Immunoglobulin G antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in game animals and small mammals in eastern Slovakia

The role of wildlife in the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases in Slovakia

Tick-borne diseases (TBD) represent an important challenge for human and veterinary medicine. In Slovakia, studies on the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens (TBP) regarding reservoir hosts have focused on small mammals and to a lesser extent on birds or lizards, while knowledge of the role of the remaining vertebrate groups is limited. Generally, wild ungulates, hedgehogs, small- and medium-sized carnivores, or squirrels are important feeding hosts for ticks and serve as reservoirs for TBP. Importantly, because they carry infected ticks and/or are serologically positive, they can be used as sentinels to monitor the presence of ticks and TBP in the environment. With their increasing occurrence in urban and suburban habitats, wild ungulates, hedgehogs or foxes are becoming an important component in the developmental cycle of Ixodes ricinus and of TBP such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum or Babesia spp. On the other hand, it has been postulated that cervids may act as dilution hosts for Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) and tick-borne encephalitis virus. In southwestern Slovakia, a high prevalence of infection with Theileria spp. (100%) was observed in some cervid populations, while A. phagocytophilum (prevalence of c.50%) was detected in cervids and wild boars. The following pathogens were detected in ticks feeding on free-ranging ungulates, birds, and hedgehogs: A. phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, B. burgdorferi (s.l.), and Babesia spp. The growing understanding of the role of wildlife as pathogen reservoirs and carriers of pathogen-infected ticks offers valuable insights into the epidemiology of TBP, providing a foundation for reducing the risk of TBD.

Molecular surveillance of tick-borne diseases affecting horses in Poland-Own observations

The purpose of the study was to carry out the molecular surveillance of piroplasmosis, granulocytic anaplasmosis and lyme borreliosis in horses which originated from Poland and exhibited symptoms raising the suspicion of the aforementioned disease units. The presence of Theileria equi genetic material was detected in 37 out of 512 examined horses (7.2%), and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in 9 (1.8%). The DNA of Borrelia burgdorferi was found in 11 out of 204 examined horses (5.4%). The above-cited results indicate that the problem of tick-borne diseases affecting horses in Poland is not as significant as in other parts of Europe, however they have to be considered in differential diagnosis of the diseases with lethargy, fever, anaemia and thrombocytopenia.

Tick-Borne Transmission of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Herpesviruses are a large group of DNA viruses infecting mainly vertebrates. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) is often used as a model in studies of the pathogenesis of clinically important human gammaherpesviruses such as Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. This rodent virus appears to be geographically widespread; however, its natural transmission cycle is unknown. Following detection of MHV68 in field-collected ticks, including isolation of the virus from tick salivary glands and ovaries, we investigated whether MHV68 is a tick-borne virus. Uninfected Ixodes ricinus ticks were shown to acquire the virus by feeding on experimentally infected laboratory mice. The virus survived tick molting, and the molted ticks transmitted the virus to uninfected laboratory mice on which they subsequently fed. MHV68 was isolated from the tick salivary glands, consistent with transmission via tick saliva. The virus survived in ticks without loss of infectivity for at least 120 days, and subsequently was transmitted vertically from one tick generation to the next, surviving more than 500 days. Furthermore, the F1 generation (derived from F0 infected females) transmitted MHV68 to uninfected mice on which they fed, with MHV68 M3 gene transcripts detected in blood, lung, and spleen tissue of mice on which F1 nymphs and F1 adults engorged. These experimental data fulfill the transmission criteria that define an arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus), the largest biological group of viruses. Currently, African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the only DNA virus recognized as an arbovirus. Like ASFV, MHV68 showed evidence of pathogenesis in ticks. Previous studies have reported MHV68 in free-living ticks and in mammals commonly infested with I. ricinus, and neutralizing antibodies to MHV68 have been detected in large mammals (e.g., deer) including humans. Further studies are needed to determine if these reports are the result of tick-borne transmission of MHV68 in nature, and whether humans are at risk of infection.

A rapid and simple pipeline for synthesis of mRNA-ribosome-V(H)H complexes used in single-domain antibody ribosome display

The single-domain antibody (VHH) is a promising building block for a number of antibody-based applications. Ribosome display can successfully be used in the production of VHH. However, the construction of the expression cassette, confirmation of the translation and proper folding of the nascent chain, and the purification of the ribosome complexes, remain cumbersome tasks. Additionally, selection of the most suitable expression system can be challenging. We have designed primers that will amplify virtually all Camelidae VHH. With the help of a double-overlap extension (OE) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) we have fused VHH with the F1 fragment (T7 promoter and species-independent translation sequence) and the F2 fragment (mCherry, Myc-tag, tether, SecM arrest sequence and 3' stem loop) to generate a full-length DNA cassette. OE-PCR generated fragments were incubated directly with cell-free lysates (Leishmania torentolae, rabbit reticulocyte or E. coli) for the synthesis of mRNA-VHH-mCherry-ribosome complexes in vitro. Alternatively, the cassette was ligated in pQE-30 vector and transformed into E. coli to produce ribosome complexes in vivo. The results showed that the same expression cassette could be used to synthesize ribosome complexes with different expression systems. mCherry reporter served to confirm the synthesis and proper folding of the nascent chain, Myc-tag was useful in the rapid purification of ribosome complexes, and combination of the SecM sequence and 3' stem loop made the cassette universal, both for cells-free and E. coli in vivo. This rapid and universal pipeline can effectively be used in antibody ribosome display and VHH production.

Wild deer as a source of infection for livestock and humans in the UK

Wild deer can feature in the epidemiology of a wide range of livestock and human diseases in the United Kingdom by representing a source of disease via various transmission routes. This review highlights current and possible future infections of deer in the UK which may have an impact on livestock and/or human health. Increases in deer abundance as well as range expansion are likely to exacerbate the potential for disease persistence due to the formation of multi-species deer assemblages, which may act as disease reservoirs. Climatic changes are likely to have a direct impact on the presence and abundance of various pathogens and their vectors, so that with a warming climate exotic diseases may play a role in future UK livestock and wildlife disease management. This paper highlights the need for a monitoring strategy for wildlife diseases, in particular infections in wild deer, in the UK.

Protein A/G dependent ELISA a promising diagnostic tool in Lyme disease seroprevalence in game animals and hunting dogs

One of the major problems in serodiagnosis in wild animals is unavailability of specific antiglobulin conjugate. Our study focuses on validation of Protein A/G dependent ELISA in game animals like deer and mouflons as well as in hunting dogs. Binding ability of Protein A/G-conjugate to antibodies was the highest in dogs followed by fallow deer and mouflons. Three different whole cell Borrelia antigens were used to evaluate antigen dependent variation. In new Protein A/G-ELISA the highest sensitivities (90.50%, deer; 85.37%, mouflon & 94.29%, dog) were obtained by B. garinii antigen, with no statistically significant variation (chi(2), P>0.05) among all other antigens used. Average seroprevalences observed in deer, mouflons and dogs were 44.90%, 29.41% and 30.43%, respectively. Marked influence of age on seroprevalence was noticed. Protein A/G-ELISA proved to be sensitive and promising diagnostic tool in serodiagnosis of Lyme disease in game ungulates and it can be used effectively for serosurvey in different wild mammals.