The Current Status of Gene Therapy for the Treatment of Cancer

Tumor microenvironment-modulating oncolytic adenovirus combined with GSK-3β inhibitor enhances antitumor immune response against bladder cancer

Bladder cancer is a common type of cancer around the world, and the majority of patients are diagnosed with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). Although low-risk NMIBC has a good prognosis, the disease recurrence rate and development of treatment-refractory disease remain high in intermediate- to high-risk NMIBC patients. To address these challenges for the treatment of NMIBC, a novel combination therapy composed of an oncolytic adenovirus (oAd) co-expressing interleukin (IL)-12, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and relaxin (RLX; HY-oAd) and a clinical-stage glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β inhibitor (9-ING-41; elraglusib) was investigated in the present report. Our findings demonstrate that HY-oAd and 9-ING-41 combination therapy (HY-oAd+9-ING-41) exerted superior inhibition of tumor growth compared with respective monotherapy in a syngeneic NMIBC tumor model. HY-oAd+9-ING-41 induced high-level tumor extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation and a more potent antitumor immune response than the respective monotherapy. In detail, HY-oAd+9-ING-41 induced superior accumulation of intratumoral T cells, prevention of immune cell exhaustion, and induction of tumor-specific adaptive immune response compared to either monotherapy. Collectively, these results demonstrate that the combination of HY-oAd and 9-ING-41 may be a promising approach to elicit a potent antitumor immune response against bladder cancer.

Integrated Analysis of CD1A Immune Infiltration and Competing Endogenous RNA Networks in COAD

Background

The CD1A gene, a key component of the human immune system and part of the CD1 family, plays a crucial role in presenting lipid antigens to T cells. Abnormal CD1A expression is associated with various immune-related diseases and tumors. However, the biological function of CD1A in COAD is unclear.

Methods

Multiple databases were systematically employed to conduct an analysis of CD1A expression in pan-cancer and COAD, along with its clinical-pathological features. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analyses of CD1A were performed using the 'clusterProfiler' package. The Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis of CD1A was used the STRING database. Additionally, TIMER and ssGSEA tools were used to explore the relationship between CD1A expression in COAD and immune cell infiltration. The study also investigated the association between CD1A expression and N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification genes in the TCGA COAD cohort and constructed a CD1A-centric competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory network.

Results

CD1A displays varying expression levels in various tumors, including COAD, and is closely linked to clinical-pathological characteristics. GO analysis suggests that CD1A plays a role in important processes like antigen processing and presentation, leukocyte-mediated immunity, and lymphocyte-mediated immunity. KEGG analysis identifies CD1A's involvement in key pathways such as the Chemokine signaling pathway and Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. PPI analysis highlights CD1A's interactions with CD207, CD1C, CD1E, FOXP3, and ITGB2. ssGSEA analysis indicates a significant relationship between CD1A expression and the infiltration of various immune cells in COAD. Significant associations were found between CD1A and m6A modification genes in COAD. Furthermore, a CD1A-centered ceRNA regulatory network has been constructed.

Conclusion

CD1A emerges as a potential biomarker for the diagnosis and treatment of COAD, showing a strong association with tumor immune infiltration, m6A modification, and the ceRNA network.

Therapeutic bacteria and viruses to combat cancer: double-edged sword in cancer therapy: new insights for future

Cancer, ranked as the second leading cause of mortality worldwide, leads to the death of approximately seven million people annually, establishing itself as one of the most significant health challenges globally. The discovery and identification of new anti-cancer drugs that kill or inactivate cancer cells without harming normal and healthy cells and reduce adverse effects on the immune system is a potential challenge in medicine and a fundamental goal in Many studies. Therapeutic bacteria and viruses have become a dual-faceted instrument in cancer therapy. They provide a promising avenue for cancer treatment, but at the same time, they also create significant obstacles and complications that contribute to cancer growth and development. This review article explores the role of bacteria and viruses in cancer treatment, examining their potential benefits and drawbacks. By amalgamating established knowledge and perspectives, this review offers an in-depth examination of the present research landscape within this domain and identifies avenues for future investigation.

Impact of Excipient Extraction and Buffer Exchange on Recombinant Monoclonal Antibody Stability

The foundation of a biosimilar manufacturer's regulatory filing is the demonstration of analytical and functional similarity between the biosimilar product and the pertinent originator product. The excipients in the formulation may interfere with characterization using typical analytical and functional techniques during this biosimilarity exercise. Consequently, the producers of biosimilar products resort to buffer exchange to isolate the biotherapeutic protein from the drug product formulation. However, the impact that this isolation has on the product stability is not completely known. This study aims to elucidate the extent to which mAb isolation via ultrafiltration-diafiltration-based buffer exchange impacts mAb stability. It has been demonstrated that repeated extraction cycles do result in significant changes in higher-order structure (red-shift of 5.0 nm in fluorescence maxima of buffer exchanged samples) of the mAb and also an increase in formation of basic variants from 19.1 to 26.7% and from 32.3 to 36.9% in extracted innovator and biosimilar Tmab samples, respectively. It was also observed that under certain conditions of tertiary structure disruptions, Tmab could be restabilized depending on formulation composition. Thus, mAb isolation through extraction with buffer exchange impacts the product stability. Based on the observations reported in this paper, we recommend that biosimilar manufacturers take into consideration these effects of excipients on protein stability when performing biosimilarity assessments.

