Localization of Na+, K(+)-ATPase in tissues of rabbit and teleosts using an antiserum directed against a partial sequence of the alpha-subunit

Osmoregulatory and immunological role of new canceled cells: Mitochondrial rich cells and its future perspective: A concise review

Mitochondrial-rich cells (MRCs) are one of the most significant canceled type of epithelial cells. Morphologically these cells are totally different from other epithelial cells. These cells primarily implicated in sea-water and fresh-water adaptation, and acid-base regulation. However, in this review paper, we explored some of the most intriguing biological and immune-related functional developmental networks of MRCs. The main pinpoint, MRCs perform a dynamic osmoregulatory and immunological functional role in the gut and male reproductive system. The Na+/K+_ATPase (NKA) and Na+/K+/2Cl cotransporter (NKCC) are key acidifying proteins of MRCs for the ion-transporting function for intestinal homeostasis and maintenance of acidifying the luminal microenvironment in the male reproductive system. Further more importantly, MRCs play a novel immunological role through the exocrine secretion of nano-scale exosomes and multivesicular bodies (MVBs) pathway, which is very essential for sperm maturation, motility, acrosome reaction, and male sex hormones, and these an essential events to produce male gametes with optimal fertilizing ability. This effort is expected to promote the novel immunological role of MRCs, which might be essential for nano-scale exosome secretion.

Melatonin integrates multidimensional regulation of Na+/K+-ATPase in ionocytes and promotes stress and ease response in hypoxia-induced air-breathing fish: lessons from integrative approach

As circadian regulator, melatonin is involved in many physiological processes including ionosmotic regulation in fishes. Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA), an ubiquitous Na⁺/K⁺ transporter in ionocyte epithelia that drives electrochemical Na⁺ gradients and systemic osmotic integration, is a target of stress in fish. However, it is not certain how melatonin regulates NKA functions in ionocyte epithelia and how it modulates the adaptive response such as stress and ease response in fish particularly in hypoxia condition. We, thus, examined the short-term in vivo action of melatonin on the dynamics of NKA regulation in branchial, renal and intestinal ionocytes of hypoxia-induced air-breathing fish (Anabas testudineus Bloch). Interestingly, we found a rise in plasma melatonin in fish when kept for 30 min of forced submergence in water and that indicates a role for melatonin in hypoxia tolerance. A fall in blood [Na⁺ _, K⁺] occurred in these hypoxic fish which later showed a recovery after melatonin treatment. Similarly, melatonin favored the fall in NKA activity in branchial and renal epithelia of hypoxic fish, though it remarkably stimulated its activities in non-stressed fish. Likewise, melatonin that produced differential pattern of mRNA expression in nkaα1-subunit isoforms (nkaα1a, nkaα1b and nkaα1c) and melatonin receptor isoforms (mtnr1a, mtnr1bb, mtnr1bb _x1x2 ) in the tested ionocyte epithelia, showed reversed expression in hypoxic fish. In addition, the rise in NKAα-protein abundance in branchial and renal epithelia of melatonin-treated hypoxic fish indicated a recovery action of melatonin. A higher NKAα-immunoreactivity was found in the immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent images of branchial ionocytes and renal proximal and distal ionocytes of hypoxic fish treated with melatonin. Furthermore, an activation of PKA and PKG-dependent phosphorylation was found in branchial epithelia of hypoxic fish. The generated integrative parabola model showed that melatonin has a maximum targeted action on NKA function in the renal epithelia, suggesting its lead role in the integration of ionosmotic balance during the recovery or ease response. Over all, the data indicate a multidimensional and preferential action of melatonin on NKA regulation in fish ionocytes that integrate the recovery action against hypoxia, thus pointing to a major role for melatonin in stress and ease response in this fish.

Localization of the Neuropeptide Arginine Vasotocin and Its Receptor in the Osmoregulatory Organs of Black Porgy, Acanthopagrus schlegelii: Gills, Kidneys, and Intestines

The neurohypophysial hormone arginine vasotocin (avt) and its receptor (avtr) regulates ions in the osmoregulatory organs of euryhaline black porgy (Acanthopagrus schlegelii). The localization of avt and avtr transcripts in the osmoregulatory organs has yet to be demonstrated. Thus, in the present study, we performed an in situ hybridization analysis to determine the localization of avt and avtr in the gills, kidneys, and intestines of the black porgy. The avt and avtr transcripts were identified in the filament and lamellae region of the gills in the black porgy. However, the basal membrane of the filament contained more avt and avtr transcripts. Fluorescence double tagging analysis revealed that avt and avtr mRNAs were partially co-localized with α-Nka-ir cells in the gill filament. The proximal tubules, distal tubules, and collecting duct of the kidney all had positive hybridization signals for the avt and avtr transcripts. Unlike the α-Nka immunoreactive cells, the avt and avtr transcripts were found on the basolateral surface of the distal convoluted tubule and in the entire cells of the proximal convoluted tubules of the black porgy kidney. In the intestine, the avt and avtr transcripts were found in the basolateral membrane of the enterocytes. Collectively, this study provides a summary of evidence suggesting that the neuropeptides avt and avtr with α-Nka-ir cells may have functions in the gills, kidneys, and intestines via ionocytes.

Unrecognized role of claudin-10b in basolateral membrane infoldings of the thick ascending limb

Claudin-10b is an important component of the tight junction in the thick ascending limb (TAL) of Henle's loop and allows paracellular sodium transport. In immunofluorescence stainings, claudin-10b-positive cells exhibited extensive extra staining of basolateral, column-like structures. The precise localization and function have so far remained elusive. In isolated cortical TAL segments from C57BL/6J mice, kidney-specific claudin-10 knockout mice (cKO), and respective litter mates (WT), we investigated the localization and protein expression and function by fluorescence microscopy and electrophysiological measurements. Ultrastructural analysis of TAL in kidney sections was performed by electron microscopy. Claudin-10b colocalized with the basolateral Na⁺ -K⁺ ATPase and the Cl^- channel subunit barttin, but the lack of claudin-10b did not influence the localization or abundance of these proteins. However, the accessibility of the basolateral infolded extracellular space to ouabain or fluorescein was increased by basolateral Ca²⁺ removal and in the absence of claudin-10b. Ultrastructural analysis by electron microscopy revealed a widening of basolateral membrane infoldings in cKO in comparison to WT. We hypothesize that claudin-10b shapes neighboring membrane invaginations by trans interaction to stabilize and facilitate high-flux salt transport in a water-tight epithelium.

Evidence for the involvement of branchial Vacuolar-type H+-ATPase in the acidification of the external medium by the West African lungfish, Protopterus annectens, exposed to ammonia-loading conditions

African lungfishes are obligatory air-breathers with exceptionally high environmental ammonia tolerance. They can lower the pH of the external medium during exposure to ammonia-loading conditions. This study aimed to demonstrate the possible involvement of branchial vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPase (Vha) in the ammonia-induced acidification of the external medium by the West African lungfish, Protopterus annectens, and to examine whether its capacity to acidify the medium could be augmented after exposure to 100 mmol l^-1 NH₄Cl for six days. Two full coding cDNA sequences of Vha subunit B (atp6v1b), atp6v1b1 and atp6v1b2, were obtained from the internal gills of P. annectens. The sequence of atp6v1b1 comprised 1548 bp, encoding 515 amino acids (57.4 kDa), while that of atp6v1b2 comprised 1536 bp, encoding 511 amino acids (56.6 kDa). Using a custom-made antibody reactive to both isoforms, immunofluorescence microscopy revealed the collective localization of Atp6v1b (atp6v1b1 and atp6v1b2) at the apical or the basolateral membrane of two different types of branchial Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase-immunoreactive ionocyte. The ionocytes labelled apically with Atp6v1b presumably expressed Atp6v1b1 containing a PDZ-binding domain, indicating that the apical Vha was positioned to transport H⁺ to the external medium. The expression of Atp6v1b was regulated post-transcriptionally, as the protein abundance of Atp6v1b and Vha activity increased significantly in the gills of fish exposed to 100 mmol l^-1 NH₄Cl for six days. Correspondingly, the fish exposed to ammonia had a greater capacity to acidify the external medium, presumably to decrease the ratio of [NH₃] to [NH₄⁺] in order to reduce the influx of exogenous NH₃.

