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Kearns DN. The effect of economy type on reinforcer value. Behav Processes 2019; 162:20-28. [PMID: 30685410 PMCID: PMC6445746 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews studies investigating the effect of economy type on reinforcer value. In a closed economy, consumption of the reinforcer depends entirely on the subject's behavior, whereas in an open economy it does not, due, for example, to the provision of free reinforcers after the session. In theory, reinforcers should have higher value in a closed economy than in an open economy. Experimental results relevant to this prediction and methods used to test economy type effects are summarized and discussed here. Studies have tested the effect of economy type on the value of a variety of reinforcers, including food, water, saccharin, various drugs, and video games. Subjects used have varied also and include humans, monkeys, rats, and mice. Whether economy type had an effect on reinforcer value appears to depend on the particular reinforcer studied and on the species used. In general, where there was a difference in reinforcer value across economies, the effect was consistent with the prediction that value should be lower in the open economy. In some studies, however, satiation across economy types may have been responsible for the difference, or at least contributed to it. Potential explanations for the economy type effect, including substitution of future reinforcers for current reinforcers, contingency degradation, anticipatory contrast, and optimal foraging, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Kearns
- American University, Psychology Department, American University 4400 Massachusetts Ave NW Washington, 20016, DC, United States.
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2
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A Systematic Review of Applied Behavioral Economics in Assessments and Treatments for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities. REVIEW JOURNAL OF AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40489-018-0136-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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3
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Selected publication trends in JEAB: Implications for the vitality of the experimental analysis of behavior. THE BEHAVIOR ANALYST 2012; 25:45-55. [PMID: 22478377 DOI: 10.1007/bf03392044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To provide some insight into the current vitality of the experimental analysis of behavior, we updated and extended an analysis by R. A. Williams and Buskist (1983) of selected trends in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Specifically, the number of articles published and the percentage of those articles that were empirical, the number of different affiliations of authors and number of articles per affiliation, the types of subjects used in empirical articles, and the topics investigated were analyzed for the years 1958 through 1999. Although several trends may point to a decline in the overall well-being of the experimental analysis of behavior, they may also be interpreted as signs of progress for the field.
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Cassidy RN, Dallery J. Effects of economy type and nicotine on the essential value of food in rats. J Exp Anal Behav 2012; 97:183-202. [PMID: 22389525 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2012.97-183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The exponential demand equation proposed by Hursh and Silberberg (2008) provides an estimate of the essential value of a good as a function of price. The model predicts that essential value should remain constant across changes in the magnitude of a reinforcer, but may change as a function of motivational operations. In Experiment 1, rats' demand for food across a sequence of fixed-ratio schedules was assessed during open and closed economy conditions and across one- and two-pellet per reinforcer delivery conditions. The exponential equation was fitted to the relation between fixed-ratio size and the logarithm of the absolute number of reinforcers. Estimates of the rate of change in elasticity of food, the proposed measure of essential value, were compared across conditions. Essential value was equivalent across magnitudes during the closed economy, but showed a slight decrease across magnitudes during the open economy. Experiment 2 explored the behavioral mechanisms of nicotine's effects on consumption with the results from Experiment 1 serving as a within-subject frame of reference. The same subjects were administered nicotine via subcutaneously implanted osmotic minipumps at a dose of 3 mg/kg/day and exposed to both the one- and two-pellet conditions under a closed economy. Although nicotine produced large decreases in demand, essential value was not significantly changed. The data from the present experiments provide further evidence for the adequacy of the exponential demand equation as a tool for quantifying the rate of change in elasticity of a good and for assessing behavioral mechanisms of drug action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel N Cassidy
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Hall G, Lattal K. Reward Density And Variable-interval Schedule Performance In An Open Economy. J Exp Anal Behav 2010; 72:341-54. [PMID: 16812916 PMCID: PMC1284748 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.1999.72-341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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6
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Kodak T, Lerman DC, Call N. Evaluating the influence of postsession reinforcement on choice of reinforcers. J Appl Behav Anal 2008; 40:515-27. [PMID: 17970264 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2007.40-515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Factors that influence reinforcer choice have been examined in a number of applied studies (e.g., Neef, Mace, Shea, & Shade, 1992; Shore, Iwata, DeLeon, Kahng, & Smith, 1997; Tustin, 1994). However, no applied studies have evaluated the effects of postsession reinforcement on choice between concurrently available reinforcers, even though basic findings indicate that this is an important factor to consider (Hursh, 1978; Zeiler, 1999). In this bridge investigation, we evaluated the influence of postsession reinforcement on choice of two food items when task responding was reinforced on progressive-ratio schedules. Participants were 3 children who had been diagnosed with developmental disabilities. Results indicated that response allocation shifted from one food item to the other food item under thinner schedules of reinforcement when no postsession reinforcement was provided. These findings suggest that the efficacy of instructional programs or treatments for problem behavior may be improved by restricting reinforcers outside treatment sessions.