Engineering Nanomedicine for Non-Viral RNA-Based Gene Therapy of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common type of malignant tumor of the central nervous system, characterized by aggressiveness, genetic instability, heterogenesis, and unpredictable clinical behavior. Disappointing results from the current clinical therapeutic methods have fueled a search for new therapeutic targets and treatment modalities. GBM is characterized by various genetic alterations, and RNA-based gene therapy has raised particular attention in GBM therapy. Here, we review the recent advances in engineered non-viral nanocarriers for RNA drug delivery to treat GBM. Therapeutic strategies concerning the brain-targeted delivery of various RNA drugs involving siRNA, microRNA, mRNA, ASO, and short-length RNA and the therapeutical mechanisms of these drugs to tackle the challenges of chemo-/radiotherapy resistance, recurrence, and incurable stem cell-like tumor cells of GBM are herein outlined. We also highlight the progress, prospects, and remaining challenges of non-viral nanocarriers-mediated RNA-based gene therapy.

Novel polyurethane-based ionene nanoparticles electrostatically stabilized with hyaluronic acid for effective gene therapy

Gene therapy is considered to be a valuable strategy for effective cancer treatment. However, the development of effective delivery systems that can specifically deliver gene materials, such as siRNA to tumor tissues plays a critical role in cancer therapy. In the present study, we have developed a novel complex that is based on an electrostatic interaction between cationic polyurethane ionene (CPUI) nanoparticles and an anti-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) siRNA. For active targeting, hyaluronic acid (HA) was used to coat the complexes, which significantly reduced the cytotoxicity of the blank nanocarriers while demonstrating high transport efficiency of the siRNA via the CD44-mediated endocytosis pathway in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The targeted nanocarriers (HA/CPUI/siRNA) showed significantly higher cellular internalization in flow cytometry and confocal microscopy compared with the non-targeted system (CPUI/siRNA). In addition, the incorporation of HA on the surface of the complexes resulted in significantly greater suppression of the STAT3 gene compared to the corresponding non-targeted formulation. Whole-body fluorescence images showed more significant tumor accumulation of the targeted nanocarriers in 4T1 breast tumor-bearing mice. Therefore, HA/CPUI/siRNA nanocarriers are an interesting option for the siRNA-targeted treatment of breast cancer cells.

Enhanced gene transfection and induction of apoptosis in melanoma cells by branched poly(β-amino ester)s with uniformly distributed branching units

Melanoma, one of the most devastating forms of skin cancer, currently lacks effective clinical treatments. Delivery of functional genes to modulate specific protein expression to induce melanoma cell apoptosis could be a promising therapeutic approach. However, transfecting melanoma cells using non-viral methods, particularly with cationic polymers, presents significant challenges. In this study, we synthesized three branched poly(β-amino ester)s (HPAEs) with evenly distributed branching units but varying space lengths through a two-step "oligomer combination" strategy. The unique topological structure enables HPAEs to condense DNA to form nano-sized polyplexes with favorable physiochemical properties. Notably, HPAEs, especially HPAE-2 with intermediate branching unit space length, demonstrated significantly higher gene transfection efficiency than the leading commercial gene transfection reagent, jetPRIME, in human melanoma cells. Furthermore, HPAE-2 efficiently delivered the Bax-encoding plasmid into melanoma cells, leading to a pronounced pro-apoptotic effect without causing noticeable cytotoxicity. This study establishes a potent non-viral platform for gene transfection of melanoma cells by harnessing the distribution of branching units, paving the way for potential clinical applications of gene therapy in melanoma treatment.

Escherichia coli cytosine deaminase: Structural and biotechnological aspects

Suicide gene therapy involves introducing viral or bacterial genes into tumor cells, which enables the conversion of a nontoxic prodrug into a toxic-lethal drug. The application of the bacterial cytosine deaminase (bCD)/5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) approach has been beneficial and progressive within the current field of cancer therapy because of the enhanced bystander effect. The basis of this method is the preferential deamination of 5-FC to 5-fluorouracil by cancer cells expressing cytosine deaminase (CD), which strongly inhibits DNA synthesis and RNA function, effectively targeting tumor cells. However, the poor binding affinity of toward 5-FC compared to the natural substrate cytosine and/or inappropriate thermostability limits the clinical applications of this gene therapy approach. Nowadays, many genetic engineering studies have been carried out to solve and improve the activity of this enzyme. In the current review, we intend to discuss the biotechnological aspects of Escherichia coli CD, including its structure, functions, molecular cloning, and protein engineering. We will also explore its relevance in cancer clinical trials. By examining these aspects, we hope to provide a thorough understanding of E. coli CD and its potential applications in cancer therapy.