Assessing intracellular pH regulation in H+-ATPase-rich ionocytes in zebrafish larvae using in vivo ratiometric imaging

The H+-ATPase-rich (HR) cells of zebrafish larvae are a sub-type of ion-transporting cell located on the yolk sac epithelium that are responsible for Na+ uptake and H+ extrusion. Current models of HR cell ion transport mechanisms in zebrafish larvae are well established, but little is known about the involvement of the various ion transport pathways in regulating intracellular acid-base status. Here, a ratiometric imaging technique was developed and validated to monitor intracellular pH (pHi) continuously in larval zebrafish HR cells in vivo Gene knockdown or CRISPR/Cas9 knockout approaches were used to evaluate the roles of the two principal apical membrane acid excretory pathways, the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3b; slc9a3.2) and the H+-ATPase (atpv1aa). Additionally, the role of HR cell cytosolic carbonic anhydrase (CAc) was investigated because of its presumed role in providing H+ for Na+/H+ exchange and H+-ATPase. The temporal pattern and extent of intracellular acidification during exposure of fish to 1% CO2 and the extent of post-CO2 alkalisation were altered markedly in fish experiencing knockdown/knockout of CAc, NHE3b or H+-ATPase. Although there were slight differences among the three knockdown/knockout experiments, the typical response was a greater degree of intracellular acidification during CO2 exposure and a reduced capacity to restore pHi to baseline levels post-hypercapnia. The metabolic alkalosis and subsequent acidification associated with 20 mmol l-1 NH4Cl exposure and its washout were largely unaffected by gene knockdown. Overall, the results suggest markedly different mechanisms of intracellular acid-base regulation in zebrafish HR cells depending on the nature of the acid-base disturbance.

Mitochondria-Rich Cells: A Novel Type of Concealed Cell in the Small Intestine of Chinese Soft-Shelled Turtles (Pelodiscus Sinensis)

Although some studies have been conducted over the past few decades, the existence of mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs) in reptiles is still obscure. This is the first study to uncover the presence of MRCs in the small intestine of Chinese soft-shelled turtles. In this study, we investigated the ultrastructural characteristics of MRCs and the secretion of different ion transport proteins in the small intestine of Pelodiscus sinensis. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the ultrastructural features of MRCs are clearly different from those of other cells. The cytoplasmic density of MRCs was higher than absorptive epithelial cells (AECs) and goblet cells (GCs). MRCs possessed abundant heterogeneous mitochondria and an extensive tubular system in the cytoplasm, however, the AECs and GCs completely lacked a tubular system. Statistical analysis showed that the diameter and quantification of mitochondria were highly significant in MRCs. Mitochondrial vacuolization and despoiled mitochondria were closely associated with autophagosomes in MRCs. The multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and the exosome secretion pathway were observed in MRCs. Immunohistochemical staining of ion transport proteins indicated positive immunoreactivity of Na⁺/K^+_ATPase (NKA) and Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter (NKCC) at the basal region of the mucosal surface. Likewise, the immunofluorescence staining results showed a strong positive localization of NKA, NKCC, and carbonic anhydrase (CA) at the basal and apical region of the mucosal surface of small intestine. Our findings suggest that MRCs provide support and regulate cellular ions for intestinal homeostasis and provide energy for cellular quality control in intestine.

Seasonal exploration of ultrastructure and Na+/K+-ATPase, Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter of mitochondria-rich cells in the small intestine of turtles

Despite the exploration of mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs) in different animal classes, very limited information has been documented about MRCs in reptiles. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of seasonal variation on the cell ultrastructure and ion transport protein activity of MRCs during hibernation and non-hibernation of Chinese soft-shelled turtle's intestine. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that, during hibernation the high-density cytoplasm of MRCs occupied large cross-sectional area and showed heterogeneous abundance of mitochondria and an expanded extensive tubular system as compared to non-hibernation. During hibernation the cytoplasm of MRCs exhibited more mitochondrial vacuolization, autophagosomes, phagophore formation and well-structured endoplasmic reticulum. During hibernation, MRCs connected with absorptive cells through wide interdigitation, and created tight junction and more desmosomes as compared to non-hibernation. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence showed, the strong immunopositive reactions and immunosignaling of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) and Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) at basolateral region of mucosal surface of intestine during hibernation. However, weak immunopositive reactions and immunosignaling of NKA and NKCC during non-hibernation. The statistical analysis showed that the number and size of MRCs with NKA-associated immunoreactivity were significantly increased during hibernation. NKA and NKCC mRNA expression was significantly increased during hibernation via qPCR. Further confirmed, the intensity of NKA and NKCC proteins was more elevated during hibernation than non-hibernation shown by immunobloting. However, the concentrations of the plasma ions Na⁺ and Cl- were significantly higher during hibernation; conversely, K⁺ concentration was significantly higher during non-hibernation. The findings suggest that the potential role of MRCs is affected by seasonal fluctuations, during which intestinal homeostasis and hydromineral balance are essential for turtles.

Section-specific expression of acid-base and ammonia transporters in the kidney tubules of the goldfish Carassius auratus and their responses to feeding

In teleost fishes, renal contributions to acid-base and ammonia regulation are often neglected compared with the gills. In goldfish, increased renal acid excretion in response to feeding was indicated by increased urine ammonia and inorganic phosphate concentrations and decreased urine pH. By microdissecting the kidney tubules and performing quantitative real-time PCR and/or immunohistochemistry, we profiled the section-specific expression of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), glutamine synthetase (GS), Na⁺/H⁺-exchanger 3 (NHE3), carbonic anhydrase II (CAIIa), V-H⁺-ATPase subunit 1b, Cl^-/ HCO3- -exchanger 1 (AE1), Na⁺/ HCO3- -cotransporter 1 (NBC1), Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase subunit 1α, and Rhesus-proteins Rhbg, Rhcg1a, and Rhcg1b. Here, we show for the first time that 1) the proximal tubule appears to be the major site for ammoniagenesis, 2) epithelial transporters are differentially expressed along the renal tubule, and 3) a potential feeding-related "acidic tide" results in the differential regulation of epithelial transporters, resembling the mammalian renal response to a metabolic acidosis. Specifically, GDH and NHE3 mRNAs were upregulated and GS downregulated in the proximal tubule upon feeding, suggesting this section as a major site for ammoniagenesis and acid secretion. The distal tubule may play a major role in renal ammonia secretion, with feeding-induced upregulation of mRNA and protein for apical NHE3, cytoplasmic CAIIa, universal Rhcg1a and apical Rhcg1b, and downregulation of basolateral Rhbg and AE1. Changes in mRNA expression of the Wolffian ducts and bladder suggest supporting roles in fine-tuning urine composition. The present study verifies an important renal contribution to acid-base balance and emphasizes that studies looking at the whole kidney may overlook key section-specific responses.

Na+/H+ Exchanger 3 Is Expressed in Two Distinct Types of Ionocyte, and Probably Augments Ammonia Excretion in One of Them, in the Gills of the Climbing Perch Exposed to Seawater

The freshwater climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, is an euryhaline teleost and an obligate air-breather with the ability to actively excrete ammonia. Members of the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) family help maintain intracellular pH homeostasis and ionic balance through the electroneutral exchange of Na+ and H+. This study aimed to obtain, from the gills of A. testudineus, the full cDNA coding sequence of nhe3, and to determine the effects of exposure to seawater or 100 mmol l-1 of NH4Cl in fresh water on its mRNA and protein expression levels. Efforts were also made to elucidate the type of ionocyte that Nhe3 was associated with in the branchial epithelium of A. testudineus. The transcript level and protein abundance of nhe3/Nhe3 were very low in the gills of freshwater A. testudineus, but they increased significantly in the gills of fish acclimated to seawater. In the gills of fish exposed to seawater, Nhe3 was expressed in two distinct types of seawater-inducible Na+/K+-ATPase (Nka)-immunoreactive ionocytes. In Nkaα1b-immunoreactive ionocytes, Nhe3 had an apical localization. As these ionocytes also expressed apical Rhcg1 and basolateral Rhcg2, which are known to transport ammonia, they probably participated in proton-facilitated ammonia excretion in A. testudineus during seawater acclimation. In Nkaα1c-immunoreactive ionocytes, Nhe3 was atypically expressed in the basolateral membrane, and its physiological function is uncertain. For A. testudineus exposed to NH4Cl in fresh water, the transcript and protein expression levels of nhe3/Nhe3 remained low. In conclusion, the branchial Nhe3 of A. testudineus plays a greater physiological role in passive ammonia transport and acid-base balance during seawater acclimation than in active ammonia excretion during environmental ammonia exposure.