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Abstract
The article reviews data from animal subjects on a range of timing tasks (including fixed-interval and temporal differentiation schedules, stimulus timing, aversive conditioning, and Pavlovian methods) with respect to conformity to the two scalar properties of timing behaviour: mean accuracy and scalar (Weberian) variance. Systematic deviations were found in data from temporal differentiation schedules, timing of very short (<100 ms) or very long (>100 s) durations, effects of "task difficulty", and some special cases where circadian and interval timing seemed to interact, or where some specific durations seemed to be timed more precisely than others. Theoretical reconciliation of some of these deviations with underlying scalar timing can be achieved, but a number of problematical cases remain unexplained.
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Bullock CE, Hackenberg TD. Second-order schedules of token reinforcement with pigeons: implications for unit price. J Exp Anal Behav 2006; 85:95-106. [PMID: 16602378 PMCID: PMC1397791 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2006.116-04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Four pigeons were exposed to second-order schedules of token reinforcement, with stimulus lights serving as token reinforcers. Tokens were earned according to a fixed-ratio (token-production) schedule, with the opportunity to exchange tokens for food (exchange period) occurring after a fixed number had been produced (exchange-production ratio). The token-production and exchange-production ratios were manipulated systematically across conditions. Response rates varied inversely with the token-production ratio at each exchange-production ratio. Response rates also varied inversely with the exchange-production ratio at each token-production ratio, particularly at the higher token-production ratios. At higher token-production and exchange-production ratios, response rates increased in token-production segments closer to exchange periods and food. Some conditions were conducted in a closed economy, in which the pigeons earned all their daily ration of food within the session. Relative to comparable open-economy conditions, response rates in the closed economy were less affected by changes in token-production ratio, resulting in higher levels of food intake and body weight. Some of the results are consistent with the economic concept of unit price, a cost-benefit ratio comprised of responses per unit of food delivery, but most are well accounted for by a consideration of the number of responses required to produce exchange periods, without regard to the amount of reinforcement available during those exchange periods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Timothy D Hackenberg
- Correspondence should be sent to Timothy D Hackenberg, Department of Psychology, P. O. Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-2250, e-mail:
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Abstract
Pigeons responded on fixed-interval and fixed-ratio food schedules during sessions of extended duration. Pause lengths from the beginning of the session, when the subjects were hungry, resembled those found in open economies, whereas pause lengths from the end of the sessions, when the subjects were close to satiation, resembled those from closed economies. A model of motivation captured key features of the data, suggesting that a changing level of hunger is a causal factor in the behavioral differences observed between open and closed economies. Behavioral theories may provide a parsimonious alternative to economic theories in accounting for such effects.
