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Jia X, Li X, Deng F, He J, Li Q, Guo C, Yuan J, Tan L. Longitudinal Study and Predictive Modeling of Urinary Pesticide Metabolite Concentrations in Residents of Guangzhou, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 365:143353. [PMID: 39293687 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2024] [Revised: 09/03/2024] [Accepted: 09/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/20/2024]
Abstract
Continuous human biomonitoring and predictive modelling of urinary pesticide metabolites are critical for evaluating pesticide exposure trends and associated health risks. We conducted repeat cross-sectional surveys to determine the urinary concentrations of eight pesticide metabolites in the residents of Guangzhou, China, from 2018 to 2022. We longitudinally analyzed the changes in these metabolite concentrations over the years and assessed the potential non-carcinogenic risks by calculating the hazard quotient and hazard index. No significant differences were observed in the total urinary pesticide metabolite concentrations over the 5 years (9.16 to 12.99 μg/L). The urinary concentrations of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid reached their lowest levels in 2020 (1.47 and 0.11 μg/L). Conversely, urinary para-nitrophenol concentrations exhibited an inverse trend, peaking in 2020 (6.16 μg/L). The composition profiles of urinary pesticide metabolites showed that para-nitrophenol consistently constituted the largest proportion each year. Males consistently showed higher median concentrations of total urinary pesticide metabolites and individual metabolites of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, and para-nitrophenol than females. The concentrations of cis-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid in adults' urine were significantly higher than those in minors' urine each year. The total pesticide metabolite concentrations in adults' urine were significantly higher than those in minors' urine in 2018 and 2020, whereas no significant differences were observed in other years. No significant differences in urinary pesticide metabolite concentrations were observed among different BMI groups. Results showed that 14.17% of the population had hazard index values above 1, indicating a higher risk of health hazards. Three predictive models were employed to predict urinary pesticide metabolite concentrations for 2023-2024, revealing an increasing trend in 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol concentrations while other metabolites are expected to decrease. The study showed the concentration of para-nitrophenol peaked in 2020 while 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid reached their lowest levels, suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic may have influenced pesticide exposure patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyu Jia
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China; School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Xiaotong Li
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Fenfang Deng
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Jia He
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Qin Li
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Chongshan Guo
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Jun Yuan
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Lei Tan
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China; School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China.
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Bernat P, Jasińska A, Niedziałkowska K, Słaba M, Różalska S, Paraszkiewicz K, Sas-Paszt L, Heipieper HJ. Adaptation of the metolachlor-degrading fungus Trichoderma harzianum to the simultaneous presence of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) microplastics. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 267:115656. [PMID: 37944463 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Although it is known that microplastics (MPs) in soils cause a threat to this complex environment, the actual effects of MPs on soil microorganisms and their catabolic activities, particularly with the biodegradation of herbicides, remain unclear. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a simultaneous presence of metolachlor and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) microplastics on growth inhibition and adaptive responses of Trichoderma harzianum in soil microcosms. Using ergosterol content as an indicator of fungal biomass, it was observed that MPs alone had a marginal inhibitory effect on the growth of the fungus, whereas MET exhibited a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on T. harzianum. However, the presence of MPs did not influence the fungal transforming activity toward the herbicide. Conversely, analysis of lipid profiles in the presence of MPs and herbicides revealed a reduction in the overall fluidity of phospholipid fatty acids, primarily attributed to an increase in lysophospholipids. The activities of six extracellular enzymes in the soil, measured using methylumbelliferone-linked substrates, were significantly enhanced in the presence of MET. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of the alterations in fungal activity in soil resulting from the influence of MPs and MET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Bernat
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland.
