A brief review of classroom group-oriented contingencies

Discussion and Conceptual Analysis of Four Group Contingencies for Behavioral Process Improvement in an ABA Service Delivery Quality Framework

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) organizations that provide services to children with autism can apply contingencies to improve employee performance or behavioral processes. Such contingencies may be especially important for maximizing ABA service delivery quality (ASDQ). For some behavioral processes, group contingencies applied to the behavior of individuals within the process may be more appropriate than individualized contingencies. In the history of the profession, behavior analysts have used group contingencies at the operant level of selection, such as independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies. However, recent experimental work in culturo-behavioral science suggests the metacontingency, an analogue of the operant contingency at the cultural level of selection, can also control the behavior of individuals in a group. This article discusses how such group-oriented contingencies could be used by managers in organizations in behavioral process improvement efforts to target key performance indicators of quality in an ASDQ framework. The paper ends with a discussion of limitations and future research.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Frequency Behavior as an Interdependent Group Contingency for Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder

An ABAB reversal design was employed to evaluate the effect of differential reinforcement of low (DRL) frequency behavior as an interdependent group contingency on the frequency of vocal disruptions of five males, 6-14-years old, diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. The results showed lower frequencies of vocal disruptions during intervention conditions as compared to baseline conditions; the combination of DRL and interdependent group contingency was effective at reducing the target behavior from baseline levels. Implications of concurrent interventions for the applied setting are discussed.

The Effect of Schedule Thinning on Student Behavior During the Caught Being Good Game

The Caught Being Good Game (CBGG) is a classroom management intervention which is described as a variation of the classic Good Behavior Game (GBG). It is based on the principle of positive reinforcement, such that teams of students can earn points for following the class rules during the game. Points are awarded by the teacher at different intervals during the game and these intervals were the focus of the current study. We aimed to determine if the CBGG is effective with an initially dense schedule of reinforcement which is progressively thinned. The efficacy of the CBGG in targeting academic engagement and disruptive behavior was demonstrated for one primary school class and for two target students in that class. The game remained effective when the reinforcement schedule was thinned from 2 minutes, up to 5 minutes. This has potential implications for teacher time saving while playing the game.

Lessons from the Past and Challenges for the Future: Inclusive Education for Students with Unique Needs

The school-age population of students is becoming increasingly more culturally and linguistically diverse. There is mounting recognition that English Learners (EL) represent a unique group of students who have special educational and linguistic needs. This article considered the needs of learners with diverse special needs such as (a) learning and behavior challenges and (b) English Learners identified as students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). We highlighted some potential lessons to be learned from past-to-present efforts to serve students with behavior problems. Selected evidence-based practices were featured that are applicable to learners with special needs, thereby supporting the development of effective inclusive education, especially for students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Effect of Group Contingency Type on Walking: Comparisons of Effectiveness and Cost Efficiency

Group contingency (GC) is an effective and cost-efficient strategy that can be successfully applied to technology-based interventions. This study examined the relative effectiveness and cost efficiency of three types of technology-based group contingencies on walking among adults. Seventy two students were divided into teams of three. Each team was randomly assigned to one of three GC conditions (independent, interdependent, or dependent) and underwent 66 days of technology-based group contingency intervention. Sixty five participants completed the intervention and 61 completed the follow-up assessment 2 months later. Step counts and self-reported walking activity increased after the intervention under all three conditions. The proportion of participants that met the target step counts was significantly higher under the dependent group contingency condition. However, 2 months later, intervention effects were not maintained under any condition. For cost efficiency, the increase in step count per point was significantly higher under the interdependent group contingency condition. Group cohesion and social validity (point satisfaction and point utility) were significantly higher under the dependent group contingency condition. Finally, the clinical implications and limitations of this study are discussed.

Interpersonal and Group Contingencies

Responding by individuals in groups has been a prominent interest of the field of psychology. Experimental analyses of human behavior have provided some unique findings of the role that the environment, including both social and nonsocial stimuli, may have on individual responding. Cooperative and competitive contingencies, previously evaluated in animal and human operant research, provide unique insight into applied interventions, in particular group contingencies. The current manuscript attempts to bridge these two literatures to foster the development of more effective technologies and lines of experimental or translational research that may better inform interventions in the applied realm.