Ammonia exposure affects the mRNA and protein expression levels of certain Rhesus glycoproteins in the gills of climbing perch

The freshwater climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, is an obligate air-breathing and euryhaline teleost capable of active ammonia excretion and tolerant of high concentrations of environmental ammonia. As Rhesus glycoproteins (RhGP/Rhgp) are known to transport ammonia, this study aimed to obtain the complete cDNA coding sequences of various rhgp isoforms from the gills of A. testudineus, and to determine their mRNA and protein expression levels during 6 days of exposure to 100 mmol l^-1 NH₄Cl. The subcellular localization of Rhgp isoforms in the branchial epithelium was also examined in order to elucidate the type of ionocyte involved in active ammonia excretion. Four rhgp (rhag, rhbg, rhcg1 and rhcg2) had been identified from the gills of A. testudineus They had conserved amino acid residues for NH₄⁺ binding, NH₄⁺ deprotonation, channel gating and lining of the vestibules. Despite inwardly directed NH₃ and NH₄⁺ gradients, there were significant increases in the mRNA expression levels of the four branchial rhgp in A. testudineus at certain time points during 6 days of ammonia exposure, with significant increases in the protein abundances of Rhag and Rhcg2 on day 6. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed a type of ammonia-inducible Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase α1c-immunoreactive ionocyte with apical Rhag and basolateral Rhcg2 in the gills of fish exposed to ammonia for 6 days. Hence, active ammonia excretion may involve NH₄⁺ entering the ionocyte through the basolateral Rhcg2 and being excreted through the apical Rhag, driven by a transapical membrane electrical potential generated by the apical cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl^- channel, as suggested previously.

The Gastric Phenotype in the Cypriniform Loaches: A Case of Reinvention?

The stomach, which is characterized by acid peptic digestion in vertebrates, has been lost secondarily multiple times in the evolution of the teleost fishes. The Cypriniformes are largely seen as an agastric order; however, within the superfamily Cobitoidea, the closely related sister groups Nemacheilidae and Balitoridae have been identified as gastric families. The presence of these most recently diverged gastric families in an otherwise agastric clade indicates that either multiple (>2–3) loss events occurred with the Cyprinidae, Catostomidae and Cobitidae, or that gastric reinvention arose in a recent ancestor of the Nemacheilidae/Balitoridae sister clade. In the present study, the foregut regions of Cobitidae, Nemacheilidae/Balitoridae and the ancestral Botiidae family members were examined for the presence of gastric glands and gastric proton pump (Atp4a) α subunit expression by histology and immunohistochemistry respectively. Atp4a gene expression was assessed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Gastric glands expressing apical H⁺/K⁺-ATPase α subunit and isolated partial sequences of atp4a, identified using degenerate primers showing clear orthology to other vertebrate atp4a sequences, were detected in representative species from Nemacheilidae/ Balitoridae and Botiidae, but not Cobitidae (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus). In summary, we provide evidence for an uninterrupted gastric evolutionary lineage in the Cobitoidea, making it highly improbable that the stomach was reinvented in the Nemacheilidae/Balitoridae clade consistent with Dollo’s principle. These results also indicate that the gastric trait may be present elsewhere in the Cobitoidea.

In vivo and in vitro effects of high-K(+) stress on branchial expression of ROMKa in seawater-acclimated Mozambique tilapia

Recently, a teleost ortholog of renal outer medullary K(+) channel (ROMK) expressed in gill ionocytes (ROMKa) has emerged as a primary K(+)-excreting pathway in fish. However, the mechanisms by which ROMKa expression is regulated in response to perturbations of plasma K(+) levels are unknown. In this study, we aimed to identify potential links between the endocrine system and K(+) regulation in a euryhaline fish. We assessed time-course changes in multiple endocrine parameters, including plasma cortisol and gene expression of branchial glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors (GR1, GR2, and MR) and pituitary hormones, in seawater (SW)-acclimated Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) exposed to high-K(+) (H-K) SW. Exposure to H-K SW elicited little effects on plasma cortisol or mRNA levels of GRs and pituitary hormones. Since plasma K(+) and branchial ROMKa expression was increased within 6h after H-K treatment in vivo, the effect of high K(+) was subsequently tested in a gill filament incubation experiment using media with differing K(+) concentrations. ROMKa mRNA levels were induced following incubation of filaments in H-K medium for 6h. The present study is the first to demonstrate that the expression of ROMKa in teleost ionocytes can respond to high K(+) conditions independent from systemic signaling.

Effects of Cd injection on osmoregulation and stress indicators in freshwater Nile tilapia

Freshwater tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were intraperitoneally injected with sublethal doses of cadmium (1.25 or 2.5 mg Cd kg(-1) body mass) and sampled after 1, 4 and 7 days in order to evaluate the mechanisms of Cd toxicity at physiological and biochemical levels. Cd levels were significantly elevated in the gill and kidney following injection however levels in the kidney continued to accumulate while levels in the gill either did not change or decreased with time. Cd caused a generalized stress condition as indicated by an increase in blood glucose, lactate and cortisol levels as well as an oxidative stress indicated by increases in lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl content. Furthermore, tilapia exhibited impairment in their osmoregulatory status based on the fall in plasma sodium levels. Concerning ion regulatory disruption, the kidney was the most affected organ since there was a generalized increase in renal Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity after 1 day of exposure to Cd followed by a significant decrease in day 7. This study provides some insights into the mechanisms of Cd toxicity at physiological and biochemical levels and complements previously reported findings on O. niloticus. The disruption of ion homeostasis, alterations in Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity and oxidative damage are the effects of Cd exposure that can be integrated in a comprehensive model for Cd impacts.

Ammonia exposure increases the expression of Na(+):K (+):2Cl (-) cotransporter 1a in the gills of the giant mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri

The giant mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, is an obligate air-breathing teleost that can actively excrete ammonia against high concentrations of environmental ammonia. This study aimed to clone and sequence the Na (+) :K (+) :2Cl (-) cotransporter 1 (nkcc1) from the gills of P. schlosseri, and to determine the effects of ammonia exposure on its mRNA expression and protein abundance after pre-acclimation to slightly brackish water (salinity 3; SBW) for 2 weeks. The complete coding cDNA sequences of nkcc1a consisted of 3453 bp, coding for 1151 amino acid with an estimated molecular mass of 125.4 kDa. Exposure to 75 mmol l(-1) NH4Cl in SBW had no effect on the mRNA expression of nkcc1a. However, western blotting revealed a significant increase in the protein abundance of multiple T4-immunoreactive bands of molecular mass 170-250 kDa in the gills of P. schlosseri exposed to ammonia. Furthermore, immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated the colocalization of the increased T4-immunoreactive protein with Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (Nka) α-subunit to the basolateral membrane of certain ionocytes in the gills of the ammonia-exposed fish. As Nkcc1 is known to have a basolateral localization, it can be concluded that ammonia exposure led to an increase in the expression of glycosylated Nkcc1, the molecular masses of which were reduced upon enzymatic deglycosylation, in the gills of P. schlosseri. The dependency on post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation of branchial Nkcc1 in P. schlosseri would facilitate prompt responses to changes in environmental condition. As NH4 (+) can replace K(+), NH4 (+) could probably enter ionocytes through the basolateral Nkcc1a during active ammonia excretion, but increased influx of Na(+), NH4 (+) and 2Cl(-) would alter the transmembrane Na(+) gradient. Consequently, exposure of P. schlosseri to ammonia would also result in an increase in branchial activity of Nka with decreased NH4 (+) affinity so as to maintain intracellular Na(+) and K(+) homeostasis as reported elsewhere.