| | - Anna Jasińska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Niedziałkowska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Mirosława Słaba
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Sylwia Różalska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Paraszkiewicz
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Lidia Sas-Paszt
- Department of Microbiology and Rhizosphere, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland
| | - Hermann J Heipieper
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
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Zhi H, Webb DT, Schnoor JL, Kolpin DW, Klaper RD, Iwanowicz LR, LeFevre GH. Modeling Risk Dynamics of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in a Temperate-region Wastewater Effluent-dominated Stream. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE : WATER RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 8:1408-1422. [PMID: 36061088 PMCID: PMC9431852 DOI: 10.1039/d2ew00157h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater effluent-dominated streams are becoming increasingly common worldwide, including in temperate regions, with potential impacts on ecological systems and drinking water sources. We recently quantified the occurrence/ spatiotemporal dynamics of pharmaceutical mixtures in a representative temperate-region wastewater effluent-dominated stream (Muddy Creek, Iowa) under baseflow conditions and characterized relevant fate processes. Herein, we quantified the ecological risk quotients (RQs) of 19 effluent-derived contaminants of emerging concern (CECs; including: 14 pharmaceuticals, 2 industrial chemicals, and 3 neonicotinoid insecticides) and 1 run-off-derived compound (atrazine) in the stream under baseflow conditions, and estimated the probabilistic risks of effluent-derived CECs under all-flow conditions (i.e., including runoff events) using stochastic risk modeling. We determined that 11 out of 20 CECs pose medium-to-high risks to local ecological systems (i.e., algae, invertebrates, fish) based on literature-derived acute effects under measured baseflow conditions. Stochastic risk modeling indicated decreased, but still problematic, risk of effluent-derived CECs (i.e., RQ≥0.1) under all-flow conditions when runoff events were included. Dilution of effluent-derived chemicals from storm flows thus only minimally decreased risk to aquatic biota in the effluent-dominated stream. We also modeled in-stream transport. Thirteen out of 14 pharmaceuticals persisted along the stream reach (median attenuation rate constant k<0.1 h-1) and entered the Iowa River at elevated concentrations. Predicted and measured concentrations in the drinking water treatment plant were below the human health benchmarks. This study demonstrates the application of probabilistic risk assessments for effluent-derived CECs in a representative effluent-dominated stream under variable flow conditions (when measurements are less practical) and provides an enhanced prediction tool transferable to other effluent-dominated systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhi
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - Danielle T. Webb
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - Jerald L. Schnoor
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - Dana W. Kolpin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Central Midwest Water Science Center, 400 S. Clinton St, Rm 269 Federal Building, Iowa City, IA 52240, United States
| | - Rebecca D. Klaper
- University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, School of Freshwater Sciences, 600 E. Greenfield Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53204, United States
| | - Luke R. Iwanowicz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, 11649 Leetown Road, Kearneysville, WV 25430, United States
| | - Gregory H. LeFevre
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, 4105 Seamans Center, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
- IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, 100 C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
- Corresponding Author:; Phone: 319-335-5655; 4105 Seamans Center for Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City Iowa, United States
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Wagner T, McLaughlin P, Smalling K, Breitmeyer S, Gordon S, Noe GB. The statistical power to detect regional temporal trends in riverine contaminants in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, USA. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 812:152435. [PMID: 34942241 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Chemical contamination of riverine ecosystems is largely a result of urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural activities occurring on adjacent terrestrial landscapes. Land management activities (e.g., Best Management Practices) are an important tool used to reduce point and non-point sources of pollution. However, the ability to confidently make inferences about the efficacy of land management activities on reducing in-stream chemical concentrations is poorly understood. We estimated regional temporal trends and components of variation for commonly used herbicides (atrazine and metolachlor), total estrogenicity, and riverine sediment concentrations of total PCBs for rivers