1
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Port JR, Morris DH, Riopelle JC, Yinda CK, Avanzato VA, Holbrook MG, Bushmaker T, Schulz JE, Saturday TA, Barbian K, Russell CA, Perry-Gottschalk R, Shaia CI, Martens C, Lloyd-Smith JO, Fischer RJ, Munster VJ. Host and viral determinants of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the Syrian hamster. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2022.08.15.504010. [PMID: 36032963 PMCID: PMC9413705 DOI: 10.1101/2022.08.15.504010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
It remains poorly understood how SARS-CoV-2 infection influences the physiological host factors important for aerosol transmission. We assessed breathing pattern, exhaled droplets, and infectious virus after infection with Alpha and Delta variants of concern (VOC) in the Syrian hamster. Both VOCs displayed a confined window of detectable airborne virus (24-48 h), shorter than compared to oropharyngeal swabs. The loss of airborne shedding was linked to airway constriction resulting in a decrease of fine aerosols (1-10μm) produced, which are suspected to be the major driver of airborne transmission. Male sex was associated with increased viral replication and virus shedding in the air. Next, we compared the transmission efficiency of both variants and found no significant differences. Transmission efficiency varied mostly among donors, 0-100% (including a superspreading event), and aerosol transmission over multiple chain links was representative of natural heterogeneity of exposure dose and downstream viral kinetics. Co-infection with VOCs only occurred when both viruses were shed by the same donor during an increased exposure timeframe (24-48 h). This highlights that assessment of host and virus factors resulting in a differential exhaled particle profile is critical for understanding airborne transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R. Port
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Dylan H. Morris
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jade C. Riopelle
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Claude Kwe Yinda
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Victoria A. Avanzato
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Myndi G. Holbrook
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Trenton Bushmaker
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Schulz
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Taylor A. Saturday
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Kent Barbian
- Rocky Mountain Research and Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Colin A. Russell
- Department of Medical Microbiology | Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam
| | - Rose Perry-Gottschalk
- Rocky Mountain Visual and Medical Arts Unit, Research Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Carl I. Shaia
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Craig Martens
- Rocky Mountain Research and Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Robert J. Fischer
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Vincent J. Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
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2
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Bushmaker T, Yinda CK, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Adney D, Bushmaker C, van Doremalen N, Fischer RJ, Plowright RK, Lloyd-Smith JO, Munster VJ. Comparative aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.11.21.517352. [PMID: 36451892 PMCID: PMC9709801 DOI: 10.1101/2022.11.21.517352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted principally via air; contact and fomite transmission may also occur. Variants-of-concern (VOCs) are more transmissible than ancestral SARS-CoV-2. We find that early VOCs show greater aerosol and surface stability than the early WA1 strain, but Delta and Omicron do not. Stability changes do not explain increased transmissibility.
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3
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Iyer P, Chino T, Ojcius DM. Infection of the oral cavity with SARS-CoV-2 variants: Scope of salivary diagnostics. FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2022; 3:1001790. [PMID: 36389278 PMCID: PMC9659966 DOI: 10.3389/froh.2022.1001790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, have caused pandemics in the past two decades. The most prevalent SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern can re-infect individuals who have been previously infected with other variants or had protection from vaccines targeting the original SARS-CoV-2 variant. Given the high risk of transmission of coronavirus via aerosols produced during dental procedures, it is important to understand the future risk of coronavirus infection for oral health professionals and to diagnose quickly early stages of outbreaks. Testing of saliva for coronavirus may be the least invasive and most convenient method for following the outbreak at the individual and community level. This review will describe strategies for diagnosis of coronavirus in saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parvati Iyer
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, University of the Pacific, Arthur Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Takahiro Chino
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - David M. Ojcius
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA, United States
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4
