-specific responsiveness. Induction of gene expression is generally not associated with major changes to nucleosome patterning, and a subset of inducible promoters can be activated without stable nucleosome depletion from their transcription start sites. These promoters are generally dependent on remodelling enzymes for their inducible activation, and exhibit transient nucleosome depletion only at alleles undergoing transcription initiation. Together, these data reveal how the responsiveness of inducible promoters to activating stimuli is linked to cell-type-specific nucleosome patterning. Nucleosome organisation plays important roles in regulating functional genomic elements. Here, the authors use high-resolution profiling to analyse dynamic nucleosome positioning at inducible and cell-type-specific promoters, providing a global view of chromatin architecture at inducible promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Oruba
- Max Planck Institute for Immunobiology & Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, Freiburg, D79108, Germany
| | - Simona Saccani
- Max Planck Institute for Immunobiology & Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, Freiburg, D79108, Germany. .,Institute for Research on Cancer & Aging, Nice (IRCAN), 28 Avenue Valombrose, Nice, 06107, France.
| | - Dominic van Essen
- Max Planck Institute for Immunobiology & Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, Freiburg, D79108, Germany. .,Institute for Research on Cancer & Aging, Nice (IRCAN), 28 Avenue Valombrose, Nice, 06107, France.
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Chen J, Li E, Lai J. The coupled effect of nucleosome organization on gene transcription level and transcriptional plasticity. Nucleus 2019; 8:605-612. [PMID: 29202635 DOI: 10.1080/19491034.2017.1402152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleosomes are the fundamental units of eukaryotic chromatin and can modulate the DNA accessibility for transcriptional regulatory elements. Many studies have demonstrated the effect of nucleosome organization on gene transcription level and transcriptional plasticity upon different conditions. Our recent study showed that nucleosome organization also plays an important role in modulating the plasticity of gene transcriptional status in maize. Here, we integrated our findings with previous studies on the role of nucleosome organization in regulation of gene transcription. We highlighted our recent finding that nucleosome organization plays an important role in determining the plasticity of gene transcription, beyond its role in regulating gene transcription level, particularly for intrinsically DNA-encoded nucleosome organization. We also discussed the features of sequence and structure of genes involved in affecting nucleosome organization around genes, as well as the potential mechanisms for overcoming the coupled effect of nucleosome organization on gene transcription level and transcriptional plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- a State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center , Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding , China Agricultural University , Beijing , P. R. China
| | - En Li
- a State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center , Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding , China Agricultural University , Beijing , P. R. China
| | - Jinsheng Lai
- a State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center , Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding , China Agricultural University , Beijing , P. R. China
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Chen J, Li E, Zhang X, Dong X, Lei L, Song W, Zhao H, Lai J. Genome-wide Nucleosome Occupancy and Organization Modulates the Plasticity of Gene Transcriptional Status in Maize. MOLECULAR PLANT 2017; 10:962-974. [PMID: 28487258 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Nucleosomes are fundamental units of chromatin that play critical roles in gene regulation by modulating DNA accessibility. However, their roles in regulating tissue-specific gene transcription are poorly understood. Here, we present genome-wide nucleosome maps of maize shoot and endosperm generated by sequencing the micrococcal nuclease digested nucleosomal DNA. The changes of gene transcriptional status between shoot and endosperm were accompanied by preferential nucleosome loss from the promoters and shifts in the first nucleosome downstream of the transcriptional start sites (+1 nucleosome) and upstream of transcriptional termination sites (-1 nucleosome). Intrinsically DNA-encoded nucleosome organization was largely associated with the capacity of a gene to alter its transcriptional status among different tissues. Compared with tissue-specific genes, constitutively expressed genes showed more pronounced 5' and 3' nucleosome-depleted regions as well as further +1 nucleosome to transcriptional start sites and -1 nucleosome to transcriptional termination sites. Moreover, nucleosome organization was more highly correlated with the plasticity of gene transcriptional status than with its expression level when examined using in vivo and predicted nucleosome data. In addition, the translational efficiencies of tissue-specific genes appeared to be greater than those of constitutively expressed genes. Taken together, our results indicate that intrinsically DNA-encoded nucleosome organization is important, beyond its role in regulating gene expression levels, in determining the plasticity of gene transcriptional status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - En Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Xiangbo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Xiaomei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Lei Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Weibin Song
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Haiming Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Jinsheng Lai
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and National Maize Improvement Center, Department of Plant Genetics and Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China.
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Regulated large-scale nucleosome density patterns and precise nucleosome positioning correlate with V(D)J recombination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E6427-E6436. [PMID: 27698124 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1605543113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
We show that the physical distribution of nucleosomes at antigen receptor loci is subject to regulated cell type-specific and lineage-specific positioning and correlates with the accessibility of these gene segments to recombination. At the Ig heavy chain locus (IgH), a nucleosome in pro-B cells is generally positioned over each IgH variable (VH) coding segment, directly adjacent to the recombination signal sequence (RSS), placing the RSS in a position accessible to the recombination activating gene (RAG) recombinase. These changes result in establishment of a specific chromatin organization at the RSS that facilitates accessibility of the genomic DNA for the RAG recombinase. In contrast, in mouse embryonic fibroblasts the coding segment is depleted of nucleosomes, which instead cover the RSS, thereby rendering it inaccessible. Pro-T cells exhibit a pattern intermediate between pro-B cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts. We also find large-scale variations of nucleosome density over hundreds of kilobases, delineating chromosomal domains within IgH, in a cell type-dependent manner. These findings suggest that developmentally regulated changes in nucleosome location and occupancy, in addition to the known chromatin modifications, play a fundamental role in regulating V(D)J recombination. Nucleosome positioning-which has previously been observed to vary locally at individual enhancers and promoters-may be a more general mechanism by which cells can regulate the accessibility of the genome during development, at scales ranging from several hundred base pairs to many kilobases.
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Avey D, Brewers B, Zhu F. Recent advances in the study of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus replication and pathogenesis. Virol Sin 2015; 30:130-45. [PMID: 25924994 PMCID: PMC8200917 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-015-3595-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It has now been over twenty years since a novel herpesviral genome was identified in Kaposi's sarcoma biopsies. Since then, the cumulative research effort by molecular biologists, virologists, clinicians, and epidemiologists alike has led to the extensive characterization of this tumor virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8)), and its associated diseases. Here we review the current knowledge of KSHV biology and pathogenesis, with a particular emphasis on new and exciting advances in the field of epigenetics. We also discuss the development and practicality of various cell culture and animal model systems to study KSHV replication and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Avey
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 32306 USA
| | - Brittany Brewers
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 32306 USA
| | - Fanxiu Zhu
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 32306 USA
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