in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, USA. We then used the estimated variance components to perform a power analysis and evaluated the statistical power to detect regional temporal trends under different monitoring scenarios. Scenarios included varying the magnitude of the annual contaminant decline, the number of sites sampled each year, the number of years sampled, and sampling frequency. Monitoring for short time periods (e.g., 5 years) was inadequate for detecting regional temporal trends, regardless of the number of sites sampled or the magnitude of the annual declines. Even when monitoring over a 20-year period, sampling a relatively large number of sites each year was required (e.g., >50 sites) to achieve adequate statistical power for smaller trend magnitudes (declines of 5-7%/year). Annual sampling frequency had little impact on power for any monitoring scenario. All sampling scenarios were underpowered for sediment total PCBs. Power was greatest for total estrogenicity, suggesting that this aggregate measure of estrogenic activity may be a useful indicator. This study provides information that can be used to help (1) guide the development of monitoring programs aimed at detecting regional declines in riverine chemical contaminant concentrations in response to land management actions, and (2) set expectations for the ability to detect changes over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Wagner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Paul McLaughlin
- Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Kelly Smalling
- U.S. Geological Survey, New Jersey Water Science Center, Lawrenceville, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Sara Breitmeyer
- U.S. Geological Survey, New Jersey Water Science Center, Lawrenceville, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Stephanie Gordon
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA
| | - Gregory B Noe
- U.S. Geological Survey, Florence Bascom Geoscience Center, Reston, VA 20192, USA
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Polyurethane foam sampling for the determination of acetochlor in the air of workplace-gas chromatography. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-021-02040-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kuchovská E, Gonzalez P, Bláhová L, Barré M, Gouffier C, Cachot J, Roméro-Ramirez A, Bláha L, Morin B. Pesticide mixture toxicity assessment through in situ and laboratory approaches using embryo-larval stages of the pacific oyster (Magallana gigas). MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 169:105390. [PMID: 34174543 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Worsened state of oysters in French Arcachon Bay, demand an investigation of possible causes. This study evaluated the effects of an environmentally relevant mixture of five common pesticides on the early-life stages of the Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas). Laboratory assays with artificial mixture and in situ transplantation were complementarily used to investigate a series of sublethal endpoints. The laboratory exposure revealed developmental toxicity at 0.32 μg/L, which corresponds to mixture concentrations in Arcachon Bay. Downregulation of some gene transcriptions was observed at environmental level. No difference in larvae development was revealed among the three sites in Arcachon Bay. This study was the first to evaluate locomotion of oyster larvae exposed in situ. Suspected poor water quality in the inner part of Arcachon Bay was reflected by impairment at the molecular level. In conclusion, current concentrations of the tested pesticides in Arcachon Bay hinder larval development and affect several biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliška Kuchovská
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic; Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France
| | - Patrice Gonzalez
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France
| | - Lucie Bláhová
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Mathilde Barré
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France
| | | | - Jérôme Cachot
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France
| | | | - Luděk Bláha
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Bénédicte Morin
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France.
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Michel C, Baran N, André L, Charron M, Joulian C. Side Effects of Pesticides and Metabolites in Groundwater: Impact on Denitrification. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:662727. [PMID: 34054765 PMCID: PMC8155494 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.662727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The impact of two pesticides (S-metolachlor and propiconazole) and their respective main metabolites (ESA-metolachlor and 1,2,4-triazole) on bacterial denitrification in groundwater was studied. For this, the denitrification activity and the bacterial diversity of a microbial community sampled from a nitrate-contaminated groundwater were monitored during 20 days in lab experiments in the presence or absence of pesticides or metabolites at 2 or 10 μg/L. The kinetics of nitrate reduction along with nitrite and N2O production all suggested that S-metolachlor had no or only little impact, whereas its metabolite ESA-metolachlor inhibited denitrification by 65% at 10 μg/L. Propiconazole and 1,2,4-triazole also inhibited denitrification at both concentrations, but to a lesser extent (29–38%) than ESA-metolachlor. When inhibition occurred, pesticides affected the reduction of nitrate into nitrite step. However, no significant differences were detected on the abundance of nitrate reductase narG and napA genes, suggesting an impact of pesticides/metabolites at the protein level rather than on denitrifying bacteria abundance. 