Reinforcement schedule thinning following treatment with functional communication training

Application of a terminal schedule probe method to inform schedule thinning with multiple schedules

Multiple schedules are effective at decreasing challenging behavior and maintaining alternative behavior at acceptable levels. Currently, no conclusive guidance is available for empirically deriving multiple-schedule components (continuous reinforcement for alternative behavior and extinction for challenging behavior [discriminative stimulus] and extinction for both alternative and challenging behavior [delta stimulus]) during the schedule-thinning process. In the current investigation, we describe a terminal schedule probe method to determine delta stimulus starting points and strategies for subsequent schedule-thinning progressions to reach caregiver-informed terminal schedules. We review schedule-thinning outcomes for a clinical cohort using a consecutive controlled case series approach and report results for two groups: One group included applications of terminal probe thinning (n = 24), and the other involved traditional dense-to-lean thinning (n = 18). Outcomes suggest that the terminal schedule probe method produced effective treatments with less resurgence of challenging behavior and leaner, more feasible, multiple schedules.

Approaches for Treating Multiply Controlled Problem Behavior

A portion of problem behavior is maintained by multiple reinforcement contingencies. Treating multiply controlled problem behavior may be more complex than treating problem behavior maintained by a single contingency. Several approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior have been described in the literature. The purpose of this review is to provide practitioners with an overview of function-based approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior. In particular, we present guidelines for functional analysis and treatment. We also describe strengths and limitations of published treatment approaches and discuss strategies for mitigating these limitations. Finally, we describe areas for future research.

Updated Recommendations for Reinforcement Schedule Thinning following Functional Communication Training

Schedule thinning is a necessary treatment procedure following the acquisition of a communication response during functional communication training. In this article, we update and extend the Hagopian et al. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 4, 4-16, (2011) review and recommendations on schedule-thinning procedures following functional communication training. Since their publication, substantial research has been published on the efficacy, efficiency, and social validity of schedule-thinning methods. We provide updated recommendations for schedule thinning based on contemporary literature that has been published since 2011, as well as discuss key areas for future research.

Relative preference for distinct reinforcers maintaining destructive behavior

The literature offers few recommendations for sequencing exposure to treatment conditions with individuals with multiply maintained destructive behavior. Identifying relative preference for the functional reinforcers maintaining destructive behavior may be one means of guiding that decision. The present study presents a preliminary attempt at developing a robust relative preference and reinforcer assessment for individuals with multiply maintained destructive behavior. Guided and free-choice trials were implemented in which participants chose between two multiple-schedule arrangements, each of which programmed signaled periods of isolated reinforcer availability and unavailability. Consistent participant choice and responding during free-choice trials was then used to thin the corresponding schedule of reinforcement. The results demonstrated a strong preference for one of the two functional reinforcers for all four participants, yet preferences differed across participants and were not well predicted by responding in prior analyses.

Repetitive Speech and Problem Behavior: Functional Analysis of Precurrent Contingencies

When mands and problem behavior co-occur within an individual's repertoire, a functional analysis of precurrent contingencies helps to identify any relation between the two responses, as well as the function of problem behavior. Repetitive behaviors may function similarly to mands and also co-occur with problem behavior; particularly when repetitive behavior is blocked, or when caregivers refrain from participating in repetitive behavior episodes (e.g., the repetitive behavior involves a verbal or physical interaction with a caregiver). The current study presents assessment and treatment results for two participants diagnosed with autism, who demonstrated repetitive speech and problem behavior. Informal observations suggested that problem behavior occurred when an adult failed to emit a specific response to the participant's repetitive speech. Functional analysis results confirmed the informal observations and suggested that problem behavior functioned as a precurrent response to increase the probability of reinforcement for repetitive speech. We report treatment results and discuss the application of precurrent contingency analyses for problem behavior and repetitive behavior.

Multiple Schedules Facilitate Rapid Noncontingent Reinforcement Schedule Thinning

We evaluated a noncontingent reinforcement treatment that included initial brief exposures to signaled alternation of availability and nonavailability of reinforcement, followed by rapid schedule thinning. Results confirmed findings from previous research (typically with differential reinforcement schedules) that establishing stimulus control across multiple treatment components facilitated schedule thinning. We discuss both the clinical utility of this procedure and the utility of stimulus control for making interventions more practical for clinicians.