Gene expression and cellular localization of ROMKs in the gills and kidney of Mozambique tilapia acclimated to fresh water with high potassium concentration

Regulation of plasma K(+) levels in narrow ranges is vital to vertebrate animals. Since seawater (SW) teleosts are loaded with excess K(+), they constantly excrete K(+) from the gills. However, the K(+) regulatory mechanisms in freshwater (FW)-acclimated teleosts are still unclear. We aimed to identify the possible K(+) regulatory mechanisms in the gills and kidney, the two major osmoregulatory organs, of FW-acclimated Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). As a potential molecular candidate for renal K(+) handling, a putative renal outer medullary K(+) channel (ROMK) was cloned from the tilapia kidney and tentatively named "ROMKb"; another ROMK previously cloned from the tilapia gills was thus renamed "ROMKa". The fish were acclimated to control FW or to high-K(+) (H-K) FW for 1 wk, and we assessed physiological responses of tilapia to H-K treatment. As a result, urinary K(+) levels were slightly higher in H-K fish, implying a role of the kidney in K(+) excretion. However, the mRNA expression levels of both ROMKa and ROMKb were very low in the kidney, while that of K(+)/Cl(-) cotransporter 1 (KCC1) was robust. In the gills, ROMKa mRNA was markedly upregulated in H-K fish. Immunofluorescence staining showed that branchial ROMKa was expressed at the apical membrane of type I and type III ionocytes, and the ROMKa immunosignals were more intense in H-K fish than in control fish. The present study suggests that branchial ROMKa takes a central role for K(+) regulation in FW conditions and that K(+) excretion via the gills is activated irrespective of environmental salinity.

Branchial Na(+):K(+):2Cl(-) cotransporter 1 and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase α-subunit in a brackish water-type ionocyte of the euryhaline freshwater white-rimmed stingray, Himantura signifer

Himantura signifer is a freshwater stingray which inhabits rivers in Southeast Asia. It can survive in brackish water but not seawater. In brackish water, it becomes partially ureosmotic, but how it maintains its plasma hypoionic to the external medium is enigmatic because of the lack of a rectal gland. Here, we report for the first time the expression of Na(+):K(+):2Cl(-) cotransporter 1 (nkcc1) in the gills of freshwaterH. signifer, and its moderate up-regulation (~2-fold) in response to brackish water (salinity 20) acclimation. The absence of the Ste20-related proline-alanine-rich kinase and oxidation stress response kinase 1 interaction site from the N-terminus of H. signifer Nkcc1 suggested that it might not be effectively activated by stress kinases in response to salinity changes as in more euryhaline teleosts. The increased activity of Nkcc1 during salt excretion in brackish water would lead to an influx of Na(+) into ionocytes, and the maintenance of intracellular Na(+) homeostasis would need the cooperation of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (Nka). We demonstrated for the first time the expression of nkaα1, nkaα2 and nkaα3 in the gills of H. signifer, and the up-regulation of the mRNA expression of nkaα3 and the overall protein abundance of Nkaα in response to acclimation to brackish water. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed the presence of a sub-type of ionocyte, co-expressing Nkcc1 and Nkaα, near the base of the secondary lamellae in the gills of H. signifer acclimated to brackish water, but this type of ionocyte was absent from the gills of fish kept in fresh water. Hence, there could be a change in the function of the gills of H. signifer from salt absorption to salt excretion during brackish water acclimation in the absence of a functioning rectal gland.

Origin and differentiation of ionocytes in gill epithelium of teleost fish

This paper focuses on the environmental cues that transform the gills of euryhaline teleost fish from an oxygen exchange structure into a bifunctional organ that can control both gaseous movement and water/ion transport. The cellular development that allows this structure to accomplish these tasks begins shortly after fertilization of the egg. It involves alterations of structure and function of embryonic cells [ionoblasts (IB)] that are shed from the pharyngeal anlage area of the embryo. These IB contain unique protein-receptor domains in the plasma membrane. These receptors respond specifically to the environmental cues effecting a calcium-binding protein receptor [calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR)]. The CaSR containing IB act as stem cells and are acted upon by isotocin, a heteroprotein regulator which induces them to form progenitor ionocytes (pIC). The pIC form two types of cells. The first type becomes an aquaphilic ionocyte which regulates uptake of ions and through aquaporin molecules transports water out of the cell and controls body fluids of the fish. This mechanism is essential for freshwater living. The second type becomes a halophilic ionocyte and transports ions out of the cell and controls cell shrinkage by uptake of water via aquaporin molecules. This mechanism is essential for seawater living. These differentiating events in the pIC are controlled by the cross talking of genomic mechanisms found in the precursor IB. To unravel the cross talking events it is necessary to uncover how these genetic pathways are regulated by transcriptional and translational events coming from complementary DNA. Various gene families are involved such as those found in apoptosis mechanisms, regulatory volume regulators and ionic transport systems (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator).

Morphological changes in branchial mitochondria-rich cells of the teleost Paralichthys olivaceus as a potential indicator of CO2 impacts

We studied the morphological and biochemical changes of mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs) of a demersal teleost, Paralichthys olivaceus, during exposure to 0.98, 2.97 and 4.95kPa pCO2. The apical opening area of MRCs increased 2.2 and 4.1 times by 24h exposure to 2.97 and 4.95kPa pCO2, respectively, while the cross-sectional area or density of MRCs did not change. Gill Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity more than doubled at 72h and then returned to the pre-exposure level at 168h in 0.98kPa pCO2, while it increased 1.7 times at 24h at 4.95kPa. These results indicate that the apical opening area of MRCs and the gill Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity may be used as an indicator of acute (up to 72h), but not chronic, impacts of high (>1kPa) seawater CO2 conditions in P. olivacues. Limitations of those parameters as indices of CO2 impacts are discussed.

Increases in apoptosis, caspase activity and expression of p53 and bax, and the transition between two types of mitochondrion-rich cells, in the gills of the climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, during a progressive acclimation from freshwater to seawater

This study aimed to test the hypothesis that branchial osmoregulatory acclimation involved increased apoptosis and replacement of mitochdonrion-rich cells (MRCs) in the climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, during a progressive acclimation from freshwater to seawater. A significant increase in branchial caspase-3/-7 activity was observed on day 4 (salinity 20), and an extensive TUNEL-positive apoptosis was detected on day 5 (salinity 25), indicating salinity-induced apoptosis had occurred. This was further supported by an up-regulation of branchial mRNA expression of p53, a key regulator of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, between day 2 (salinity 10) and day 6 (seawater), and an increase in branchial p53 protein abundance on day 6. Seawater acclimation apparently activated both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, as reflected by significant increases in branchial caspase-8 and caspase-9 activities. The involvement of the intrinsic pathway was confirmed by the significant increase in branchial mRNA expression of bax between day 4 (salinity 20) and day 6 (seawater). Western blotting results revealed the presence of a freshwater Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (Nka) α-isoform, Nka α1a, and a seawater isoform, Nka α1b, the protein abundance of which decreased and increased, respectively, during seawater acclimation. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed the presence of two types of MRCs distinctly different in sizes, and confirmed that the reduction in Nka α1a expression, and the prominent increases in expression of Nka α1b, Na(+):K(+):2Cl(-) cotransporter 1, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel coincided with the salinity-induced apoptotic event. Since modulation of existing MRCs alone could not have led to extensive salinity-induced apoptosis, it is probable that some, if not all, freshwater-type MRCs could have been removed through increased apoptosis and subsequently replaced by seawater-type MRCs in the gills of A. testudineus during seawater acclimation.