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing indicated no major modification of bacterial diversity in the presence or absence of pesticides/metabolites, except for ESA-metolachlor and propiconazole at 10 μg/L that tended to increase or decrease Shannon and InvSimpson indices, respectively. General growth parameters suggested no impact of pesticides, except for propiconazole at 10 μg/L that partially inhibited acetate uptake and induced a decrease in microbial biomass. In conclusion, pesticides and metabolites can have side effects at environmental concentrations on microbial denitrification in groundwater and may thus affect ecosystem services based on microbial activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Michel
- BRGM, DEPA (Direction de l'Eau, de l'Environnement, des Procédés et Analyses), Orléans, France
| | - Nicole Baran
- BRGM, DEPA (Direction de l'Eau, de l'Environnement, des Procédés et Analyses), Orléans, France
| | - Laurent André
- BRGM, DEPA (Direction de l'Eau, de l'Environnement, des Procédés et Analyses), Orléans, France.,Université d'Orléans, CNRS, BRGM, UMR 7327 Institut des Sciences de la Terre d'Orléans, Orléans, France
| | - Mickael Charron
- BRGM, DEPA (Direction de l'Eau, de l'Environnement, des Procédés et Analyses), Orléans, France
| | - Catherine Joulian
- BRGM, DEPA (Direction de l'Eau, de l'Environnement, des Procédés et Analyses), Orléans, France
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Yang L, Ivantsova E, Souders CL, Martyniuk CJ. The agrochemical S-metolachlor disrupts molecular mediators and morphology of the swim bladder: Implications for locomotor activity in zebrafish (Danio rerio). ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 208:111641. [PMID: 33396161 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Metolachlor herbicides are derived from the chloroacetamide chemical family of which there are the S- and R-metolachlor isomers. S-metolachlor is a selective herbicide that inhibits cell division and mitosis via enzyme interference. The herbicide is used globally in agriculture and studies report adverse effects in aquatic organisms; however, there are no studies investigating sub-lethal effects of S-metolachlor on swim bladder formation, mitochondrial ATP production, nor light-dark preference behaviors in fish. These endpoints are relevant for larval locomotor activity and metabolism. To address these knowledge gaps, we exposed zebrafish embryos/larvae to various concentrations of S-metolachlor (0.5-50 µM) over early development. S-metolachlor affected survival, hatching percentage, and increased developmental deformities at concentrations of 50 µM and above. Exposure levels as high as 200 µM for 24 and 48 h did not alter oxygen consumption rates in zebrafish, and there were no changes detected in endpoints related to mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. We observed impairment of swim bladder inflation at 50 µM in 6 dpf larvae. To elucidate mechanisms related to this, we measured relative transcript abundance for genes associated with the swim bladder (smooth muscle alpha (α)-2 actin, annexin A5, pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox 1a). Smooth muscle alpha (α)-2 actin mRNA levels were reduced in fish exposed to 50 µM while annexin A5 mRNA levels were increased in abundance, corresponding to reduced swim bladder size in larvae. A visual motor response test revealed that larval zebrafish exhibited some hyperactivity in the light with exposure to the herbicide and only the highest dose tested (50 µM) resulted in hypoactivity in the dark cycle. Regression analysis indicated that there was a positive relationship between surface area of the swim bladder and distance traveled, and the size of the swim bladder explained ~10-14% in the variation for total distance moved. Lastly, we tested larvae in a light dark preference test, and we did not detect any altered behavioral response to any concentration tested. Here we present new data on sublethal endpoints associated with exposure to the herbicide S-metolachlor and demonstrate that this chemical may disrupt transcripts associated with swim bladder formation and morphology, which could ultimately affect larval zebrafish activity. These data are expected to contribute to further risk assessment guidelines for S-metolachlor in aquatic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihua Yang
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Emma Ivantsova
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Christopher L Souders
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Christopher J Martyniuk
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; University of Florida Genetics Institute, Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Sciences Neuroscience, USA.