Using Telehealth to Program Generalization of Caregiver Behavior

Stokes and Baer, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 349-367 (1977) provided guidelines to assist practitioners with programming for the generalization of behavior change. Despite the suggestions provided in their seminal paper, generalization remains an often overlooked area within behavior analytic research and practice. In addition, few studies have described explicit strategies to program for the generalization of caregiver behaviors that are consistent with interventions to reduce child challenging behavior. In the current discussion, we describe how telehealth provides a potential avenue for practitioners to focus on generalization. Telehealth helps practitioners access behavior-change agents, materials, and contexts that they may not directly contact in educational and clinical environments. Using telehealth to target these areas early on, and throughout treatment for child challenging behavior, may facilitate more rapid treatment success and maintenance. We provide a case example to demonstrate the use of telehealth to program the generalization of a mother's treatment plan implementation to reduce the severe challenging behavior of an adolescent. We report clinically and socially significant outcomes related to caregiver fidelity and challenging behavior reduction.

Reducing perseverative requesting and other problem behavior in a young girl with autism: a sequentially implemented intervention package

Purpose

This study aims to use a sequentially implemented intervention package to reduce the occurrence of perseverative requesting and other problem behavior in a young girl with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Design/methodology/approach

In this single-case study, subsequent to a functional analysis and a preference assessment, an intervention package consisting of three components (i.e. a tolerance for delay to reinforcement, choice-making and visual schedule) was implemented sequentially to address perseverative requesting and other problem behavior maintained by access to preferred items/activities in a young girl with ASD.

Findings

Via the intervention package, the girl demonstrated higher self-control skills (i.e. delaying access to preferred items/activities, choosing more preferred items/activities with delayed access over less preferred ones with immediate access, completing tasks before having access to preferred items/activities) with a reduction of perseverative requesting or other problem behavior.

Originality/value

The current case study presents concrete steps that could be applied to address tangible-maintained perseverative requesting using more natural and educationally relevant signals while improving the child’s appropriate skills (e.g. delay to reinforcement, self-control and task engagement).

Gradual Change Procedures in Behavior Analysis

A wide variety of procedures within behavior analysis use gradual change in stimuli, response requirements, reinforcement, or some combination thereof, to effectively change behavior. Such procedures include shaping, thinning, fading, and chaining. Collectively, gradual change procedures represent a conceptually systematic technology of behavior change with wide-ranging empirical support across diverse settings and contexts. However, navigating the gradual change literature can be challenging. Similar terms are used to describe functionally distinct procedures (e.g., stimulus fading, delay fading, demand fading), and distinct terms are used to describe functionally similar procedures (e.g., leaning, demand fading). I propose a taxonomy in which gradual change procedures are categorized according to the functional component of the contingency on which they act. Three broad categories are proposed: Gradual Changes in Discriminative Stimuli, Response Requirement, and Reinforcement. I provide examples of research in each category, across basic and applied settings, including terminology used by the author(s) to describe each procedure. Finally, I discuss benefits of this framework for consumers of the literature.

On the scope and characteristics of relapse when treating severe destructive behavior

Prior studies on treatment relapse have typically examined the prevalence of resurgence or renewal of target behavior (e.g., destructive behavior) in isolation. This study analyzed both types of relapse during 25 consecutive treatments involving functional communication training during worsening reinforcement conditions for alternative behavior (i.e., schedule thinning) or following context changes. We also examined disruption of alternative behavior (i.e., functional communication requests, compliance). Resurgence and renewal of destructive behavior occurred in 76% and 69% of treatments, respectively, and in approximately a third of changes in reinforcement or context. Relapse of destructive behavior predicted alternative-response disruption and vice versa; the co-occurrence of these two events always exceeded the background probabilities of either event occurring in isolation. General reductions in treatment efficacy occurred across changes in reinforcement or context, with no apparent decrease in likelihood in later transitions. We discuss implications of our findings with respect to future studies examining treatment durability.