Targeted Nanoparticles: the Smart Way for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a widespread cancer that starts in the digestive tract. It is the third most common cause of cancer deaths around the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates an expected death toll of over 1 million cases annually. The limited therapeutic options as well as the drawbacks of the existing therapies necessitate the development of non-classic treatment approaches. Nanotechnology has led the evolution of valuable drug delivery systems thanks to their ability to control drug release and precisely target a wide variety of cancers. This has also been extended to the treatment of CRC. Herein, we shed light on the pertinent research that has been performed on the potential applications of nanoparticles in the treatment of CRC. The various types of nanoparticles in addition to their properties, applications, targeting approaches, merits, and demerits are discussed. Furthermore, innovative therapies for CRC, including gene therapies and immunotherapies, are also highlighted. Eventually, the research gaps, the clinical potential of such delivery systems, and a future outlook on their development are inspired.

Induced Self-Assembly of Vitamin E-Spermine/siRNA Nanocomplexes via Spermine/Helix Groove-Specific Interaction for Efficient siRNA Delivery and Antitumor Therapy

Gene therapy has been one of potential strategies for the treatment of different diseases, where efficient and safe gene delivery systems are also extremely in need. Current lipid nanoparticles (LNP) technology highly depends on the packing and condensation of nucleic acids with amine moieties. Here, an attempt to covalently link two natural compounds, spermine and vitamin E, is made to develop self-assembled nucleic acid delivery systems. Among them, the spermine moieties specifically interact with the major groove of siRNA helix through salt bridge interaction, while vitamin E moieties are located around siRNA duplex. Such amphiphilic vitamin E-spermine/siRNA complexes can further self-assemble into nanocomplexes like multiblade wheels. Further studies indicate that these siRNA nanocomplexes with the neutrally charged surface of vitamin E can enter cells via caveolin/lipid raft mediated endocytosis pathway and bypass lysosome trapping. With these self-assembled delivery systems, efficient siRNA delivery is successfully achieved for Eg5 and Survivin gene silencing as well as DNA plasmid delivery. Further in vivo study indicates that VE-Su-Sper/DSPE-PEG2000 /siSurvivin self-assembled nanocomplexes can accumulate in cancer cells and gradually release siRNA in tumor tissues and show significant antitumor effect in vivo. The self-assembled delivery system provides a novel strategy for highly efficient siRNA delivery.

Cinchona Alkaloid Polymers Demonstrate Highly Efficient Gene Delivery Dependent on Stereochemistry, Methoxy Substitution, and Length

Nucleic acid delivery with cationic polymers is a promising alternative to expensive viral-based methods; however, it often suffers from a lower performance. Herein, we present a highly efficient delivery system based on cinchona alkaloid natural products copolymerized with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate. Cinchona alkaloids are an attractive monomer class for gene delivery applications, given their ability to bind to DNA via both electrostatics and intercalation. To uncover the structure-activity profile of the system, four structurally similar cinchona alkaloids were incorporated into polymers: quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine. These polymers differed in the chain length, the presence or absence of a pendant methoxy group, and stereochemistry, all of which were found to alter gene delivery performance and the ways in which the polymers overcome biological barriers to transfection. Longer polymers that contained the methoxy-bearing cinchona alkaloids (i.e., quinine and quinidine) were found to have the best performance. These polymers exhibited the tightest DNA binding, largest and most abundant DNA-polymer complexes, and best endosomal escape thanks to their increased buffering capacity and closest nuclear proximity of the payload. Overall, this work highlights the remarkable efficiency of polymer systems that incorporate cinchona alkaloid natural products while demonstrating the profound impact that small structural changes can have on overcoming biological hurdles associated with gene delivery.

Aptamer-modified tetrahedral DNA nanostructure-immobilized liposome for specific gene delivery and potential cancer theragnostic

Targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells is crucial for effective cancer treatment without adverse effects. In this study, we developed a novel delivery carrier, Aptamer-modified tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN) immobilized Liposome (ApTL), for specific delivery to nucleolin-overexpressing cancer cells. We demonstrated that targeted ApTL was highly effective in delivering plasmid and mRNA to nucleolin-overexpressing cancer cells compared to non-targeted ApTL with a non-specific aptamer. ApTL, which is highly negative and nano-sized, specifically delivered nucleic acids to MDA-MB-231 and HeLa cancer cells, primarily via lipid-raft-mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, the co-delivery of mRNA and doxorubicin resulted in increased apoptosis and reduced cancer cell viability. Interestingly, co-delivery of mRNA and Dox did not show a significant difference in EGFP expression at 24 h but dramatically increased EGFP expression at 48 h, making ApTL/mEGFP/Dox a promising candidate for detecting live cancer cells after targeted cancer drug treatment. Our results suggest that ApTL can be a promising tool for the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to nucleolin-overexpressing cancer cells, providing a new strategy for cancer theragnostic.