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Law JY, Brendel C, Long LA, Helmers M, Kaleita A, Soupir M. Impact of stacked conservation practices on phosphorus and sediment export at the catchment scale. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2020; 49:1552-1563. [PMID: 33459412 DOI: 10.1002/jeq2.20140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Best management practices (BMPs) are effective in reducing nutrient and sediment export, but further understanding of the benefits of the stacked BMPs is needed. This catchment-scale study was established to evaluate the impact of hydrology and BMPs on phosphorus (P) and sediment losses. Two adjacent catchments, one with a lower level of BMP adoption (Low-BMP #11) and one with a higher level (High-BMP #12), were compared for total P (TP) and total suspended solids (TSS) export. The BMPs include nutrient management plans, reduced tillage, grassed waterways, terraces, and perennial vegetation. The TP event-flow-weighted (EFW) concentration was significantly higher at Low-BMP #11 (0.293 mg L-1) than at High-BMP #12 (0.069 mg L-1). There was no significant difference in TP base-flow-weighted (BFW) concentrations between Low-BMP #11 (0.035 mg L-1) and High-BMP #12 (0.037 mg L-1). The TSS-EFW (148.0 vs. 18.6 mg L-1) and TSS-BFW (13.3 vs. 6.9 mg L-1) concentrations were also higher at Low-BMP #11 than at High-BMP #12. High-BMP #12 had lower TP (0.36 vs. 0.59 kg ha-1 yr-1) and TSS (253 vs. 1,961 kg ha-1 yr-1) loading than Low-BMP #11. The lower TP export at High-BMP #12 was likely attributed to the effectiveness of stacked erosion control BMPs and nutrient management plans. Overall, lower P and sediment loading was observed when a greater areal extent of stacked practices was implemented at the catchment level. This finding provides vital information to encourage wider BMP adoption at the watershed scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Yeow Law
- Dep. of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Conrad Brendel
- The Charles E. Via, Jr. Dep. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Leigh Ann Long
- Dep. of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Matthew Helmers
- Dep. of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Amy Kaleita
- Dep. of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Michelle Soupir
- Dep. of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA, 50010, USA
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Sun Y, Zhao L, Li X, Hao Y, Xu H, Weng L, Li Y. Stimulation of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) on soil microbial communities to promote metolachlor degradation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 248:219-228. [PMID: 30798023 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Degradation of metolachlor in surface soil is extremely important to its potential mobility and overall persistence. In this study, the effects of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) on the degradation of metolachlor at two concentration levels (5 and 20 mg kg-1) in soil were investigated via the column experiment. The degradation kinetics of metolachlor indicate that addition of earthworms enhances metolachlor degradation significantly (P < 0.05), with the enhanced degradation rate of 30% and 63% in the low and high concentration treatments at the 15th day, respectively. Fungi rather than bacteria are primarily responsible for metolachlor degradation in soil, and earthworms stimulate metolachlor degradation mainly by stimulating the metolachlor-degrading functional microorganisms and improving fungal community structure. Earthworms prefer to promote the possible fungal degraders like order Sordariales, Microascales, Hypocreales and Mortierellales and the possible bacteria genus Rubritalea and strengthen the relationships between these primary fungi. Two metabolites metolachlor oxanilic (MOXA) and moetolachlor ethanesulfonic acid (MESA) are detected in soil and earthworms in the high concentration treatments. Earthworms stimulate the formation of MOXA and yet inhibit the formation of MESA in soil. Another metabolite metolachlor-2-hydroxy (M2H) is also detected in earthworms, which is reported firstly. The study provides an important information for the remediation of metolachlor-polluted soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Sun
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, MOA Key Laboratory of Original Agro-Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control, Tianjin, 300191, China; Land and Environmental College, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110866, China
| | - Lixia Zhao
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, MOA Key Laboratory of Original Agro-Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control, Tianjin, 300191, China
| | - Xiaojing Li
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, MOA Key Laboratory of Original Agro-Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control, Tianjin, 300191, China
| | - Yueqi Hao
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, MOA Key Laboratory of Original Agro-Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control, Tianjin, 300191, China
| | - Huijuan Xu
- College of Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Liping Weng
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, MOA Key Laboratory of Original Agro-Environmental Pollution Prevention and Control, Tianjin, 300191, China
| | - Yongtao Li