Using Chained or Tandem Schedules With Functional Communication Training: A Systematic Review

Chained and tandem schedules are a common method for thinning schedules of reinforcement following functional communication training (FCT) in the treatment of problem behavior. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of chained and tandem schedules following FCT to describe treatment characteristics and evaluate effects. We identified 38 articles and found reductions in problem behavior across four measures. Results of a random-effects multilevel meta-analysis of rigorous evaluations showed a significant effect of chained or tandem schedules + FCT on problem behavior relative to baseline. We observed resurgence in 77% of cases and 31% of schedule-thinning transitions. Results showed chained schedules resulted in greater reductions in problem behavior relative to tandem schedules. Exploratory moderator analyses suggested extinction, combined reinforcement, and delay and denial tolerance training procedures were associated with greater reductions in problem behavior relative to other treatment characteristics. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Procedures for determining and then modifying the extinction component of multiple schedules for destructive behavior

As a component of reinforcer schedule thinning following functional communication training, multiple schedules of reinforcement produce desirable rates and patterns of communication responses as an alternative response to destructive behavior. However, reinforcement schedule thinning is a gradual process that can take many sessions to obtain therapeutic goals. The desired outcome is that manding occurs only during signaled intervals of reinforcement with a sufficiently lean terminal schedule of reinforcement availability and low rates of destructive behavior. The purposes of this study were to (a) evaluate an assessment for informing the initial duration of extinction for alternative responding, (b) evaluate the utility of competing stimuli during extinction for alternative responding, and (c) assess a method for fading the availability of competing stimuli. With these procedures, all 4 participants experienced terminal schedules of reinforcement with rapid, robust reductions in destructive behavior soon after baseline. We discuss the implications and directions for future research.

Understanding the effects of prompting immediately after problem behavior occurs during functional communication training

When reported, the methods for prompting functional communication responses (FCRs) following problem behavior during functional communication training (FCT) vary. Some researchers have prompted the FCR immediately following problem behavior but doing so may inadvertently strengthen problem behavior as the first link in an undesirable response chain. This study investigated the effects of prompting FCRs following problem behavior during FCT with 4 children who exhibited severe problem behavior. Problem behavior remained low and FCR rates were near optimal when prompts were delivered immediately following problem behavior for 2 participants. Delaying prompts following problem behavior was instrumental for FCR acquisition for 1 participant but led to escalation of problem behavior for a 2nd participant. The conditions under which immediate prompts following problem behavior may improve or worsen FCT are discussed.

Efficiency and preference for alternative activities during schedule thinning with functional communication training

Functional communication training is an effective treatment for decreasing socially reinforced destructive behavior (Carr & Durand, 1985). Clinicians frequently use multiple schedules to thin the reinforcement schedule (Hanley et al., 2001). Individuals are often taught to wait for functional reinforcers without alternative programmed stimuli. However, concurrently available items and activities are often accessible in the natural environment. In this study, we taught 4 participants a functional communication response to access functional reinforcers. We implemented a multiple schedule during schedule thinning, comparing a control condition (nothing available during S^Δ intervals) to separate conditions with items/activities (moderately preferred tangible items, attention, demands) noncontingently available during S^Δ intervals. After reaching the terminal schedule in one condition, therapists assessed participant preference across S^Δ conditions. For all participants, the terminal schedule was reached with alternative items and activities, and participant preference corresponded with the most efficient schedule thinning condition. Therapists also indicated preference for alternative items/activities.

Evaluation of a Graduated Exposure Procedure to Teach Extended Mask Wearing in Various Settings to Children With Autism

During the COVID-19 outbreak, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommended that everyone 2 years and older wear a face mask while in a community setting. However, children with autism may be reluctant to wear a mask, particularly for extended durations. In the current study, we implemented a graduated exposure procedure to teach mask wearing for a minimum of 1 hour in an early intensive behavioral (EIBI) intervention clinic to three children diagnosed with autism. We subsequently probed mask wearing, and if necessary implemented the graduated exposure procedure, in each participant's home and in a mock physician's office. Finally, we collected probe data on mask wearing in another community setting and 1 month post-treatment maintenance data in the EIBI clinic. During baseline, participants wore masks for 0 second to 5 minutes. After treatment, all participants wore the mask for at least 1 hour in each setting, with maintenance probes indicating 4 to 5 hour mask tolerance.