New insights into gill ionocyte and ion transporter function in euryhaline and diadromous fish

Teleost fishes are able to acclimatize to seawater by secreting excess NaCl by means of specialized "ionocytes" in the gill epithelium. Antibodies against Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA) have been used since 1996 as a marker for identifying branchial ionocytes. Immunohistochemistry of NKA by itself and in combination with Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter and CFTR Cl(-) channel provided convincing evidence that ionocytes are functional during seawater acclimation, and also revealed morphological variations in ionocytes among teleost species. Recent development of antibodies to freshwater- and seawater-specific isoforms of the NKA alpha-subunit has allowed functional distinction of ion absorptive and secretory ionocytes in Atlantic salmon. Cutaneous ionocytes of tilapia embryos serve as a model for branchial ionocytes, allowing identification of 4 types: two involved in ion uptake, one responsible for salt secretion and one with unknown function. Combining molecular genetics, advanced imaging techniques and immunohistochemistry will rapidly advance our understanding of both the unity and diversity of ionocyte function and regulation in fish osmoregulation.

Branchial ionocyte organization and ion-transport protein expression in juvenile alewives acclimated to freshwater or seawater

The alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) is a clupeid that undergoes larval and juvenile development in freshwater preceding marine habitation. The purpose of this study was to investigate osmoregulatory mechanisms in alewives that permit homeostasis in different salinities. To this end, we measured physiological, branchial biochemical and cellular responses in juvenile alewives acclimated to freshwater (0.5 p.p.t.) or seawater (35.0 p.p.t.). Plasma chloride concentration was higher in seawater-acclimated than freshwater-acclimated individuals (141 mmol l(-1) vs 134 mmol l(-1)), but the hematocrit remained unchanged. In seawater-acclimated individuals, branchial Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA) activity was higher by 75%. Western blot analysis indicated that the abundance of the NKA α-subunit and a Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC1) were greater in seawater-acclimated individuals by 40% and 200%, respectively. NKA and NKCC1 were localized on the basolateral surface and tubular network of ionocytes in both acclimation groups. Immunohistochemical labeling for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) was restricted to the apical crypt of ionocytes in seawater-acclimated individuals, whereas sodium/hydrogen exchanger 3 (NHE3) labeling was present on the apical surface of ionocytes in both acclimation groups. Ionocytes were concentrated on the trailing edge of the gill filament, evenly distributed along the proximal 75% of the filamental axis and reduced distally. Ionocyte size and number on the gill filament were not affected by salinity; however, the number of lamellar ionocytes was significantly lower in seawater-acclimated fish. Confocal z-series reconstructions revealed that mature ionocytes in seawater-acclimated alewives occurred in multicellular complexes. These complexes might reduce paracellular Na(+) resistance, hence facilitating Na(+) extrusion in hypo-osmoregulating juvenile alewives after seaward migration.

Structures and immunolocalization of Na+, K+ -ATPase, Na+ /H+ exchanger 3 and vacuolar-type H+ -ATPase in the gills of blennies (Teleostei: Blenniidae) inhabiting rocky intertidal areas

The structure and immunolocalization of the ion transporters Na(+) ,K(+) -ATPase (NKA), Na(+) /H(+) exchanger (NHE3) and vacuolar-type H(+) -ATPase (VHA) were examined in the gills of teleosts of the family Blenniidae, which inhabit rocky shores with vertical zonation in subtropical seas. These features were compared among the following species with different ecologies: the amphibious rockskipper blenny Andamia tetradactylus, the intertidal white-finned blenny Praealticus tanegasimae and the purely marine yaeyama blenny Ecsenius yaeyamaensis. Light and electron microscopic observations indicated that thick gill filaments were arranged close to each other and alternately on two hemibranches of a gill arch in the opercular space of A. tetradactylus. Many mucous cells (MC) and mitochondrion-rich cells (MRC) were present in the interlamellar regions of the gill filament. An immunohistochemical study demonstrated that numerous NKA, NHE3 and some VHA were located predominantly on presumed MRCs of gill filaments and at the base of the lamellae. Analyses using serial (mirror image) sections of the gills indicated that only a few NKA immunoreactive cells (IRC) were colocalized with VHA on some MRCs in the filaments. In the gills of P. tanegasimae, NKA- and NHE3-IRCs were observed in the interlamellar region of the filaments and at the base of the lamellae. VHA-IRCs were located sparsely on the lamellae and filaments. In the gills of E. yaeyamaensis, the lamellae and filaments were thin and straight, respectively. MCs were located at the tip as well as found scattered in the interlamellar region of gill filaments. NKA-, NHE3- and VHA-IRCs were moderately frequently observed in the filaments and rarely on the lamellae. This study shows that the structure and distribution of ion transporters in the gills differ among the three blennid species, presumably reflecting their different ecologies.

Morphological and functional characterization of a novel Na+/K+-ATPase-immunoreactive, follicle-like structure on the gill septum of Japanese banded houndshark, Triakis scyllium

In teleost fishes, it is well-established that the gill serves as an important ionoregulatory organ in addition to its primary function of respiratory gas exchange. In elasmobranch fish, however, the ionoregulatory function of the gills is still poorly understood. Although mitochondria-rich (MR) cells have also been found in elasmobranch fish, these cells are considered to function primarily in acid-base regulation. In this study, we found a novel aggregate structure made up of cells with basolaterally-expressed Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA), in addition to NKA-immunoreactive MR cells that have already been described in the gill filament and lamella. The cell aggregates, named follicularly-arranged NKA-rich cells (follicular NRCs), were found exclusively in the epithelial lining of the venous web in the cavernous region of the filament and the inter-filamental space of the gill septum. The follicular NRCs form a single-layered follicular structure with a large lumen leading to the external environment. The follicular NRCs were characterized by: (i) well-developed microvilli on the apical membrane, (ii) less prominent infoldings of the basolateral membrane and (iii) typical junction structures including deep tight junction between cells. In addition, large numbers of vesicles were observed in the cytoplasm and some of them were fused to the lateral membrane. The follicular NRCs expressed Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 and Ca(2+) transporter 1. The follicular NRCs thus have the characteristics of absorptive ionoregulatory cells and this suggests that the elasmobranch gill probably contributes more importantly to body fluid homeostasis than previously thought.

Molecular physiology and functional morphology of SO₄²⁻ excretion by the kidney of seawater-adapted eels

Marine teleosts actively excrete SO₄²⁻ and keep the plasma concentration of this ion much lower than that of environmental seawater (SW). We used the eel as a model to study the excretory mechanism of SO₄²⁻ because this euryhaline species changes SO₄²⁻ regulation drastically after transfer from freshwater (FW) to SW. Time-course studies showed that plasma SO₄²⁻ concentration decreased 3 days after transfer of eels from FW to SW, while urine SO₄²⁻ concentration increased on 1 day. Detailed analyses showed that urine SO₄²⁻ concentration increased linearly from 6 h after SW transfer; however, this did not immediately translate to increased SO₄²⁻ excretion because the volume of urine was decreased. We identified five SO₄²⁻ transporters in the eel kidney. Three of these (Slc26a1, Slc26a6b and Slc26a6c) are expressed in both SW- and FW-acclimated eels while Slc26a6a and Slc13a1 are expressed in SW-acclimated eels and FW-acclimated eels, respectively. We showed that changes in Slc26a6a and Slc13a1 gene expression occurred 1-3 days after SW transfer. In SW eel kidneys, immunohistochemistry using specific antisera against each transporter protein showed that Slc26a6a and Slc26a6c are localized on the apical membrane of the P1 segment of the proximal tubule, while Slc26a6b is localized on the apical membrane and Slc26a1 on the basolateral membrane of the P2 segment. The current study revealed complex molecular mechanisms of SO₄²⁻ excretion in the SW eel kidney that involve segment-specific localization of multiple Slc transporters in proximal tubules and modulation of their expression in different SO₄²⁻ environments. This precise regulatory mechanism may endow the eel with euryhalinity.