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van Doremalen N, Singh M, Saturday TA, Yinda CK, Perez-Perez L, Bohler WF, Weishampel ZA, Lewis M, Schulz JE, Williamson BN, Meade-White K, Gallogly S, Okumura A, Feldmann F, Lovaglio J, Hanley PW, Shaia C, Feldmann H, de Wit E, Munster VJ, Rosenke K. SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 are attenuated in rhesus macaques as compared to Delta. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.08.01.502390. [PMID: 35971544 PMCID: PMC9377356 DOI: 10.1101/2022.08.01.502390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, five different variants of concern (VOCs) have been identified: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron. Due to confounding factors in the human population, such as pre-existing immunity, comparing severity of disease caused by different VOCs is challenging. Here, we investigate disease progression in the rhesus macaque model upon inoculation with the Delta, Omicron BA.1, and Omicron BA.2 VOCs. Disease severity in rhesus macaques inoculated with Omicron BA.1 or BA.2 was lower than those inoculated with Delta and resulted in significantly lower viral loads in nasal swabs, bronchial cytology brush samples, and lung tissue in rhesus macaques. Cytokines and chemokines were upregulated in nasosorption samples of Delta animals compared to Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 animals. Overall, these data suggests that in rhesus macaques, Omicron replicates to lower levels than the Delta VOC, resulting in reduced clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeltje van Doremalen
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Manmeet Singh
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Taylor A. Saturday
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Claude Kwe Yinda
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Lizzette Perez-Perez
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - W. Forrest Bohler
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Zachary A. Weishampel
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Matthew Lewis
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Schulz
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Brandi N. Williamson
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Kimberly Meade-White
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Shane Gallogly
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Atsushi Okumura
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Friederike Feldmann
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jamie Lovaglio
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Patrick W. Hanley
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Carl Shaia
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Heinz Feldmann
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Emmie de Wit
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Vincent J. Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Kyle Rosenke
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
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5
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Port JR, Yinda CK, Riopelle JC, Weishampel ZA, Saturday TA, Avanzato VA, Schulz JE, Holbrook MG, Barbian K, Perry-Gottschalk R, Haddock E, Martens C, Shaia CI, Lambe T, Gilbert SC, van Doremalen N, Munster VJ. Infection- or vaccine mediated immunity reduces SARS-CoV-2 transmission, but increases competitiveness of Omicron in hamsters. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.07.29.502072. [PMID: 35982658 PMCID: PMC9387121 DOI: 10.1101/2022.07.29.502072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Omicron has demonstrated a competitive advantage over Delta in vaccinated people. To understand this, we designed a transmission chain experiment using naïve, intranasally (IN) or intramuscularly (IM) vaccinated, and previously infected (PI) hamsters. Vaccination and previous infection protected animals from disease and virus replication after Delta and Omicron dual challenge. A gradient in transmission blockage was observed: IM vaccination displayed moderate transmission blockage potential over three airborne chains (approx. 70%), whereas, IN vaccination and PI blocked airborne transmission in >90%. In naïve hamsters, Delta completely outcompeted Omicron within and between hosts after dual infection in onward transmission. Although Delta also outcompeted Omicron in the vaccinated and PI transmission chains, an increase in Omicron competitiveness was observed in these groups. This correlated with the increase in the strength of the humoral response against Delta, with the strongest response seen in PI animals. These data highlight the continuous need to assess the emergence and spread of novel variants in populations with pre-existing immunity and address the additional evolutionary pressure this may exert on the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R. Port
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Claude Kwe Yinda
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jade C. Riopelle
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Zachary A. Weishampel
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Taylor A. Saturday
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Victoria A. Avanzato
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Schulz
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Myndi G. Holbrook
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Kent Barbian
- Genomics Research Section, Research Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Rose Perry-Gottschalk
- Rocky Mountain Visual and Medical Arts Unit, Research Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Elaine Haddock
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Craig Martens
- Genomics Research Section, Research Technologies Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Carl. I. Shaia
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Teresa Lambe
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sarah C. Gilbert
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Neeltje van Doremalen
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Vincent J. Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
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6