Schedule Thinning Following Functional Communication Training: Effects of Chained and Multiple Schedules

Functional communication training (FCT) is used to reduce rates of problem behavior by teaching communicative responses that access functionally equivalent reinforcers. During FCT, the communicative response is typically placed on a dense schedule of reinforcement that is unlikely to be maintained in the natural environment. Experiment 1 evaluated the effects of two schedule-thinning procedures (chained schedules and multiple schedules) on problem behavior maintained by escape from demands for three participants following FCT. The chained and multiple-schedule procedures were effective in reducing rates of problem behavior. Compliance increased under both schedules, but the chained schedule resulted in higher levels of compliance with two participants. In Experiment 2, participants' preference for the chained or multiple-schedule procedure was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chain procedure. One participant preferred the chained schedule. One participant preferred the multiple schedule. One participant did not appear to discriminate between conditions.

Evaluation of the Use of Real-time 3D Graphics to Augment Therapeutic Music Sessions for Young People on the Autism Spectrum

The present research evaluates the effectiveness of CymaSense, a real-time 3D visualisation application developed by the authors, as a means of improving the communicative behaviours of autistic participants through the addition of a visual modality within therapeutic music sessions. Autism spectrum condition (ASC) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder that can affect people in a number of ways, commonly through difficulties in communication. A multi-sensory approach within music sessions encourages people with ASC to engage more with the act of creating music, and with the therapists, increasing their level of communication and social interaction beyond the sessions.

This article presents a study evaluating the use of CymaSense within a series of therapeutic music sessions, and a follow-up series of semi-structured interviews. Eight adults with ASC participated in 12 sessions using a single case experimental design approach over a total period of 19 weeks. Using qualitative and quantitative data, the results show an increase in communicative behaviour, for both verbal and non-verbal participants, resulting from the use of CymaSense. Qualitative feedback from interviews provided insight into the factors that contribute to the successful use of the application, as well as aspects that could be improved.

Examination of alternative-response discrimination training and resurgence in rats

Resurgence is an increase in a previously reinforced behavior following a worsening of conditions for a more recently reinforced behavior. Discrimination training is incorporated into treatment for problem behavior to prevent treatment adherence failures that may result in resurgence. There is evidence that resurgence may be reduced when a stimulus that signals alternative-response extinction is present compared with absent; however, the generality of this effect is unknown given the limited testing conditions. The goal of the present experiments was to further examine the effects of such stimuli in a reverse-translational evaluation using rats. Target responding was reinforced in baseline and then placed on extinction in the following discrimination-training phase. An alternative response was differentially reinforced in a two-component multiple schedule where one stimulus (i.e., S^D) signaled alternative-response reinforcement and the other (i.e., S^Δ) signaled extinction. Experiment 1 assessed resurgence in both the S^Δ and S^D when alternative reinforcement was removed. Experiment 2 evaluated resurgence under conditions that better approximated those used in the clinic in which the alternative-response S^Δ was present or absent. The S^Δ failed to suppress target responding during resurgence testing in both experiments. These findings suggest that the conditions under which an alternative-response S^Δ will successfully mitigate resurgence may be limited and require further research.

Resurgence and repeated within-session progressive-interval thinning of alternative reinforcement

Resurgence of a previously suppressed target behavior is common when reinforcement for a more recently reinforced alternative behavior is thinned. To better characterize such resurgence, these experiments examined repeated within-session alternative reinforcement thinning using a progressive-interval (PI) schedule with rats. In Experiment 1, a transition from a high rate of alternative reinforcement to a within-session PI schedule generated robust resurgence, but subsequent complete removal of alternative reinforcement produced no additional resurgence. Experiment 2 replicated these findings and showed similar effects with a fixed-interval (FI) schedule arranging similarly reduced session-wide rates of alternative reinforcement. Thus, the lack of additional resurgence following repeated exposure to the PI schedule was likely due to the low overall obtained rate of alternative reinforcement provided by the PI schedule, rather than to exposure to within-session reinforcement thinning per se. In both experiments, target responding increased at some point in the session during schedule thinning and continued across the rest of the session. Rats exposed to a PI schedule showed resurgence later in the session and after more cumulative alternative reinforcers than those exposed to an FI schedule. The results suggest the potential importance of further exploring how timing and change-detection mechanisms might be involved in resurgence.