Uncertainty quantification for gene delivery methods: A roadmap for pDNA manufacturing from phase I clinical trials to commercialization

The fast-growing interest in cell and gene therapy (C>) products has led to a growing demand for the production of plasmid DNA (pDNA) and viral vectors for clinical and commercial use. Manufacturers, regulators, and suppliers need to develop strategies for establishing robust and agile supply chains in the otherwise empirical field of C>. A model-based methodology that has great potential to support the wider adoption of C> is presented, by ensuring efficient timelines, scalability, and cost-effectiveness in the production of key raw materials. Specifically, key process and economic parameters are identified for (1) the production of pDNA for the forward-looking scenario of non-viral-based Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies from clinical (200 doses) to commercial (40,000 doses) scale and (2) the commercial (40,000 doses) production of pDNA and lentiviral vectors for the current state-of-the-art viral vector-based CAR T-cell therapies. By applying a systematic global sensitivity analysis, we quantify uncertainty in the manufacturing process and apportion it to key process and economic parameters, highlighting cost drivers and limitations that steer decision-making. The results underline the cost-efficiency and operational flexibility of non-viral-based therapies in the overall C> supply chain, as well as the importance of economies-of-scale in the production of pDNA.

Inducible caspase 9-mediated suicide gene therapy using AAV6 vectors in a murine model of breast cancer

Breast carcinoma has one of the highest incidence rates (11.7%), with significant clinical heterogeneity. Although conventional chemotherapy and surgical resection are the current standard of care, the resistance and recurrence, after these interventions, necessitate alternate therapeutic approaches. Cancer gene therapy for breast cancer with the suicide gene is an attractive option due to their directed delivery into the tumor. In this study, we have developed a novel treatment strategy against breast cancer with recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 6 vectors carrying a suicide gene, inducible Caspase 9 (iCasp9). Upon treatment with AAV6-iCasp9 vectors and the chemical inducer of dimerizer, AP20187, the viability of murine breast cancer cells (4T1) was significantly reduced to ∼40%-60% (mock control 100%). Following intratumoral delivery of AAV6-iCasp9 vectors in an orthotopic breast cancer mouse model, we observed a significant increase in iCasp9 transgene expression and a significant reduction in tumor growth rate. At the molecular level, immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated subsequent activation of the effector caspase 3 and cellular death. These data highlight the potential of AAV6-iCasp9-based suicide gene therapy for aggressive breast cancer in patients.

Second-Generation Polyamidoamine Dendrimer Conjugated with Oligopeptides Can Enhance Plasmid DNA Delivery In Vitro

Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers have attracted considerable attention in the field of gene therapy due to their flexibility in introducing different functional moieties and reduced toxicity at low generations. However, their transfection efficiency remains a limitation. Therefore, an essential approach for improving their transfection efficiency as gene carriers involves modifying the structure of PAMAM by conjugating functional groups around their surface. In this study, we successfully conjugated an RRHRH oligopeptide to the surface of PAMAM generation 2 (PAMAM G2) to create RRHRH-PAMAM G2. This construction aims to condense plasmid DNA (pDNA) and facilitate its penetration into cell membranes, leading to its promising potential for gene therapy. RRHRH-PAMAM G2/pDNA complexes were smaller than 100 nm and positively charged. Nano-polyplexes can enter the cell and show a high transfection efficiency after 24 h of transfection. The RRHRH-PAMAM G2 was non-toxic to HeLa, NIH3T3, A549, and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. These results strongly suggest that RRHRH-PAMAM G2 holds promise as a gene carrier for gene therapy owing to its biocompatibility and ability to deliver genes to the cell.

Regulation and therapeutic potentials of microRNAs to non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer, accounting for 80%-85% of total cases and leading to millions of deaths worldwide. Drug resistance is the primary cause of treatment failure in NSCLC, which urges scientists to develop advanced approaches for NSCLC treatment. Among novel approaches, the miRNA-based method has emerged as a potential approach as it allows researchers to modulate target gene expression. Subsequently, cell behaviors are altered, which leads to the death and the depletion of cancer cells. It has been reported that miRNAs possess the capacity to regulate multiple genes that are involved in various signaling pathways, including the phosphoinositide 3-kinase, receptor tyrosine kinase/rat sarcoma virus/mitogen-activated protein kinase, wingless/integrated, retinoblastoma, p53, transforming growth factor β, and nuclear factor-kappa B pathways. Dysregulation of these signaling pathways in NSCLC results in abnormal cell proliferation, tissue invasion, and drug resistance while inhibiting apoptosis. Thus, understanding the roles of miRNAs in regulating these signaling pathways may enable the development of novel NSCLC treatment therapies. However, a comprehensive review of potential miRNAs in NSCLC treatment has been lacking. Therefore, this review aims to fill the gap by summarizing the up-to-date information on miRNAs regarding their targets, impact on cancer-associated pathways, and prospective outcomes in treating NSCLC. We also discuss current technologies for delivering miRNAs to the target cells, including virus-based, non-viral, and emerging extracellular vesicle-based delivery systems. This knowledge will support future studies to develop an innovative miRNA-based therapy and select a suitable carrier to treat NSCLC effectively.

Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Microcapsules Harnessing the COVID-19 Immune Response for Cancer Therapeutics

The combination of gene therapy and immunotherapy concepts, along recent advances in DNA nanotechnology, have the potential to provide important tools for cancer therapies. We present the development of stimuli-responsive microcapsules, loaded with a viral immunogenetic agent, harnessing the immune response against the Coronavirus Disease 2019, COVID-19, to selectively attack liver cancer cells (hepatoma) or recognize breast cancer or hepatoma, by expression of green fluorescence protein, GFP. The pH-responsive microcapsules, modified with DNA-tetrahedra nanostructures, increased hepatoma permeation by 50 %. Incorporation of a GFP-encoding lentivirus vector inside the tumor-targeting pH-stimulated miRNA-triggered and Alpha-fetoprotein-dictated microcapsules enables the demonstration of neoplasm selectivity, with approximately 5,000-, 8,000- and 50,000-fold more expression in the cancerous cells, respectively. The incorporation of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the gene vector promotes specific recognition of the immune-evading hepatoma by the COVID-19-analogous immune response, which leads to cytotoxic and inflammatory activity, mediated by serum components taken from vaccinated or recovered COVID-19 patients, resulting in effective elimination of the hepatoma (>85 % yield).

Expression of GFP and DsRed fluorescent proteins after gene electrotransfer of tumour cells in vitro

Fluorescent reporter genes are widely used to study the transfection of various types of primary cells and cell lines. The aim of our research was to investigate the expression dynamics of GFP and DsRed reporter genes individually and combined after gene electrotransfer of plasmids with two different electroporation protocols in B16F10 and CT26 cells in vitro. The cytotoxicity after gene electrotransfer of both plasmids was first determined. Second, the intensity of fluorescence and the percentage of cells transfected with both plasmids individually and in combination were monitored in real time. The results show that the percentage of viability after gene electrotransfer of plasmids using the EP2 pulses was significantly higher compared to the EP1 pulses. In contrast, the percentage of transfected cells and fluorescence intensity were higher after gene electrotransfer with the EP1 pulse protocol. Moreover, the percentage of transfected cells was higher and started earlier in the B16F10 cell line than in the CT26 cell line. However, fluorescence intensity was higher in CT26 cells. Co-expression of fluorescent proteins was achieved only in a small number of cells. In conclusion, this study elucidated some of the dynamics of reporter gene expression in cancer cell lines after gene electrotransfer.

Nanoporous electroporation needle for localized intracellular delivery in deep tissues

The exogenous control of intracellular drug delivery has been shown to improve the overall efficacy of therapies by reducing nonspecific off-target toxicity. However, achieving a precise on-demand dosage of a drug in deep tissues with minimal damage is still a challenge. In this study, we report an electric-pulse-driven nanopore-electroporation (nEP) system for the localized intracellular delivery of a model agent in deep tissues. Compared with conventional bulk electroporation, in vitro nEP achieved better transfection efficiency (>60%) with a high cell recovery rate (>95%) under a nontoxic low electroporation condition (40 V). Furthermore, in vivo nEP using a nanopore needle electrode with a side drug-releasing compartment offered better control over the dosage release, time, and location of propidium iodide, which was used as a model agent for intracellular delivery. In a pilot study using experimental animals, the nEP system exhibited two times higher transfection efficiency of propidium iodide in the thigh muscle tissue, while minimizing tissue damage (<20%) compared to that of bulk electroporation. This tissue-penetrating nEP platform can provide localized, safe, and effective intracellular delivery of diverse therapeutics into deep tissues in a controlled manner.

The Clinical Significance of Genetic Variation in Ovarian Cancer

Genetic variation is a well-known contributor to the onset and progression of cancer. The goal of this study is to provide a comprehensive examination of the nucleotide and chromosomal variation associated with the onset and progression of serous ovarian cancer. Using a variety of computational and statistical methods, we examine the exome sequence profiles of genetic variants present in the primary tumors of 432 ovarian cancer patient samples to compute: (1) the tumor mutational burden for all genes and (2) the chromosomal copy number alterations associated with the onset/progression of ovarian cancer. Tumor mutational burden is reduced in the late vs. early stages, with the highest levels being associated with loss-of-function mutations in DNA-repair genes. Nucleotide variation and copy number alterations associated with known cancer driver genes are selectively favored over ovarian cancer development. The results indicate that genetic variation is a significant contributor to the onset and progression of ovarian cancer. The measurement of the relative levels of genetic variation associated with individual ovarian cancer patient tumors may be a clinically valuable predictor of potential tumor aggressiveness and resistance to chemotherapy. Tumors found to be associated with high levels of genetic variation may help in the clinical identification of high-risk ovarian cancer patients who could benefit from more frequent monitoring.

Emergence of Small Interfering RNA-Based Gene Drugs for Various Diseases

Small molecule, peptide, and protein-based drugs have been developed over decades to treat various diseases. The importance of gene therapy as an alternative to traditional drugs has increased after the discovery of gene-based drugs such as Gendicine for cancer and Neovasculgen for peripheral artery disease. Since then, the pharma sector is focusing on developing gene-based drugs for various diseases. After the discovery of the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism, the development of siRNA-based gene therapy has been accelerated immensely. siRNA-based treatment for hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR) using Onpattro and acute hepatic porphyria (AHP) by Givlaari and three more FDA-approved siRNA drugs has set up a milestone and further improved the confidence for the development of gene therapeutics for a spectrum of diseases. siRNA-based gene drugs have more advantages over other gene therapies and are under study to treat different types of diseases such as viral infections, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and many more. However, there are a few bottlenecks to realizing the full potential of siRNA-based gene therapy. They include chemical instability, nontargeted biodistribution, undesirable innate immune responses, and off-target effects. This review provides a comprehensive view of siRNA-based gene drugs: challenges associated with siRNA delivery, their potential, and future prospects.