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Beavis AC, Li Z, Briggs K, Huertas-Díaz MC, Wrobel ER, Najera M, An D, Orr-Burks N, Murray J, Patil P, Huang J, Mousa J, Hao L, Hsiang TY, Gale M, Harvey SB, Tompkins SM, Hogan RJ, Lafontaine ER, Jin H, He B. Efficacy of Parainfluenza Virus 5 (PIV5)-vectored Intranasal COVID-19 Vaccine as a Single Dose Vaccine and as a Booster against SARS-CoV-2 Variants. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.06.07.495215. [PMID: 35702147 PMCID: PMC9196109 DOI: 10.1101/2022.06.07.495215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Immunization with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines has greatly reduced coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related deaths and hospitalizations, but waning immunity and the emergence of variants capable of immune escape indicate the need for novel SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. An intranasal parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5)-vectored COVID-19 vaccine CVXGA1 has been proven efficacious in animal models and blocks contact transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in ferrets. CVXGA1 vaccine is currently in human clinical trials in the United States. This work investigates the immunogenicity and efficacy of CVXGA1 and other PIV5-vectored vaccines expressing additional antigen SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (N) or SARS-CoV-2 variant spike (S) proteins of beta, delta, gamma, and omicron variants against homologous and heterologous challenges in hamsters. A single intranasal dose of CVXGA1 induces neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 WA1 (ancestral), delta variant, and omicron variant and protects against both homologous and heterologous virus challenges. Compared to mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, neutralizing antibody titers induced by CVXGA1 were well-maintained over time. When administered as a boost following two doses of a mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, PIV5-vectored vaccines expressing the S protein from WA1 (CVXGA1), delta, or omicron variants generate higher levels of cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies compared to three doses of a mRNA vaccine. In addition to the S protein, the N protein provides added protection as assessed by the highest body weight gain post-challenge infection. Our data indicates that PIV5-vectored COVID-19 vaccines, such as CVXGA1, can serve as booster vaccines against emerging variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C. Beavis
- CyanVac LLC, Athens, Georgia, 30602
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Zhuo Li
- CyanVac LLC, Athens, Georgia, 30602
| | - Kelsey Briggs
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - María Cristina Huertas-Díaz
- CyanVac LLC, Athens, Georgia, 30602
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Elizabeth R. Wrobel
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | | | - Dong An
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Nichole Orr-Burks
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Jackelyn Murray
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | | | - Jiachen Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Jarrod Mousa
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Linhui Hao
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Tien-Ying Hsiang
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Stephen B. Harvey
- Animal Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia; Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - S. Mark Tompkins
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Robert Jeffrey Hogan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Eric R. Lafontaine
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Hong Jin
- CyanVac LLC, Athens, Georgia, 30602
| | - Biao He
- CyanVac LLC, Athens, Georgia, 30602
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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7
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Li M, Wang H, Tian L, Pang Z, Yang Q, Huang T, Fan J, Song L, Tong Y, Fan H. COVID-19 vaccine development: milestones, lessons and prospects. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:146. [PMID: 35504917 PMCID: PMC9062866 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-00996-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
With the constantly mutating of SARS-CoV-2 and the emergence of Variants of Concern (VOC), the implementation of vaccination is critically important. Existing SARS-CoV-2 vaccines mainly include inactivated, live attenuated, viral vector, protein subunit, RNA, DNA, and virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines. Viral vector vaccines, protein subunit vaccines, and mRNA vaccines may induce additional cellular or humoral immune regulations, including Th cell responses and germinal center responses, and form relevant memory cells, greatly improving their efficiency. However, some viral vector or mRNA vaccines may be associated with complications like thrombocytopenia and myocarditis, raising concerns about the safety of these COVID-19 vaccines. Here, we systemically assess the safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines, including the possible complications and different effects on pregnant women, the elderly, people with immune diseases and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), transplant recipients, and cancer patients. Based on the current analysis, governments and relevant agencies are recommended to continue to advance the vaccine immunization process. Simultaneously, special attention should be paid to the health status of the vaccines, timely treatment of complications, vaccine development, and ensuring the lives and health of patients. In addition, available measures such as mix-and-match vaccination, developing new vaccines like nanoparticle vaccines, and optimizing immune adjuvant to improve vaccine safety and efficacy could be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maochen Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Han Wang
- Laboratory for Clinical Immunology, Harbin Children's Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Lili Tian
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zehan Pang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Qingkun Yang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Tianqi Huang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Junfen Fan
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lihua Song
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China.
| | - Yigang Tong
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China. .,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China.
| | - Huahao Fan
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China.
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