An Investigation of Functional Communication Training and Schedule Thinning Using a Multiple Schedule on Elopement to Access Stereotypy

Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who engage in stereotypy may also emit a prior, temporally contiguous, high-risk response to access stereotypic behaviors. For example, the participant in this study who was diagnosed with ASD engaged in a chained response that included elopement, often in unsafe locations, to access light switch flipping. Previous research indicates that functional communication training (FCT) with delay fading is a viable approach to reduce chained problem behavior. In this study, we extended previous research by (a) evaluating the generalized effect of FCT and schedule thinning using multiple schedule technology for an automatically maintained chained response, and (b) evaluating whether intervention effects maintained in the participant's optimal context. Results for the participant suggested that FCT with schedule thinning mitigated high-risk chained responding across settings and discrimination training using a multiple schedule assessment effectively signaled available and unavailable times for the participant to emit the chained response which matched the participant's natural schedule parameters.

Collateral Effects of Behavioral Treatment for Problem Behavior on Caregiver Stress

When individuals with autism and intellectual and developmental disabilities exhibit severe problem behavior, assessment and treatment are often warranted. Parents of such individuals are at high risk for developing parenting stress. In this study, 194 parents completed the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form at their child's time of admission to and discharge from inpatient or outpatient treatment for severe problem behavior. Parent stress was examined in relation to rate and function of child problem behavior as determined via functional analysis. Repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted, and differential effects were observed when child participants exhibited an attention, automatic, or mands function for problem behavior. These findings highlight the importance of considering function of problem behavior in relation to parenting stress.

Resurgence and downshifts in alternative reinforcement rate

Resurgence refers to an increase in a previously suppressed target behavior with a relative worsening of conditions for a more recently reinforced alternative behavior. This experiment examined the relation between resurgence and the magnitude of a reduction in the rate of reinforcement for the alternative behavior. Groups of both male and female rats initially pressed a target lever for food on a variable-interval (VI) 30-s schedule. In a second phase, responding to the target lever was extinguished for all groups and pressing an alternative lever was reinforced on a VI 10-s schedule. Next, the rate of reinforcement for alternative behavior was reduced differentially across groups by arranging extinction, VI 80-s, VI 40-s, VI 20-s, or continued VI 10-s reinforcement. Target responding increased as an exponential function of the magnitude of the reduction in alternative reinforcement rates. With the exception that males appeared to show higher rates of target responding in baseline and higher rates of alternative responding in other phases, the overall pattern of responding across phases was not meaningfully different between sexes. The pattern of both target and alternative response rates across sessions and phases was well described quantitatively by the Resurgence as Choice in Context model.

Evaluating skills correlated with discriminated responding in multiple schedule arrangements

One potential solution for excessively high-rate functional communication responses (FCR) is to establish stimulus control of the FCR through a multiple schedule. However, several studies have demonstrated difficulty with establishing discriminated responding across multiple schedule components. The primary aim of the current study was to evaluate how participants' skills related to color discrimination may be related to the emergence of discriminated responding in a multiple schedule with colors as the schedule-correlated stimuli. Three secondary aims of the current study were to evaluate: a) varied multiple schedule arrangements, b) if topographically dissimilar stimuli facilitated the emergence of discriminated responding, and c) if employing different colored stimuli across multiple schedule arrangements reduced the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across varied arrangements. Nine participants' ability to match, select, tact, and respond intraverbally to colors was assessed, and 1 of 2 evaluations of multiple schedule arrangements were conducted. Results indicated that participants' ability to select and tact colors was strongly correlated with the efficacy of standard multiple schedule arrangements. Additionally, multiple schedule arrangements employing topographically dissimilar stimuli were observed to be equally as effective as standard arrangements and the inclusion of different colored stimuli across arrangements did not reduce the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across all conditions, when it was observed to emerge at all.

DRA contingencies promote improved tolerance to delayed reinforcement during FCT compared to DRO and fixed-time schedules

Following Functional Communication Training (FCT), clinicians often gradually expose newly taught communicative responses to delayed reinforcement contingencies to prepare clients for the normative environment in which requests are frequently reinforced after a delay. The introduction of delays may result in the resurgence and maintenance of problem behavior and the weakening of the newly trained communicative response. The current study compared delay tolerance with three individuals diagnosed with intellectual and developmental disabilities when reinforcement for the functional communication response (FCR) was delivered following (a) the passage of time, (b) the omission of problem behavior, or (c) the occurrence of an alternative behavior. We measured delay tolerance in terms of minimizing problem behavior and maintaining efficient FCRs. Outcomes support requiring alternative responding during delays to attain optimal treatment results.