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Roane HS, Call NA, Falcomata TS. A preliminary analysis of adaptive responding under open and closed economies. J Appl Behav Anal 2006; 38:335-48. [PMID: 16270843 PMCID: PMC1226168 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2005.85-04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In the current investigation, we evaluated the effects of open and closed economies on the adaptive behavior of 2 individuals with developmental disabilities. Across both types of economy, progressive-ratio (PR) schedules were used in which the number of responses required to obtain reinforcement increased as the session progressed. In closed-economy sessions, participants were able to obtain reinforcement only through interaction with the PR schedule requirements (i.e., more work resulted in more reinforcer access). In open-economy sessions, participants obtained reinforcers by responding on the PR schedule and were given supplemental (free) access to the reinforcers after completion of the session. In general, more responding was associated with the closed economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry S Roane
- Marcus Institute, 1920 Briarcliff Rd., Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA.
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Shull RL. The sensitivity of response rate to the rate of variable-interval reinforcement for pigeons and rats: a review. J Exp Anal Behav 2005; 84:99-110. [PMID: 16156139 PMCID: PMC1243899 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2005.03-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The relation between the rate of a response (B) and the rate of its reinforcement (R) is well known to be approximately hyperbolic: B = kR/(R + Ro), where k represents the maximum response rate, and Ro indicates the rate of reinforcers that will engender a response rate equal to half its maximum value. A review of data reported in 17 published papers revealed that, under variable-interval schedules of reinforcement, Ro was usually lower when pigeons were the subjects than when rats were the subjects. The value of k, in contrast, did not differ consistently between pigeons and rats. Some accounts interpret Ro as the rate of alternative, unscheduled reinforcers in the situation, expressed in units of the scheduled reinforcer. So interpreted, the difference in Ro implies that less alternative reinforcement (relative to the scheduled reinforcement) typically is available to pigeons in their operant conditioning chambers than it is to rats in theirs. Whether or not that interpretation of Ro is valid, the pigeon-rat difference in Ro ensures that for reinforcer rates above about 10 per hour, response rate will be noticeably less sensitive to changes in reinforcer rate (and presumably to changes in other incentive and motivational operations) with pigeons than with rats as subjects, at least with the experimental conditions typically employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Shull
- Department of Psychology, Box 26170, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402-6170, USA.
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Madden GJ, Dake JM, Mauel EC, Rowe RR. Labor supply and consumption of food in a closed economy under a range of fixed- and random-ratio schedules: tests of unit price. J Exp Anal Behav 2005; 83:99-118. [PMID: 15828589 PMCID: PMC1193747 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2005.32-04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2004] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The behavioral economic concept of unit price predicts that consumption and response output (labor supply) are determined by the unit price at which a good is available regardless of the value of the cost and benefit components of the unit price ratio. Experiment 1 assessed 4 pigeons' consumption and response output at a range of unit prices. In one condition, food was available according to a range of fixed-ratio schedules, whereas in the other condition, food was available according to a range of random-ratio schedules. Consistent with unit price predictions, consumption and response output were approximately equivalent across schedule types within the lower range of unit prices. However, at Unit Prices 64 (ratio value = 192) and greater, considerably more consumption and response output were observed in the random-ratio condition. Experiment 2 replicated these findings with 4 pigeons using the rapid demand curve assay procedure that is commonly used in the behavioral economics literature. Findings are integrated with two mathematical models of behavior under variable reinforcer delays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Madden
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Ave., Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54702-4004, USA.