Improving the Mathematics Performance of Second-Grade Students with Mathematics Difficulties through an Early Numeracy Intervention

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an early numeracy Tier 2 intervention on the mathematics performance of second-grade students with persistent mathematics difficulties. Whole number content and instructional design features were used to boost performance in second-grade early numeracy concepts and skills. Researchers employed a pretest-posttest control group design with randomized assignment of 83 students to the treatment condition and 38 students to the comparison condition. The research team’s mathematics interventionists delivered instruction four days per week for 20 weeks to small groups of second-grade students who were identified with persistent mathematics difficulties. Proximal and distal measures were used to determine the effects of the intervention. Findings showed that students in the treatment group outperformed students in the comparison group on the proximal measure of mathematics performance. There were no differences between groups on the problem-solving measures.

Reducing adolescent cell phone usage using an interdependent group contingency

The purpose of this study was to test the effects of an interdependent group contingency on cell phone usage in an alternative high school classroom. We used an ABAB reversal design to test the effects of the contingency on the cell phone usage of the entire class and an individual student. Results showed a reduction in the cell phone use of the class and the individual when the group contingency was in effect, demonstrating a functional relation between the contingency and student cell phone usage. These findings suggest that group contingencies may be efficacious for teachers to use within their classrooms to curb cell phone usage. Further study of this intervention is warranted to determine its generality.

Comparison of components of the Good Behavior Game in a preschool classroom

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention package for decreasing disruptive behavior in various populations and environments. There is, however, limited research evaluating the GBG with preschoolers. Furthermore, few studies have evaluated the effects of components of the GBG, and of those that have, most have done so only after exposure to the GBG package. We evaluated the effects (a) of the GBG on disruptive behavior of preschoolers during group instruction and (b) the major components of the GBG before and after implementation of the GBG package (c) at both the group and individual level. Results suggest that the GBG package was necessary for decreasing disruptive behavior. However, after exposure to the GBG, a response-independent contingency was effective for maintaining low levels of disruptive behavior at both the group and individual level.

An Application of the Group-Oriented Concurrent-Chains Arrangement

Group contingencies are a set of behavior management procedures used to improve the behavior of several students simultaneously. Despite evidence supporting the effectiveness of each group contingency in managing academic and challenging behaviors, the decision to select one group contingency over another may be difficult for teachers, especially if similar efficacy is found. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of three group contingencies on disruptive behavior with 13 typically developing eighth-grade students. Results showed that all three group contingencies reduced levels of disruptive behavior from baseline levels. We then assessed the students' individual preferences for the group contingencies using a group-oriented concurrent-chains procedure. Most students showed preference for one of the group contingencies, and most preferred the independent group contingency. These results demonstrated that the group-oriented concurrent-chains procedure was an effective and efficient method of identifying individual preferences for behavior-change procedures in a classroom setting.

A comparison of group contingencies on academic compliance

We used a reversal design with an embedded multielement design to compare the effects of an independent group contingency and a randomized dependent group contingency on compliance with assigned literacy worksheets in a first-grade general education classroom. Nine participants were selected based on low levels of compliance in baseline or by teacher identification. Results indicated that both group contingencies increased compliance relative to baseline for the majority of participants. The independent condition produced higher levels of compliance for four students and the randomized dependent condition produced higher levels of compliance for one student. For four students, the two group contingencies were equally effective. A preference assessment indicated that the majority of target students preferred the randomized dependent condition and the majority of nontarget students preferred the independent condition. A number of potential explanations for our preference findings, including the possible role of obtained reinforcement, are discussed.

CLASS-WIDE FUNCTION-RELATED INTERVENTION TEAMS (CW-FIT): Student and Teacher Outcomes from a Multisite Randomized Replication Trial

The purpose of the study was to conduct a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to demonstrate efficacy of the Classwide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) program. The study was designed to replicate an initial RCT conducted by the CW-FIT developers in 1 site, with 2 additional research groups not involved in its development. The study was conducted across 3 states, in 21 culturally diverse schools, and with 83 teachers (classrooms) assigned to CW-FIT and 74 teachers (classrooms) assigned to the comparison group. The CW-FIT intervention included teaching prosocial skills and use of differential attention (teacher praise and points) for appropriate behaviors using a group contingency, class teams, goal setting, points, and rewards. Class-wide student on-task behavior improved, teacher praise and attention to appropriate behaviors increased, and reprimands decreased in the CWFIT classes with significantly fewer changes over time for the comparison group.

Managing Student Behavior in Dual Immersion Classrooms: A Study of Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams

Classroom management in dual immersion classrooms includes unique challenges. The teacher must instruct and correct in the L2 language, in which students are beginning learners, and effective classroom management strategies appropriate to the L2 context. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) is a positive classroom management program that teaches social skills and uses group contingencies to improve behavior. The present study examined the ability of French immersion teachers to implement CW-FIT in the L2, including the effects of CW-FIT on teacher praise and reprimand rates and as well as on students' classroom behavior. Social validity was also assessed. A single-subject multiple baseline design with embedded reversals was used to evaluate impact in second-, third-, and fourth-grade dual immersion classrooms. Results indicated that dual immersion teachers were able to implement CW-FIT in L2 with fidelity. The intervention significantly increased teacher praise and improved classroom on-task behavior. Changes in teacher reprimand rates were inconsistent. Students and teachers reported CW-FIT to be socially valid.