Incorporating discriminative stimuli into functional communication training with augmentative and alternative communication devices: a tutorial

Functional communication training (FCT) is a commonly used and effective treatment for problem behavior maintained by social reinforcement (e.g., an individual engages in self-injurious behavior to gain access to adult attention). FCT involves teaching an individual to emit an appropriate communication response to access the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior (e.g., pressing a "Play, please" symbol on a device to gain the communication partner's attention) and withholding that reinforcer following problem behavior (e.g., the communication partner minimizes attention-following problem behavior and waits for a communication response). Techniques such as incorporating discriminative stimuli (e.g., differently colored cards) can make FCT more practical for caregivers by teaching individuals when reinforcement is and is not available for communication responses while simultaneously mitigating treatment relapse. Despite the effectiveness of FCT with discriminative stimuli, no studies have leveraged the capabilities of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices by embedding discriminative stimuli within AAC software (e.g., by coloring communication symbols or grids). Our tutorial provides a comprehensive overview of how practitioners can incorporate FCT with discriminative stimuli into practice and includes video models of how to design these treatments on two common AAC apps.

On the Standardization of the Functional Analysis

The functional analysis procedures described in the seminal Iwata et al. (1982/1994) study are prominent in the applied behavior analytic literature, having been replicated hundreds of times over the past 30 years (Beavers, Iwata, & Lerman, 2013; Hanley, McCord, Iwata, 2003). However, the extent to which particular components of this functional analysis model have become more or less prominent over time is not clear from these literature reviews. We therefore conducted a review of the functional analysis literature between the years of 1965 and 2016 to determine the trends in the usage of particular components over time and to determine if the published literature reflects a standardization of the manner in which functional analyses of problem behavior are conducted. Furthermore, we discuss whether or not this standardization of a functional analysis model is currently necessary.

Using Schedule-Correlated Stimuli During Functional Communication Training to Promote the Rapid Transfer of Treatment Effects

Prior research has shown that bringing functional communication responses under the discriminative control of schedule-correlated stimuli facilitates rapid reinforcement schedule thinning and the transfer of functional communication training (FCT) treatment effects to other therapists and settings. In Experiment 1, we extended this body of research by rapidly transferring FCT treatment effects to a caregiver, despite the caregiver's unique and lengthy history of reinforcement of the child's destructive behavior. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the degree to which FCT treatment effects transferred to another participant's caregivers when the caregivers implemented FCT with and without schedule-correlated stimuli. Rapid transfer of FCT treatment effects occurred only when caregivers used the schedule-correlated stimuli. We discuss the use of schedule-correlated stimuli within FCT procedures as a method of programming for generalization when extending treatment to caregivers.

Life skills instruction for children with developmental disabilities

The Preschool Life Skills program is an intervention package designed to teach functional skills to prevent problem behavior in typically developing children. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of the instructional package (renamed "Life Skills") with children with developmental disabilities. The program involved teaching 12 life skills to nine participants across four instructional units. The units were instruction following, functional communication, tolerance of denial and delay, and friendship skills. Teachers provided instruction through a three-tiered instructional approach, starting with class-wide instruction followed by small group and one-to-one instruction as necessary. We extended previous research by using visual prompts during all three tiers and progressively increasing intertrial intervals during one-to-one instruction. Results indicated that the intervention led to skill acquisition with all nine participants. The skills maintained 4 weeks after instruction ended.

Effects of Differential Consequences on Choice Making in Students at Risk for Academic Failure

Problem behavior can be reduced through choice making and use of preferred instructional activities. However, the opportunity to choose does not imply students are more engaged with instructional activities. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of differential consequences on the on-task behavior of students within the context of teacher versus student selection of instructional activities. Students were exposed to two contingencies (i.e., escape + differential attention vs. escape + physical proximity) across two stimulus events (i.e., teacher vs. student choice of preferred instructional activities) using an alternating-treatments design within an A-B-A-B design. Choice of instructional activities increased on-task behavior during student-choice conditions compared to the teacher-choice conditions, but only when differential attention was provided. Differential attention was also more effective than physical proximity at increasing on-task behavior. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Baseline reinforcement rate and resurgence of destructive behavior