- College of Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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Rossi F, Pesce S, Mallet C, Margoum C, Chaumot A, Masson M, Artigas J. Interactive Effects of Pesticides and Nutrients on Microbial Communities Responsible of Litter Decomposition in Streams. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2437. [PMID: 30386312 PMCID: PMC6199466 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Global contamination of streams by a large variety of compounds, such as nutrients and pesticides, may exert a high pressure on aquatic organisms, including microbial communities and their activity of organic matter decomposition. In this study, we assessed the potential interaction between nutrients and a fungicide and herbicide [tebuconazole (TBZ) and S-metolachlor (S-Met), respectively] at realistic environmental concentrations on the structure (biomass, diversity) and decomposition activity of fungal and bacterial communities (leaf decay rates, extracellular enzymatic activities) associated with Alnus glutinosa (Alnus) leaves. A 40-day microcosm experiment was used to combine two nutrient conditions (mesotrophic and eutrophic) with four pesticide treatments at a nominal concentrations of 15 μg L-1 (control, TBZ and S-Met, alone or mixed) following a 2 × 4 full factorial design. We also investigated resulting indirect effects on Gammarus fossarum feeding rates using leaves previously exposed to each of the treatments described above. Results showed interactive effects between nutrients and pesticides, only when nutrient (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus) concentrations were the highest (eutrophic condition). Specifically, slight decreases in Alnus leaf decomposition rates were observed in channels exposed to TBZ (0.01119 days-1) and S-Met (0.01139 days-1) than in control ones (0.01334 days-1) that can partially be explained by changes in the structure of leaf-associated microbial communities. However, exposition to both TBZ and S-Met in mixture (MIX) led to comparable decay rates to those exposed to the pesticides alone (0.01048 days-1), suggesting no interaction between these two compounds on microbial decomposition. Moreover, stimulation in ligninolytic activities (laccase and phenol oxidase) was observed in presence of the fungicide, possibly highlighting detoxification mechanisms employed by microbes. Such stimulation was not observed for laccase activity exposed to the MIX, suggesting antagonistic interaction of these two compounds on the ability of microbial communities to cope with stress by xenobiotics. Besides, no effects of the treatments were observed on leaf palatability for macroinvertebrates. Overall, the present study highlights that complex interactions between nutrients and xenobiotics in streams and resulting from global change can negatively affect microbial communities associated with leaf litter, although effects on higher trophic-level organisms remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Rossi
- Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, CNRS, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Stéphane Pesce
- Irstea, UR RiverLy, Centre de Lyon-Villeurbanne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Clarisse Mallet
- Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, CNRS, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | | | - Arnaud Chaumot
- Irstea, UR RiverLy, Centre de Lyon-Villeurbanne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Matthieu Masson
- Irstea, UR RiverLy, Centre de Lyon-Villeurbanne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Joan Artigas
- Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, CNRS, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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12
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Imfeld G, Besaury L, Maucourt B, Donadello S, Baran N, Vuilleumier S. Toward Integrative Bacterial Monitoring of Metolachlor Toxicity in Groundwater. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2053. [PMID: 30386304 PMCID: PMC6198151 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Common herbicides such as metolachlor (MET), and their transformation products, are frequently detected in groundwater worldwide. Little is known about the response of groundwater bacterial communities to herbicide exposure, and its potential use for ecotoxicological assessment. The response of bacterial communities exposed to different levels of MET from the Ariège alluvial aquifer (Southwest of France) was investigated in situ and in laboratory experiments. Variations in both chemistry and bacterial communities were observed in groundwater, but T-RFLP analysis did not allow to uncover a pesticide-specific effect on endogenous bacterial communities. To circumvent issues of hydrogeochemical and seasonal variations in situ, groundwater samples from two monitoring wells of the Ariège aquifer with contrasting records of pesticide contamination were exposed to different levels of MET in laboratory experiments. The standard Microtox® acute toxicity assay did not indicate toxic effects of MET, even at 5 mg L-1 (i.e., 1000-fold higher than in contaminated groundwater). Analysis of MET transformation products and compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA) in laboratory experiments demonstrated MET biodegradation but did not correlate with MET exposure. High-throughput sequencing analysis (Illumina MiSeq) of bacterial communities based on amplicons of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that bacterial community differed mainly by groundwater origin rather than by its response to MET exposure. OTUs correlating with MET addition ranged between 0.4 to 3.6% of the total. Predictive analysis of bacterial functions impacted by pesticides using PICRUSt suggested only minor changes in bacterial functions with increasing MET exposure. Taken together, results highlight MET biodegradation in groundwater, and the potential use of bacterial communities as sensitive indicators of herbicide contamination in aquifers. Although detected effects of MET on groundwater bacterial communities were modest, this study illustrates the potential of integrating DNA- and isotopic analysis-based approaches to improve ecotoxicological assessment of pesticide-contaminated aquifers. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACTAn integrative approach was develop to investigate in situ and in laboratory experiments the response of bacterial communities exposed to different levels of MET from the Ariége alluvial aquifer (Southwest of France).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwenaël Imfeld
- Laboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry, EOST-CNRS, LHyGeS UMR 7517, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Ludovic Besaury
- Génétique Moléculaire, Génomique, Microbiologie, GMGM UMR 7156, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Bruno Maucourt
- Génétique Moléculaire, Génomique, Microbiologie, GMGM UMR 7156, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Stéphanie Donadello
- Génétique Moléculaire, Génomique, Microbiologie, GMGM UMR 7156, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicole Baran
- Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Miniéres (BRGM), Orléans, France
| | - Stéphane Vuilleumier
- Génétique Moléculaire, Génomique, Microbiologie, GMGM UMR 7156, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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13
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Rose CE, Coupe RH, Capel PD, Webb RMT. Holistic assessment of occurrence and fate of metolachlor within environmental compartments of agricultural watersheds. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 612:708-719. [PMID: 28866398 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metolachlor [(RS)-2-Chloro-N-(2-ethyl-6-methyl-phenyl)-N-(1-methoxypropan-2-yl)acetamide] and two degradates (metolachlor ethane-sulfonic acid and metolachlor oxanilic acid) are commonly observed in surface and groundwater. The behavior and fate of these compounds were examined over a 12-year period in seven agricultural watersheds in the United States. They were quantified in air, rain, streams, overland flow, groundwater, soil water, subsurface drain water, and water at the stream/groundwater interface. The compounds were frequently detected in surface and groundwater associated with agricultural areas. A mass budget approach, based on all available data from the study and literature, was used to determine a percentage-wise generalized distribution and fate of applied parent metolachlor in typical agricultural environments. RESULTS In these watersheds, about 90% of applied metolachlor was taken up by plants or degraded, 10% volatilized, and 0.3% returned as rainfall. One percent was transported to surface water, while an equal amount infiltrated into the unsaturated zone soil water. <0.02% reached the groundwater. Subsurface flow paths resulted in greater degradation of metolachlor because degradation reactions had more time to proceed. CONCLUSIONS An understanding of the residence times of water in the different environmental compartments, and the important processes affecting metolachlor as it is transported along flowpaths among the environmental compartments allows for a degree of predictability of metolachlor's fate. Degradates with long half-lives can be used (in a limited capacity) as tracers of metolachlor, because of their persistence and widespread occurrence in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E Rose
- U. S. Geological Survey, Lower Mississippi-Gulf Water Science Center, 308 S. Airport Road, Jackson, MS 39208, United States.
| | - Richard H Coupe
- U. S. Geological Survey, Lower Mississippi-Gulf Water Science Center, 308 S. Airport Road, Jackson, MS 39208, United States
| | - Paul D Capel
- U.S. Geological Survey, 122 Civil Engineering Building, 500 Pillsbury Drive, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Richard M T Webb
- U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, CO 80225, United States
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14
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Marie L, Sylvain P, Benoit G, Maurice M, Gwenaël I. Degradation and Transport of the Chiral Herbicide S-Metolachlor at the Catchment Scale: Combining Observation Scales and Analytical Approaches. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:13231-13240. [PMID: 29056040 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Evaluating pesticide degradation and transport in the soil-surface water continuum remains challenging at the catchment scale. Here we investigated the dissipation of the chiral herbicide S-metolachlor (SM) in soil in relation to its transport in runoff. Analyses of SM, transformation products (TPs, i.e., MESA and MOXA), and enantiomers were combined to determine SM degradation at plot and catchment scales. Assisted by modeling, we found that the main dissipation pathways of SM at the plot scale were degradation (71%), volatilization (5%), leaching (8%) and runoff (3%), while 13% of SM persisted in topsoil. This highlights the relevance of degradation processes. TPs could trace the different discharge contributions: MOXA prevailed in runoff water, whereas MESA was associated with slower flowpaths. At the catchment outlet, 11% of SM applied was exported in dissolved or particulate phases or as TPs (in SM mass equivalent). A single event 1 week after application exported 96% of SM, which underlined the potential importance of severe rainfall on seasonal SM export. Enantioselective degradation enriched SM in the R-enantiomer over longer periods and may be associated with slower flowpaths. Altogether, combining observation scales and analytical approaches enabled to quantify SM degradation and to identify how degradation controls SM export at the catchment scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lefrancq Marie
- Laboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry of Strasbourg (LHyGeS UMR 7517), University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ENGEES , 1 Rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France