Programming a randomized dependent group contingency and common stimuli to promote durable behavior change

Low levels of academic engagement may impede students' acquisition of skills. Intervening on student behavior using group contingencies may be a feasible way to increase academic engagement during group instruction. The current study examined the effect of a randomized dependent group contingency on levels of academic engagement for second-grade participants receiving small-group reading and writing instruction. The results showed that a randomized dependent group contingency increased the academic engagement of primary participants and several of the other participants during small-group instruction. The findings also showed that high levels of academic engagement were maintained when common stimuli were present and the dependent group contingency was withdrawn.

Student and Teacher Outcomes of the Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Team Efficacy Trial

Schools continue to strive for the use of evidenced-based interventions and policies to foster well-managed classrooms that promote improved student outcomes. The present study examined the effects of the Class-Wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a group contingency intervention, on the on-task and disruptive behavior of elementary school students with or at risk for emotional behavior disorders (EBD). Seventeen elementary schools, 159 general education teachers, and 313 students participated in the randomized-control group design study. Fidelity of implementation was strong for intervention group teachers and was measured across groups and throughout baseline conditions. Results suggest that CW-FIT can be used to increase on-task behavior and reduce the disruptive behavior of students with or at risk for EBD. In addition, teachers in intervention classes increased praise and reduced reprimands to individual students and along with their students, reported high levels of consumer satisfaction.

Motivating Secondary Students

Reinforcers for use in a contingency management system are outlined and discussed.

Normally Developing Preschoolers as Intervention Agents for Autistic-Like Children: Effects on Class Deportment and Social Interaction 1

The purpose of this treatment evaluation study was to assess classroom deportment and social outcomes for normally developing children and social outcomes for autistic-like participants in the LEAP intervention program, Ten non-handicapped and six autistic-like children's behavior was assessed either prior to intervention and at the end of their treatment experience or, in the case of autistic-like children's social behavior, on a daily basis. Outcomes for non-handicapped participants in LEAP were compared with a group of 40 normally developing classroom "Stars" in developmentally-segregated settings. The results of this mainstreaming evaluation study indicated that: (a) when compared to a group of nominated "Stars" in developmentally-segregated classes, the LEAP normally developing children engaged in less disruptive behavior and equal amounts of on-task, appropriate language, and positive peer interaction; and, (b) using single subject methodology, treatment gains for autistic-like participants' positive peer interactions were found to be equivalent to the level exhibited by non-handicapped classmates.

A Comparison of Cost and Reward Procedures With Interdependent Group Contingencies

The present study evaluated the effectiveness of two variations of a token economy for reducing disruptive behavior within a general education classroom. One variation involved a group contingency in which tokens were removed contingent on disruptive behavior (response cost), and the other variation involved a group contingency in which tokens were gained according to a differential reinforcement of other behavior schedule. Two elementary school teachers and their students participated. Results indicated that both procedures were effective in reducing the overall number of students disrupting; however, both teachers and students indicated a greater preference for the response cost condition. Implications for the use of these behavior management strategies in the classroom are discussed in terms of effectiveness and ease of implementation.

Increasing Cooperation among Children Using Dependent Group-Oriented Reinforcement Contingencies

This investigation evaluated the differential effectiveness of two reinforcement contingencies for improving cooperation among students when solving a mathematics estimation task. The two reinforcement paradigms were a dependent group-oriented contingency and an individual reinforcement contingency. Subjects were 371 children enrolled in grades 2 through 5 at two public schools. The two schools were randomly assigned to the two reinforcement conditions. The estimation task required guessing the number of objects in a container on three occasions, at weekly intervals. Feedback (high, low, or correct) was provided each week. Results showed that the group reinforcement contingency resulted in superior estimation accuracy and was associated with a higher degree of cooperation among students. These findings were discussed within the context of the literature pertaining to group-oriented reinforcement contingencies for improving cooperation and academic skills.