Concepts from behavioral momentum theory, along with some empirical findings, suggest that the rate of baseline reinforcement may contribute to the relapse of severe destructive behavior. With seven children who engaged in destructive behavior, we tested this hypothesis in the context of functional communication training by comparing the effects of different baseline reinforcement rates on resurgence during a treatment challenge (i.e., extinction). We observed convincing resurgence of destructive behavior in four of seven participants, and we observed more resurgence in the condition associated with high-rate baseline reinforcement (i.e., variable-interval 2 s in Experiment 1 or fixed-ratio 1 in Experiment 2) compared to a low-rate baseline reinforcement condition. We discuss the implications of these results relative to schedules of reinforcement in the treatment of destructive behavior and strategies to mitigate resurgence in clinical settings.

Rapid Assessment of Attention Types for the Treatment of Attention-Maintained Problem Behavior

In the current study, we expanded previously described attention assessment procedures (e.g., Piazza et al., 1999) to create a rapid assessment of attention types (RAAT) suitable for clinical and educational settings. The RAAT was developed to identify a form of attention most likely to reinforce functionally equivalent alternatives to problem behavior. We describe the procedures for conducting a RAAT, as well as the results of a treatment evaluation that included two attention types from the RAAT, programmed to increase prosocial alternative behaviors.

Evaluating competing activities to enhance functional communication training during reinforcement schedule thinning

Arranging periods in which requests for reinforcement are denied in a multiple schedule may result in increased destructive behavior during these periods for individuals who receive functional communication training (FCT) as treatment for severe destructive behavior. Providing access to competing activities during periods of reinforcer unavailability has been shown to minimize destructive behavior. We evaluated methods to identify effective competing activities for use when thinning reinforcement availability in a multiple schedule and compared competing activities embedded within the multiple schedule using an alternating-treatments design. Results suggested at least one competing activity facilitated favorable treatment outcomes for each participant. We discuss building on this empirical approach to identify effective competing activities for use during reinforcement schedule thinning.

Systematic Changes in Preference for Schedule-Thinning Arrangements as a Function of Relative Reinforcement Density

We treated destructive behavior maintained by both social-positive (i.e., access to tangibles) and social-negative (i.e., escape from demands) reinforcement in an individual diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder using functional communication training (FCT). We then thinned the schedule of reinforcement for the tangible function using a multiple schedule (mult FCT) and later thinned the availability of escape using a chained schedule (chain FCT). Both treatments proved effective at maintaining functional communicative responses while decreasing destructive behavior to near-zero levels. In addition, treatment effects maintained when we rapidly thinned mult FCT to the terminal schedule. Throughout chain-FCT schedule thinning, we assessed client preference for each schedule-thinning arrangement (mult FCT or chain FCT) using a concurrent-chains procedure. Client preference reliably shifted from chain FCT to mult FCT as the response requirement increased and the proportion of session spent in reinforcement began to favor mult FCT. We discuss the clinical implications of these findings.

Assessing and Treating Elopement in a School Setting

Elopement, or running away from supervised areas, is a dangerous and problematic behavior that compromises the safety of people with disabilities at disproportionately high rates. As such, it is paramount that teachers know how to respond to elopement during school to ensure student safety. Although general safety strategies may be helpful in preventing elopement, they fail to address the factors that trigger elopement. Recent advances in the assessment and treatment of elopement offer strategies that teachers can use to help treat elopement by first understanding why it occurs. We describe the common reasons elopement may occur, outline a systematic approach for assessment and treatment of elopement that teachers can use in school settings, and provide a strategy for maintaining treatment effects over time.

Resurgence with and without an alternative response

Resurgence is the reemergence of a previously reinforced response that occurs after the elimination or reduction of reinforcement for an alternative response. Resurgence is problematic in the context of treatment because the reemergence of a previously reinforced destructive response could be detrimental to treatment gains. In the current translational study, we examined a modified resurgence procedure in which the alternative response was either present or absent during extinction. Four participants were exposed to three phases that consisted of (1) reinforcement of a target response, (2) extinction of the target response and differential reinforcement of an alternative response, and (3) extinction of both responses. Results for four out of five assessments showed greater resurgence when the alternative response was absent during Phase 3. Results suggest that more robust resurgence might occur if the alternative response is not available as opposed to the alternative response contacting extinction.