Bacterial Toxin-Antitoxin Systems' Cross-Interactions-Implications for Practical Use in Medicine and Biotechnology

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widely present in bacterial genomes. They consist of stable toxins and unstable antitoxins that are classified into distinct groups based on their structure and biological activity. TA systems are mostly related to mobile genetic elements and can be easily acquired through horizontal gene transfer. The ubiquity of different homologous and non-homologous TA systems within a single bacterial genome raises questions about their potential cross-interactions. Unspecific cross-talk between toxins and antitoxins of non-cognate modules may unbalance the ratio of the interacting partners and cause an increase in the free toxin level, which can be deleterious to the cell. Moreover, TA systems can be involved in broadly understood molecular networks as transcriptional regulators of other genes' expression or modulators of cellular mRNA stability. In nature, multiple copies of highly similar or identical TA systems are rather infrequent and probably represent a transition stage during evolution to complete insulation or decay of one of them. Nevertheless, several types of cross-interactions have been described in the literature to date. This implies a question of the possibility and consequences of the TA system cross-interactions, especially in the context of the practical application of the TA-based biotechnological and medical strategies, in which such TAs will be used outside their natural context, will be artificially introduced and induced in the new hosts. Thus, in this review, we discuss the prospective challenges of system cross-talks in the safety and effectiveness of TA system usage.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as a Gene Delivery Platform for Cancer Therapy

Cancer remains a major global health challenge. Traditional chemotherapy often results in side effects and drug resistance, necessitating the development of alternative treatment strategies such as gene therapy. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) offer many advantages as a gene delivery carrier, including high loading capacity, controlled drug release, and easy surface functionalization. MSNs are biodegradable and biocompatible, making them promising candidates for drug delivery applications. Recent studies demonstrating the use of MSNs for the delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer cells have been reviewed, along with their potential as a tool for cancer therapy. The major challenges and future interventions of MSNs as gene delivery carriers for cancer therapy are discussed.

Hierarchically tumor-activated nanoCRISPR-Cas13a facilitates efficient microRNA disruption for multi-pathway-mediated tumor suppression

Rationale: CRISPR-Cas13a is an efficient tool for robust RNA knockdown with lower off-target effect, which may be a potentially powerful and safe tool for cancer gene therapy. However, therapeutic effect of current cancer gene therapy that targeting monogene was compromised by the multi-mutational signal pathway alterations of tumorigenesis. Methods: Here, hierarchically tumor-activated nanoCRISPR-Cas13a (CHAIN) is fabricated for multi-pathway-mediated tumor suppression by efficient microRNA disruption in vivo. A fluorinated polyetherimide (PEI; Mw=1.8KD) with graft rate of 33% (PF₃₃) was utilized to compact the CRISPR-Cas13a megaplasmid targeting microRNA-21 (miR-21) (pCas13a-crRNA) via self-assemble to constitute a nanoscale 'core' (PF₃₃/pCas13a-crRNA), which was further wrapped by modified hyaluronan (HA) derivatives (galactopyranoside-PEG2000-HA, GPH) to form CHAIN. Results: The dual-tumor-targeting and tumor-activated CHAIN not only manifested long-term circulation, but augmented tumor cellular uptake and endo/lysosomal escape, thus achieving efficient transfection of CRISPR-Cas13a megaplasmid (~ 13 kb) in tumor cells with minimal toxity. Efficient knockdown of miR-21 by CHAIN restored programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4) and reversion-inducing-cysteine-rich protein with Kazal motifs (RECK) and further crippled downstream matrix metalloproteinases-2 (MMP-2), which undermined cancer proliferation, migration and invasion. Meanwhile, the miR-21-PDCD4-AP-1 positive feedback loop further functioned as an enhanced force for anti-tumor activity. Conclusion: Treatment with CHAIN in hepatocellular carcinoma mouse model achieved significant inhibition of miR-21 expression and rescued multi-pathway, which triggered substantial tumor growth suppression. By efficient CRISPR-Cas13a induced interference of one oncogenic microRNA, the CHAIN platform exerted promising capabilities in cancer treatment.

Therapeutic applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, as a novel and more specialized branch of science, has provided a number of nanostructures such as nanoparticles, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and protocols of other branches of science. Due to the unique features and physiobiological characteristics, these nanostructures or nanocarriers have provided vast methods and therapeutic techniques, against microbial infections and cancers and for tissue regeneration, tissue engineering, and immunotherapies, and for gene therapies, through drug delivery systems. However, reduced carrying capacity, abrupt and non-targeted delivery, and solubility of therapeutic agents, can affect the therapeutic applications of these biotechnological products. In this article, we explored and discussed the prominent nanobiotechnological methods and products such as nanocarriers, highlighted the features and challenges associated with these products, and attempted to conclude if available nanostructures offer any scope of improvement or enhancement. We aimed to identify and emphasize the nanobiotechnological methods and products, with greater prospect and capacity for therapeutic improvements and enhancements. We found that novel nanocarriers and nanostructures, such as nanocomposites, micelles, hydrogels, microneedles, and artificial cells, can address the associated challenges and inherited drawbacks, with help of conjugations, sustained and stimuli-responsive release, ligand binding, and targeted delivery. We recommend that nanobiotechnology, despite having few challenges and drawbacks, offers immense opportunities that can be harnessed in delivering quality therapeutics with precision and prediction. We also recommend that, by exploring the branched domains more rigorously, bottlenecks and obstacles can also be addressed and resolved in return.