- LETG-Angers (UMR CNRS 6554), University of Angers , 2 bd Lavoisier, 49045 Angers, France
| | - Payraudeau Sylvain
- Laboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry of Strasbourg (LHyGeS UMR 7517), University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ENGEES , 1 Rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France
| | - Guyot Benoit
- Laboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry of Strasbourg (LHyGeS UMR 7517), University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ENGEES , 1 Rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France
| | - Millet Maurice
- Atmospheric Physical Chemistry Department (ICPEES UMR 7515), University of Strasbourg, CNRS , 1 rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France
| | - Imfeld Gwenaël
- Laboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry of Strasbourg (LHyGeS UMR 7517), University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ENGEES , 1 Rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France
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15
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Rice CP, McCarty GW, Bialek-Kalinski K, Zabetakis K, Torrents A, Hapeman CJ. Analysis of metolachlor ethane sulfonic acid (MESA) chirality in groundwater: A tool for dating groundwater movement in agricultural settings. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 560-561:36-43. [PMID: 27093121 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED To better address how much groundwater contributes to the loadings of pollutants from agriculture we developed a specific dating tool for groundwater residence times. This tool is based on metolachlor ethane sulfonic acid, which is a major soil metabolite of metolachlor. The chiral forms of metolachlor ethane sulfonic acid (MESA) and the chiral forms of metolachlor were examined over a 6-year period in samples of groundwater and water from a groundwater-fed stream in a riparian buffer zone. This buffer zone bordered cropland receiving annual treatments with metolachlor. Racemic (rac) metolachlor was applied for two years in the neighboring field, and subsequently S-metolachlor was used which is enriched by 88% with the S-enantiomer. Chiral analyses of the samples showed an exponential increase in abundance of the S-enantiomeric forms for MESA as a function of time for both the first order riparian buffer stream (R(2)=0.80) and for groundwater within the riparian buffer (R(2)=0.96). However, the S-enrichment values for metolachlor were consistently high indicating different delivery mechanisms for MESA and metolachlor. A mean residence time of 3.8years was determined for depletion of the initially-applied rac-metolachlor. This approach could be useful in dating groundwater and determining the effectiveness of conservation measures. ONE SENTENCE SUMMARY A mean residence time of 3.8years was calculated for groundwater feeding a first-order stream by plotting the timed-decay for the R-enantiomer of metolachlor ethane sulfonic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clifford P Rice
- Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2325, United States.
| | - Gregory W McCarty
- Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2325, United States
| | - Krystyna Bialek-Kalinski
- Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2325, United States
| | - Kara Zabetakis
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-0001, United States
| | - Alba Torrents
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-0001, United States
| | - Cathleen J Hapeman
- Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2325, United States
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16
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Masiá A, Campo J, Vázquez-Roig P, Blasco C, Picó Y. Screening of currently used pesticides in water, sediments and biota of the Guadalquivir River Basin (Spain). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 263 Pt 1:95-104. [PMID: 24140087 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of 50 currently used pesticides and their transformation products in surface and waste waters, sediment and fish in the Guadalquivir River Basin was determined in 2010 and 2011. After selective sample extraction, pesticides were identified and quantified by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The contamination profile in water and sediments is marked by the presence of organophosphorus and triazines. Transformation products were even at higher concentrations than parent pesticides. A wider range of pesticides was present in water than in sediments but none of them were detected in fish. The mean concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 13.0 ng/L in water and from 0.1 to 13.2 ng/g d.w. in sediment. The spatial distribution of most pesticides was consistent with the agricultural activities of the area or their urban applications. The waste water treatment plant effluents that impact the river are minor sources for few pesticides but for most of them run-off would be the most important contribution. The temporal distribution showed differences between both sampling campaigns related to the river flow. The low-flow produced a pesticide concentration effect, generating higher levels in water and accumulation in sediments. This forecasts a hazard in future scenarios if the current situation of the climate change and water scarcity evolves to more critical conditions highlighting the need of these monitoring studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Masiá
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, Department of Medicine Preventive, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
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