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13
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Abstract
Pigeons were exposed to multiple and concurrent second-order schedules of token reinforcement, with stimulus lights serving as token reinforcers. Tokens were produced and exchanged for food according to various fixed-ratio schedules, yielding equal and unequal unit prices (responses per unit food delivery). On one schedule (termed the standard schedule), the unit price was held constant across conditions. On a second schedule (the alternative schedule), the unit price was either the same or different from the standard. Under conditions with unequal unit prices, near-exclusive preference for the lower unit price was obtained. Under conditions with equal unit prices, the direction and degree of preference depended on ratio size (number of responses per exchange period). When this ratio differed, strong preferences for the smaller ratio were observed. When this ratio was equal, preferences were nearer indifference. Response rates on the multiple schedule were generally consistent with the preference data in showing sensitivity to ratio size. Results are discussed in terms of a unit-price model that includes handling and reinforcer immediacy as additional costs. On the whole, results show that preferences were determined primarily by delay to the exchange period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa A Foster
- University of Florida, Department of Psychology, Gainesville, Florida 32611-2250, USA.
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Smith JB, Gantert AW. Small and large fixed ratios with the same unit price. Behav Processes 2004; 65:253-67. [PMID: 14998662 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2003.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2003] [Revised: 08/18/2003] [Accepted: 10/31/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Key pressing of rats was maintained under multiple and discrete-trial choice schedules with reinforcer units of 45 mg food pellets or 3.5 s dips of sucrose solution. Both smaller and larger fixed ratio (FR) schedules were associated with the same unit price in a manner, for example, that each of eight iterations of FR120 was associated with delivery of a single reinforcer unit and one instance of FR960 was associated with eight reinforcer units. FR requirement varied between 20 and 1560 per aggregate reinforcer and unit price varied between 20 and 240 per reinforcer unit. During multiple schedules with food reinforcers, rates and patterns of responding were comparable over nearly a 50-fold range of FR requirements (20-1380) when unit price was 20; over nearly a six-fold range of FR requirements (120-720) when unit price was 120; and was only marginally maintained when unit price was 240. Demand for food pellets was comparatively inelastic at FRs between 20 and 120, during which subjects did not receive supplemental feeding outside experimental sessions, but was elastic at FRs greater than 240, when subjects sometimes did receive supplemental feeding. In a discrete-trial choice procedure with a constant unit price of 120 for sucrose solution, subjects were indifferent between smaller FRs and alternative FRs as large as 480, but began switching away from larger FRs that were 600 or greater. Because responding had been comparably maintained under both FR120 and FRs as large as 960 in the multiple schedule, results from the choice procedure indicated that choice performance was influenced by variables other than FR requirement and unit price. Because aggregate reinforcers were the same for smaller and larger FRs, the most likely reason for preferring smaller FRs was the nearness in time to some reinforcer.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Smith
- Mercer University, School of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341,
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Foster TA, Hackenberg TD, Vaidya M. Second-order schedules of token reinforcement with pigeons: effects of fixed- and variable-ratio exchange schedules. J Exp Anal Behav 2001; 76:159-78. [PMID: 11599637 PMCID: PMC1284832 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2001.76-159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Pigeons' key pecks produced food under second-order schedules of token reinforcement, with light-emitting diodes serving as token reinforcers. In Experiment 1, tokens were earned according to a fixed-ratio 50 schedule and were exchanged for food according to either fixed-ratio or variable-ratio exchange schedules, with schedule type varied across conditions. In Experiment 2, schedule type was varied within sessions using a multiple schedule. In one component, tokens were earned according to a fixed-ratio 50 schedule and exchanged according to a variable-ratio schedule. In the other component, tokens were earned according to a variable-ratio 50 schedule and exchanged according to a fixed-ratio schedule. In both experiments, the number of responses per exchange was varied parametrically across conditions, ranging from 50 to 400 responses. Response rates decreased systematically with increases in the fixed-ratio exchange schedules, but were much less affected by changes in the variable-ratio exchange schedules. Response rates were consistently higher under variable-ratio exchange schedules than tinder comparable fixed-ratio exchange schedules, especially at higher exchange ratios. These response-rate differences were due both to greater pre-ratio pausing and to lower local rates tinder the fixed-ratio exchange schedules. Local response rates increased with proximity to food under the higher fixed-ratio exchange schedules, indicative of discriminative control by the tokens.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Foster
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611-2250, USA.
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