A Comparison of Independent, Interdependent, and Dependent Group Contingencies With Randomized Reinforcers to Increase Reading Fluency

Fluency, or the rate at which a student reads, is developed in the early stages of literacy and has been shown to correlate with comprehension. A myriad of interventions have been developed to increase fluency. Group contingencies are one of these that in particular have shown some positive effects on reading fluency. Advantages to using them are that they are practical, efficient, and economical for teachers to use when monitoring a target behavior. This investigation employs an alternating treatments design to compare the effectiveness of independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies with randomized reinforcers on reading fluency. The results reveal moderate effects of all three contingencies on measures of reading fluency. Group contingencies are an important and increasingly popular intervention; however, the choice of which contingency to use is based on the unique aspects of the classroom.

Comparing Versions of the Good Behavior Game

Disruptions can prevent the classroom from being an effective learning environment. The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a group contingency that has been proven to effectively prevent disruptions and increase engagement. However, the traditional methods of the GBG include teacher scanning for negative student behaviors, and may not align with Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), which is becoming widely adopted in many schools. Extending the findings of Wright and McCurdy, the current study compared the effects of the GBG and a positive version of the GBG, called the Caught Being Good Game (CBGG), on student behavior, including engagement and off-task behaviors, as well as teachers’ use of positive and negative statements. Results showed both the GBG and the CBGG improved student behavior, with data not clearly indicating one was superior. Neither intervention led to an increase in positive teacher statements. Implications for teachers and suggestions for further research are discussed.

Interdependent Group Contingency to Promote Physical Activity in Children

As the number of children affected by obesity increases in the United States, it is necessary to intervene with preventive and intervention techniques that will enact change. Because children spend a significant amount of their time in school, it is of particular interest to target strategies during the school day. Given the recommendations for the total duration and intensity of physical activity children should participate in, recess period is a means of acquiring a portion of this daily recommendation. Contingent reinforcement is a technique that is consistently used in schools to promote behavior change. One of these techniques, group contingencies, has repeatedly been shown to increase desired behavior and decrease inappropriate behavior in schools. In the present study, a multiple baseline design was utilized to investigate the use of interdependent group contingencies in physical activity performance during recess, as measured by pedometers, with one class from each of the third, fourth, and fifth grades at an elementary school. Some of the variability existed in gender- and body mass index-specific (BMI) subgroups, in regard to the effectiveness of the intervention and continued maintenance of increased physical activity levels, following the removal of the intervention. However, the overall results support the use of an interdependent group contingency intervention to increase the amount of physical activity students engaged in during recess.

Efficacy of and preference for reinforcement and response cost in token economies

Researchers have shown that both differential reinforcement and response cost within token economies are similarly effective for changing the behavior of individuals in a group context (e.g., Donaldson, DeLeon, Fisher, & Kahng, 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974). In addition, these researchers have empirically evaluated preference for these procedures. However, few previous studies have evaluated the individual effects of these procedures both in group contexts and in the absence of peers. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining the individual effects and preferences of differential reinforcement and response cost under both group and individualized conditions. Results demonstrated that the procedures were equally effective for increasing on-task behavior during group and individual instruction for most children, and preference varied across participants. In addition, results were consistent across participants who experienced the procedures in group and individualized settings.

A Group Contingency Plus Self-Management Intervention Targeting At-Risk Secondary Students' Class-Work and Active Engagement

The purpose of the present study is to show that an independent group contingency (GC) combined with self-management strategies and randomized-reinforcer components can increase the amount of written work and active classroom responding in high school students. Three remedial reading classes and a total of 15 students participated in this study. Students used self-management strategies during independent reading time to increase the amount of writing in their reading logs. They used self-monitoring strategies to record whether or not they performed expected behaviors in class. A token economy using points and tickets was included in the GC to provide positive reinforcement for target responses. The results were analyzed through visual inspection of graphs and effect size computations and showed that the intervention increased the total amount of written words in the students' reading logs and overall classroom and individual student academic engagement.

Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams "CW-FIT" Efficacy Trial Outcomes

The purpose of the study was to determine the efficacy of the Class-wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) program for improving students' on-task behavior, and increasing teacher recognition of appropriate behavior. The intervention is a group contingency classroom management program consisting of teaching and reinforcing appropriate behaviors (i.e., getting the teacher's attention, following directions, and ignoring inappropriate behaviors of peers). Seventeen elementary schools, the majority in urban and culturally diverse communities, participated in a randomized trial with 86 teachers (classrooms) assigned to CW-FIT, and 73 teachers (classrooms) assigned to the comparison group. Class-wide student on-task behavior improved over baseline levels in the intervention classes. Teachers were able to implement the intervention with high fidelity overall, as observed in adherence to 96% of the fidelity criteria on average. Teacher praise and attention to appropriate behaviors increased, and reprimands decreased. These effects were replicated in new classrooms each of the 4 years of the study, and for all years combined.