Metabolic and osmoregulatory changes and cell proliferation in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) exposed to cadmium

The impact of cadmium on metabolism and osmoregulation was assessed in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Seawater acclimated fish were injected intraperitoneally with a sublethal dose of cadmium (1.25 mg Cd/kg body wt). After 7 days, half of the injected fish were sampled. The remaining fish were transferred to hypersaline water and sampled 4 days later. Gill and kidney Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activities, plasma levels of cortisol, several metabolites and osmolytes, as well as osmolality were measured. Hepatosomatic index and condition factor were calculated. The expression levels of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, heat shock proteins (HSP70, HSP90) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen was assessed by western blotting. Cadmium treatment adversely affected the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity, although, there was no perturbation in ion homeostasis and the animals were not compromised following transfer to hypersaline water. Increased cell proliferation and Hsp90 expression likely contributed to the attenuation of the deleterious effects of cadmium exposure.

Spatial, cellular, and intracellular localization of Na+/K+-ATPase in the sterically disposed renal tubules of Japanese eel

The kidney plays a crucial role in the regulation of water and ion balances in both freshwater and seawater fishes. However, the complicated structures of the kidney hamper comprehensive understanding of renal functions. In this study, to investigate the structure of sterically disposed renal tubules, we examined spatial, cellular, and intracellular localization of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in the kidney of the Japanese eel. The renal tubule was composed of the first (PT-I) and second (PT-II) segments of the proximal tubule and the distal tubule (DT), followed by the collecting ducts (CDs). Light microscopic immunocytochemistry detected Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase along the renal tubules and CD; however, the subcellular distribution of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase immunoreaction varied among different segments. Electron microscopic immunocytochemistry further revealed that Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase was distributed on the basal infoldings of PT-I, PT-II, and DT cells. Three-dimensional analyses showed that the renal tubules meandered in a random pattern through lymphoid tissues, and then merged into the CD, which was aligned linearly. Among the different segments, the DT and CD cells showed more-intense Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase immunoreaction in freshwater eel than in seawater-acclimated eel, confirming that the DT and CD segments are important in freshwater adaptation, or hyperosmoregulation.

Hyperosmotic shock adaptation by cortisol involves upregulation of branchial osmotic stress transcription factor 1 gene expression in Mozambique Tilapia

The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is a euryhaline species that does not survive direct seawater exposure. Cortisol is involved in re-establishing electrolyte homeostasis in seawater and is thought to play a role in allowing tilapia to cope with abrupt seawater exposure, but the mechanism(s) are far from clear. Recently, osmotic stress transcription factor 1 (OSTF1) was identified as a key signaling molecule involved in hyperosmotic stress adaptation in tilapia. Consequently, we tested the hypothesis that upregulation of OSTF1 expression by cortisol is a key response for hyperosmotic stress adaptation in tilapia. Fish were exposed to different salinities over a 24h period, while a major electrolyte disturbance and mortality was observed only with full-strength seawater exposure. Therefore, we administered cocoa butter implants of cortisol (50mg/kg) intraperitoneally to tilapia maintained in fresh water and after three days exposed these fish to full-strength seawater. There was 50% mortality in the control fish upon seawater exposure, but this was abolished by cortisol treatment. Abrupt seawater exposure did not affect plasma cortisol levels, while, as expected, exogenous administration of this steroid elevated plasma cortisol levels both in fresh water and seawater. Cortisol treatment significantly induced OSTF1 gene expression in fresh water tilapia, and also enhanced further the seawater-induced OSTF1 mRNA abundance. Plasma osmolality decreased, while gill Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity was suppressed in the cortisol group in seawater compared to the sham group. This corresponded with a significant reduction in gill ionocyte size and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity and protein expression after seawater exposure. Cortisol did not modify liver metabolism, but significantly suppressed gill metabolic capacity in seawater. Overall, cortisol adapts tilapia to a hyperosmotic shock associated with abrupt seawater exposure. This involves upregulation of OSTF1 gene expression and a concomitant suppression of branchial metabolism in tilapia.

Extracellular calcium-sensing receptor distribution in osmoregulatory and endocrine tissues of the tilapia

The extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) serves an important detector function in vertebrate Ca(2+) homeostasis. In this study, we surveyed using immunohistochemistry the tissue and cellular distribution of the CaSR protein in the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica). Specifically, we examined receptor expression in ion-transporting barrier tissues that may be directly responsive to extracellular Ca(2+) levels, and in tissues that are implicated in endocrine signaling to homeostatic effectors such as Ca(2+)-transporting epithelia. In tilapia osmoregulatory tissues, CaSR protein is strongly expressed in proximal segments of renal tubule, but not in distal segments (where Na(+),K(+)-ATPase is prominently expressed) or in glomeruli. The receptor was also localized in the ion-transporting mitochondria-rich cells of gill and in ion- and nutrient-transporting epithelia of middle and posterior intestine. Consistent with our earlier RT-PCR assessment of mRNA expression in tilapia, CaSR protein expression was salinity dependent in some osmoregulatory tissues. In tilapia pituitary gland, CaSR expression was observed in the rostral pars distalis (containing prolactin-secreting cells, and in the pars intermedia (containing somatolactin-secreting and melanocyte-stimulating hormone-secreting cells), with notably greater expression in the latter. In the eel, weak immunostaining was seen in the stanniocalcin-secreting cells of the corpuscles of Stannius. Olfactory lobe CaSR expression suggests an environment-sensing role for the receptor. Altogether, these findings support the involvement of CaSR in piscine Ca(2+) homeostasis at the levels of environmental sensing, of integrative endocrine signaling through both hypercalcemic (prolactin, and perhaps somatolactin) and hypocalcemic (stanniocalcin) hormones, and of direct local regulation of Ca(2+)-transporting tissues.

A stereological study of copper toxicity in gills of Oreochromis niloticus

Stereological methods were used to estimate the volumetric density (V(V)) of the filamentar epithelium (FE, 39%), lamellae (L, 28%), central venous sinus (CVS, 14%), central axis (16%), mucous cells (MC, 2%) and chloride cells (CC, 1%) in the gill filament of control Nile Tilapia. The relative volumes of FE and L, and the relative volumes of CVS and central axis, varied inversely under exposure to copper, with high copper toxic levels declanching a chronic defence mechanism that was, nevertheless, overcome, and low copper toxic levels causing adaptation within a moderate acute phase type of response. Copper also induced a decrease of the V(V) (MC, gill filament) due to reduction of surface MC, despite the marked increase of stem MC at chronic exposure to high copper toxic levels. Diminution of the numerical density of filamentar CC was responsible for the decreased V(V) (CC, gill filament), although lamellar CC significantly increased at chronic exposure to low copper toxic levels. The present results demonstrate that cell relative volumes, mean volumes and numerical densities are dependent on the variations of the FE and L, which without a quantitative approach may be misinterpreted, thus stressing the importance of using stereological tools for analyzing histopathological patterns.

Ionoregulatory changes during metamorphosis and salinity exposure of juvenile sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus L.)

Ammocoetes of the anadromous sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus L. spend many years in freshwater before metamorphosing and migrating to sea. Metamorphosis involves the radical transformation from a substrate-dwelling, filter feeder into a free-swimming, parasitic feeder. In the present work we examined osmoregulatory differences between ammocoetes and transformers (metamorphic juveniles), and the effects of salinity acclimation. We measured the expression of key ion-transporting proteins [Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, vacuolar (V)-type H(+)-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase (CA)] as well as a number of relevant blood parameters (hematocrit, [Na(+)] and [Cl(-)]). In addition, immunofluorescence microscopy was used to identify and characterize the distributions of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, V-type H(+)-ATPase and CA immunoreactive cells in the gill. Ammocoetes did not survive in the experiments with salinities greater than 10 per thousand, whereas survival in high salinity (> or =25-35 per thousand) increased with increased degree of metamorphosis in transformers. Plasma [Na(+)] and [Cl(-)] of ammocoetes in freshwater was lower than transformers and increased markedly at 10 per thousand. In transformers, plasma ions increased only at high salinity (>25 per thousand). Branchial Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase levels were approximately tenfold higher in transformers compared to ammocoetes and salinity did not affect expression in either group. However, branchial H(+)-ATPase expression showed a negative correlation with salinity in both groups. Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase immunoreactivity was strongest in transformers and associated with clusters of cells in the interlamellar spaces. H(+)-ATPase (B subunit) immunoreactivity was localized to epithelial cells not expressing high Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase immunoreactivity and having a similar tissue distribution as carbonic anhydrase. The results indicate that branchial Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and salinity tolerance increase in metamorphosing lampreys, and that branchial H(+)-ATPase is downregulated by salinity.