Oncolytic virus-based suicide gene therapy for cancer treatment: a perspective of the clinical trials conducted at Henry Ford Health

Gene therapy manipulates or modifies a gene that provides a new cellular function to treat or correct a pathological condition, such as cancer. The approach of using gene manipulation to modify patient's cells to improve cancer therapy and potentially find a cure is gaining popularity. Currently, there are 12 gene therapy products approved by US-FDA, EMA and CFDA for cancer management, these include Rexin-G, Gendicine, Oncorine, Provange among other. The Radiation Biology Research group at Henry Ford Health has been actively developing gene therapy approaches for improving clinical outcome in cancer patients. The team was the first to test a replication-competent oncolytic virus armed with a therapeutic gene in humans, to combine this approach with radiation in humans, and to image replication-competent adenoviral gene expression/activity in humans. The adenoviral gene therapy products developed at Henry Ford Health have been evaluated in more than 6 preclinical studies and evaluated in 9 investigator initiated clinical trials treating more than100 patients. Two phase I clinical trials are currently following patients long term and a phase I trial for recurrent glioma was initiated in November 2022. This systematic review provides an overview of gene therapy approaches and products employed for treating cancer patients including the products developed at Henry Ford Health.

Halloysite Nanotubes and Sepiolite for Health Applications

The need for safe, therapeutically effective, and patient-compliant drug delivery systems continuously leads researchers to design novel tools and strategies. Clay minerals are widely used in drug products both as excipients and active agents but, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in research aimed at the development of new organic or inorganic nanocomposites. The attention of the scientific community has been drawn by nanoclays, thanks to their natural origin, worldwide abundance, availability, sustainability, and biocompatibility. In this review, we focused our attention on the studies inherent to the pharmaceutical and biomedical applications of halloysite and sepiolite, and their semi-synthetic or synthetic derivatives, as drug delivery systems. After having described the structure of both materials and their biocompatibility, we delineate the use of the nanoclays to enhance the stability, the controlled release, the bioavailability, and the adsorption properties of drugs. Several types of surface functionalization have been discussed, showing that these materials could be used for the development of an innovative therapeutic approach.

Effectiveness of a novel gene nanotherapy based on putrescine for cancer treatment

Gene therapy has long been proposed for cancer treatment. However, the use of therapeutic nucleic acids presents several limitations such as enzymatic degradation, rapid clearance, and poor cellular uptake and efficiency. In this work we propose the use of putrescine, a precursor for higher polyamine biosynthesis for the preparation of cationic nanosystems for cancer gene therapy. We have formulated and characterized putrescine-sphingomyelin nanosystems (PSN) and studied their endocytic pathway and intracellular trafficking in cancer cells. After loading a plasmid DNA (pDNA) encoding the apoptotic Fas Ligand (FasL), we proved their therapeutic activity by measuring the cell death rate after treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells. We have also used xenografted zebrafish embryos as a first in vivo approach to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed PSN-pDNA formulation in a more complex model. Finally, intratumoral and intraperitoneal administration to mice-bearing MDA-MB-231 xenografts resulted in a significant decrease in tumour cell growth, highlighting the potential of the developed gene therapy nanoformulation for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer.

Magnetic nanoparticles: multifunctional tool for cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Cancer has one of the highest mortality rates globally. The traditional therapies used to treat cancer have harmful adverse effects. Considering these facts, researchers have explored new therapeutic possibilities with enhanced benefits. Nanoparticle development for cancer detection, in addition to therapy, has shown substantial progress over the past few years.

AREA COVERED

Herein, the latest research regarding cancer treatment employing magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in chemo-, immuno-, gene-, and radiotherapy along with hyperthermia is summarized, in addition to their physio-chemical features, advantages, and limitations for clinical translation have also been discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

MNPs are being extensively investigated and developed into effective modules for cancer therapy. They are highly functional tools aimed at cancer therapy owing to their excellent superparamagnetic, chemical, biocompatible, physical, and biodegradable properties.