Cloning and expression of Na+/K+-ATPase and osmotic stress transcription factor 1 mRNA in black porgy, Acanthopagrus schlegeli during osmotic stress

We cloned complementary DNA (cDNA) encoding the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA) and the osmotic stress transcription factor 1 (OSTF1) from the kidney and gill, respectively, of the black porgy, Acanthopagrus schlegeli. Black porgy NKA full-length cDNA consists of 3078 base pairs (bp) and encodes a protein of 1025 amino acids; OSTF1 partial cDNA consists of 201 bp. To investigate the osmoregulatory ability of black porgy when black porgy were transferred to freshwater (FW), we examined the expression of NKA and OSTF1 mRNA in osmoregulatory organs, i.e., gill, kidney and intestine, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR). To determine the hypoosmotic stressor specificity of the induction of NKA and OSTF1, black porgy were exposed to 30 degrees C water temperature for 24 h. In the gill, NKA mRNA was 4.2 times higher in FW, its expression in the kidney was 5.7 times higher in 10 per thousand seawater (10 per thousand SW) than in SW. In contrast, OSTF1 mRNA in the gill was 3.7 times higher in FW than in SW. The expression of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) mRNA occurred not only during transfer to FW, but also in high-temperature water in all tested tissues, although the mRNA levels were not significantly different. Plasma osmolality level was decreased and cortisol level was increased when the fish were transferred from SW to FW. These results suggest that NKA and OSTF1 genes play important roles in hormonal regulation in osmoregulatory organs and that these genes are specific to hypoosmotic stress, improving the hyperosmoregulatory ability of black porgy in hypoosmotic environments.

Osmoregulation in elephant fish Callorhinchus milii(Holocephali), with special reference to the rectal gland

Osmoregulatory mechanisms in holocephalan fishes are poorly understood except that these fish are known to conduct urea-based osmoregulation as in elasmobranchs. We, therefore, examined changes in plasma parameters of elephant fish Callorhinchus milii, after gradual transfer to concentrated (120%) or diluted (80%) seawater (SW). In control fish, plasma Na and urea concentrations were about 300 mmol l–1 and 450 mmol l–1, respectively. These values were equivalent to those of sharks and rays, but the plasma urea concentration of elephant fish was considerably higher than that reported for chimaeras, another holocephalan. After transfer to 120% SW, plasma osmolality, urea and ion concentrations were increased, whereas transfer to 80% SW resulted in a fall in these parameters. The rises in ion concentrations were notable after transfer to 120% SW,whereas urea concentration decreased predominantly following transfer to 80%SW. In elephant fish, we could not find a discrete rectal gland. Instead,approximately 10 tubular structures were located in the wall of post-valvular intestine. Each tubular structure was composed of a putative salt-secreting component consisting of a single-layered columnar epithelium, which was stained with an anti-Na+,K+-ATPase serum. Furthermore,Na+,K+-ATPase activity in the tubular structures was significantly increased after acute transfer of fish to concentrated SW(115%). These results suggest that the tubular structures are a rectal gland equivalent, functioning as a salt-secreting organ. Since the rectal gland of elephant fish is well developed compared to that of Southern chimaera, the salt-secreting ability may be higher in elephant fish than chimaeras, which may account for the lower plasma NaCl concentration in elephant fish compared to other chimaeras. Since elephant fish have also attracted attention from a viewpoint of genome science, the availability of fish for physiological studies will make this species an excellent model in holocephalan fish group.

Variation in salinity tolerance, gill Na+/K+-ATPase,Na+/K+/2Cl– cotransporter and mitochondria-rich cell distribution in three salmonids Salvelinus namaycush, Salvelinus fontinalis and Salmo salar

We compared seawater tolerance, gill Na+/K+-ATPase and Na+/K+/2Cl– cotransporter (NKCC)abundance, and mitochondria-rich cell (MRC) morphology of three salmonids,lake trout Salvelinus namaycush, brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis and Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. They were transferred directly from 0 p.p.t. (parts per thousand; freshwater) to 30 p.p.t. seawater, or transferred gradually from 0 to 10, 20 and 30 p.p.t. at 1-week intervals and kept in 30 p.p.t. for 3 weeks. The survival rates of lake trout, brook trout and Atlantic salmon were 80%, 50% and 100% following direct transfer, and 80%, 100% and 100% during gradual transfer, respectively. Plasma Na+, K+ and Cl– concentrations in surviving lake trout increased rapidly and remained at high levels in 30 p.p.t. of both direct and gradual transfer, whereas those in brook trout showed a transient increase following direct transfer but did not change significantly during gradual transfer. Only minor changes in plasma ions were observed in Atlantic salmon smolts in both direct and gradual transfer. These results suggest that lake trout retains some degree of euryhalinity and that brook trout possesses intermediate euryhalinity between lake trout and Atlantic salmon smolts. Gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity of lake trout and brook trout increased in seawater, whereas that of Atlantic salmon smolts was already upregulated in freshwater and remained high after seawater exposure. NKCC abundance was upregulated in parallel with gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity in each species. Immunocytochemistry with anti-Na+/K+-ATPaseα-subunit and anti-NKCC revealed that the two ion transporters were colocalized on the basolateral membrane of gill MRCs. Immunopositive MRCs were distributed on both primary filaments and secondary lamellae in all three species kept in freshwater; following transfer to seawater this pattern did not change in lake trout and brook trout but lamellar MRCs disappeared in Atlantic salmon. Previous studies on several teleost species have suggested that filament and lamellar MRCs would be involved in seawater and freshwater acclimation, respectively. However, our results in lake trout and brook trout suggest that lamellar MRCs could be also functional during seawater acclimation.

Prolactin and prolactin receptor expressions in a marine teleost, pufferfish Takifugu rubripes

To investigate the physiological significance of prolactin (PRL) in a marine teleost, pufferfish (or fugu), Takifugu rubripes, we cloned and characterized cDNAs encoding its PRL and PRL receptor (PRLR) from the pituitary and gills, respectively. The fugu PRL cDNA consisted of 995 bp and encoded a protein of 213 amino acids. The PRLR, consisting of 510 amino acids, contained a putative signal peptide, an extracellular domain with two pairs of cysteines, a WSXWS motif, a single transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic (intracellular) domain with box 1 and box 2 regions, all of which are characteristic of the cytokine receptor superfamily. Reverse transcription-PCR showed the expression of PRLR mRNA in osmoregulatory organs, such as gills, kidney, and intestine, whereas pufferfish PRL mRNA was detected only in the pituitary. Furthermore, in situ hybridization revealed the expression of pufferfish PRLR in branchial chloride cells, kidney tubule cells, and intestinal epithelia. The PRL-gene expression levels in the pituitary were about five times higher in 25%-diluted seawater than in full-strength seawater. These results suggest that fugu PRL regulates water and electrolyte balances through PRLR expressed in the osmoregulatory organs, as is the case with freshwater-adapted euryhaline species.

Aquaporin-3 expressed in the basolateral membrane of gill chloride cells in Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus adapted to freshwater and seawater

We have cloned a homologue of mammalian aquaporin-3 (AQP3) from gills of Mozambique tilapia using a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The deduced amino acid sequence shared 64-75% homology with other vertebrate AQP3 homologues. RT-PCR revealed that tilapia AQP3 was expressed in the brain, pituitary, kidney, spleen, intestine, skin, eye and gill in tilapia adapted to freshwater (FW) and seawater (SW). We also examined functional characteristics of tilapia AQP3 using Xenopus oocytes as an in vitro transcribed cRNA expression system. Osmotic water permeability (Pf) of Xenopus oocytes expressing tilapia AQP3 was about 30-fold higher than that of control oocytes, and was 80% inhibited by treatment with 0.3 mmol l(-1) HgCl2. Light-microscopic immunocytochemistry of branchial epithelia revealed that tilapia AQP3 was expressed in gill chloride cells of FW- and SW-adapted tilapia. Electron-microscopic immunocytochemistry further demonstrated that tilapia AQP3 was localized in the basolateral membrane of gill chloride cells. Basolateral localization of AQP3 in gill chloride cells suggests that AQP3 is involved in regulatory volume changes and osmoreception, which could trigger functional differentiation of chloride cells.

Regulation of fish gill Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase by selective sulfatide-enriched raft partitioning during seawater adaptation

Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase is arguably the most important enzyme in the animal cell plasma membrane, but the role of the membrane in its regulation is poorly understood. We investigated the relationship between Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase and membrane microdomains or "lipid rafts" enriched in sulfatide (sulfogalactosylceramide/SGC), a glycosphingolipid implicated as a cofactor for this enzyme, in the basolateral membrane of rainbow trout gill epithelium. Our studies demonstrated that when trout adapt to seawater (33 ppt), Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase relocates to these structures. Arylsulfatase-induced desulfation of basolateral membrane SGC prevented this relocation and significantly reduced Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity in seawater but not freshwater trout. We contend that Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase partitions into SGC-enriched rafts to help facilitate the up-regulation of its activity during seawater adaptation. We also suggest that differential partitioning of Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase between these novel SGC-enriched regulatory platforms results in two distinct, physiological Na(+) transport modes. In addition, we extend the working definition of cholesterol-dependent raft integrity to structural dependence on the sulfate moiety of SGC in this membrane.

Functional classification of mitochondrion-rich cells in euryhaline Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) embryos, by means of triple immunofluorescence staining for Na+/K+-ATPase, Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter and CFTR anion channel

Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus embryos were transferred from freshwater to seawater and vice versa, and short-term changes in the localization of three major ion transport proteins, Na+/K+-ATPase, Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) were examined within mitochondrion-rich cells (MRCs) in the embryonic yolk-sac membrane. Triple-color immunofluorescence staining allowed us to classify MRCs into four types: type I, showing only basolateral Na+/K+-ATPase staining; type II, basolateral Na+/K+-ATPase and apical NKCC; type III, basolateral Na+/K+-ATPase and basolateral NKCC; type IV, basolateral Na+/K+-ATPase, basolateral NKCC and apical CFTR. In freshwater, type-I, type-II and type-III cells were observed. Following transfer from freshwater to seawater, type-IV cells appeared at 12 h and showed a remarkable increase in number between 24 h and 48 h, whereas type-III cells disappeared. When transferred from seawater back to freshwater, type-IV cells decreased and disappeared at 48 h, type-III cells increased, and type-II cells, which were not found in seawater, appeared at 12 h and increased in number thereafter. Type-I cells existed consistently irrespective of salinity changes. These results suggest that type I is an immature MRC, type II is a freshwater-type ion absorptive cell, type III is a dormant type-IV cell and/or an ion absorptive cell (with a different mechanism from type II), and type IV is a seawater-type ion secretory cell. The intracellular localization of the three ion transport proteins in type-IV cells is completely consistent with a widely accepted model for ion secretion by MRCs. A new model for ion absorption is proposed based on type-II cells possessing apical NKCC.

Expression and distribution of Na, K-ATPase in gill and kidney of the spotted green pufferfish, Tetraodon nigroviridis, in response to salinity challenge

Freshwater (FW) spotted green pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis) were transferred directly from a local aquarium to fresh water (FW; 0 per thousand ), brackish water (BW; 15 per thousand ), and seawater (SW; 35 per thousand ) conditions in the laboratory and reared for at least two weeks. No mortality was found. To investigate the efficient mechanisms of osmoregulation in the euryhaline teleost, distribution and expression of Na,K-ATPase (NKA) in gill and kidney of the pufferfish were examined and the osmolality, [Na+] and [Cl-] of the blood were assayed. The lowest levels of both relative protein abundance and activity were found to be exhibited in the BW group, and higher levels in the SW group than FW group. In all salinities, branchial NKA immunoreactivity was found in epithelial cells of the interlamellar region of the filament and not on the lamellae. Relative abundance of kidney NKA alpha-subunit, as well as the NKA activity, was found to be higher in the FW pufferfish than fish in BW or SW. Renal NKA appeared in the epithelial cells of distal tubules, proximal tubules, and collecting tubules, but not in glomeruli, in fish groups of various salinities. Plasma osmolality and chloride levels were significantly lower in FW pufferfish than those in BW and SW, whereas plasma sodium did not differ among the groups. Although identical distributions of NKA were found in either gill or kidney of FW-, BW- or SW-acclimated spotted green pufferfish, differential NKA expression in fish of various salinity groups was associated with physiological homeostasis (stable blood osmolality), and illustrated the impressive osmoregulatory ability of this freshwater and estuarine species in response to salinity challenge.

Influence of salinity on the localization of Na+/K+-ATPase, Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) and CFTR anion channel in chloride cells of the Hawaiian goby (Stenogobius hawaiiensis)

Na+/K+-ATPase, Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) are the three major transport proteins thought to be involved in chloride secretion in teleost fish. If this is the case, the levels of these transporters should be high in chloride cells of seawater-acclimated fish. We therefore examined the influence of salinity on immunolocalization of Na+/K+-ATPase, NKCC and CFTR in the gills of the Hawaiian goby (Stenogobius hawaiiensis). Fish were acclimated to freshwater and 20 per thousand and 30 per thousand seawater for 10 days. Na+/K+-ATPase and NKCC were localized specifically to chloride cells and stained throughout most of the cell except for the nucleus and the most apical region, indicating a basolateral/tubular distribution. All Na+/K+-ATPase-positive chloride cells were also positive for NKCC in all salinities. Salinity caused a slight increase in chloride cell number and size and a slight decrease in staining intensity for Na+/K+-ATPase and NKCC, but the basic pattern of localization was not altered. Gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity was also not affected by salinity. CFTR was localized to the apical surface of chloride cells, and only cells staining positive for Na+/K+-ATPase were CFTR-positive. CFTR-positive cells greatly increased in number (5-fold), area stained (53%) and intensity (29%) after seawater acclimation. In freshwater, CFTR immunoreactivity was light and occurred over a broad apical surface on chloride cells, whereas in seawater there was intense immunoreactivity around the apical pit (which was often punctate in appearance) and a light subapical staining. The results indicate that Na+/K+-ATPase, NKCC and CFTR are all present in chloride cells and support current models that all three are responsible for chloride secretion by chloride cells of teleost fish.

A facilitative urea transporter is localized in the renal collecting tubule of the dogfish Triakis scyllia

Reabsorption of filtered urea by the kidney tubule is essential for retaining high levels of urea in body fluids of marine elasmobranchs. To elucidate the mechanisms of urea reabsorption, we examined the distribution of a facilitative urea transporter (UT) in the kidney of the dogfish Triakis scyllia. We isolated a cDNA encoding a UT that is homologous to the facilitative UT cloned from another dogfish species, Squalus acanthias. The Triakis UT mRNA is abundantly expressed in the kidney, while low levels of expression were detected in the brain and liver. In the dogfish kidney, each nephron makes four turns and traverses repeatedly between bundle zone and sinus zone. In the bundle zone, the resulting five tubular segments are arranged in a countercurrent loop fashion. Immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies raised against the cloned UT revealed that, among the nephron segments, the UT is expressed exclusively in the final segment of the bundle zone, i.e. in the collecting tubule of the Triakis kidney. In contrast to the limited localization of UT, the transport enzyme Na+/K+-ATPase is distributed in the basolateral membrane of numerous tubular segments both in the sinus zone and the bundle zone. However, in the collecting tubule, Na+/K+-ATPase immunoreactivity was not detected. The present study suggests that the collecting tubule is responsible for the reabsorption of urea in the marine elasmobranch kidney. Other countercurrent segments may contribute to production of a driving force for facilitative diffusion of urea through the UT.