Interrogating the Human Diplome: Computational Methods, Emerging Applications, and Challenges

Human DNA sequencing protocols have revolutionized human biology, biomedical science, and clinical practice, but still have very important limitations. One limitation is that most protocols do not separate or assemble (i.e., "phase") the nucleotide content of each of the maternally and paternally derived chromosomal homologs making up the 22 autosomal pairs and the chromosomal pair making up the pseudo-autosomal region of the sex chromosomes. This has led to a dearth of studies and a consequent underappreciation of many phenomena of fundamental importance to basic and clinical genomic science. We discuss a few protocols for obtaining phase information as well as their limitations, including those that could be used in tumor phasing settings. We then describe a number of biological and clinical phenomena that require phase information. These include phenomena that require precise knowledge of the nucleotide sequence in a chromosomal segment from germline or somatic cells, such as DNA binding events, and insight into unique cis vs. trans-acting functionally impactful variant combinations-for example, variants implicated in a phenotype governed by compound heterozygosity. In addition, we also comment on the need for reliable and consensus-based diploid-context computational workflows for variant identification as well as the need for laboratory-based functional verification strategies for validating cis vs. trans effects of variant combinations. We also briefly describe available resources, example studies, as well as areas of further research, and ultimately argue that the science behind the study of human diploidy, referred to as "diplomics," which will be enabled by nucleotide-level resolution of phased genomes, is a logical next step in the analysis of human genome biology.

Stem Cells and Targeted Gene Therapy in Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

The CNS tumors, in particular those with malignant characteristics, are prominent burdens around the world with high mortality and low cure rate. Given that, researchers were curious about novel treatments with promising effectiveness which resulted in shifting the dogmatism era of neurogenesis to the current concept of postnatal neurogenesis. Considering all existing stem cells, various strategies are available for treating CNS cancers, including hematopoietic stem cells transplantation, mesenchymal stem cells transplantation, neural stem cells (NSCs) transplantation, and using stem cells as genetic carriers called "suicide gene therapy". Despite some complications, this ongoing therapeutic method has succeeded in decreasing tumor volume, inhibiting tumor progression, and enhancing patients' survival. These approaches could lead to acceptable results, relatively better safety, and tolerable side effects compared to conventional chemo and radiotherapy. Accordingly, this treatment will be applicable to a wide range of CNS tumors in the near future. Furthermore, tumor genomic analysis and understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms will help researchers determine patient selection criteria for targeted gene therapy.

Recent advances in bacteria-mediated cancer therapy

Cancer is among the leading cause of deaths worldwide. Although conventional therapies have been applied in the fight against the cancer, the poor oxygen, low extracellular pH, and high interstitial fluid pressure of the tumor microenvironment mean that these treatments fail to completely eradicate cancer cells. Recently, bacteria have increasingly been considered to be a promising platform for cancer therapy thanks to their many unique properties, such as specific tumor-targeting ability, high motility, immunogenicity, and their use as gene or drug carriers. Several types of bacteria have already been used for solid and metastatic tumor therapies, with promising results. With the development of synthetic biology, engineered bacteria have been endowed with the controllable expression of therapeutic proteins. Meanwhile, nanomaterials have been widely used to modify bacteria for targeted drug delivery, photothermal therapy, magnetothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy, while promoting the antitumor efficiency of synergistic cancer therapies. This review will provide a brief introduction to the foundation of bacterial biotherapy. We begin by summarizing the recent advances in the use of many different types of bacteria in multiple targeted tumor therapies. We will then discuss the future prospects of bacteria-mediated cancer therapies.

Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanomaterials Applied to Cancer: Where Are We Now?

Cancer cells normally develop the ability to rewire or reprogram themselves to become resistant to treatments that were previously effective. Despite progress in understanding drug resistance, knowledge gaps remain regarding the underlying biological causes of drug resistance and the design of cancer treatments to overcome it. So, resistance acquisition remains a major problem in cancer treatment. Targeted therapeutics are considered the next generation of cancer therapy because they overcome many limitations of traditional treatments. Numerous tumor cells overexpress several receptors that have a high binding affinity for hyaluronic acid (HA), while they are poorly expressed in normal body cells. HA and its derivatives have the advantage of being biocompatible and biodegradable and may be conjugated with a variety of drugs and drug carriers for developing various formulations as anticancer therapies such as micelles, nanogels, and inorganic nanoparticles. Due to their stability in blood circulation and predictable delivery patterns, enhanced tumor-selective drug accumulation, and decreased toxicity to normal tissues, tumor-targeting nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems have been shown to represent an efficacious approach for the treatment of cancer. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of some in vitro and in vivo studies related to the potential of HA as a ligand to develop targeted nanovehicles for future biomedical applications in cancer treatment.

Advances in Chitosan-Based CRISPR/Cas9 Delivery Systems

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) and the associated Cas endonuclease (Cas9) is a cutting-edge genome-editing technology that specifically targets DNA sequences by using short RNA molecules, helping the endonuclease Cas9 in the repairing of genes responsible for genetic diseases. However, the main issue regarding the application of this technique is the development of an efficient CRISPR/Cas9 delivery system. The consensus relies on the use of non-viral delivery systems represented by nanoparticles (NPs). Chitosan is a safe biopolymer widely used in the generation of NPs for several biomedical applications, especially gene delivery. Indeed, it shows several advantages in the context of gene delivery systems, for instance, the presence of positively charged amino groups on its backbone can establish electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged nucleic acid forming stable nanocomplexes. However, its main limitations include poor solubility in physiological pH and limited buffering ability, which can be overcome by functionalising its chemical structure. This review offers a critical analysis of the different approaches for the generation of chitosan-based CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems and suggestions for future developments.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of HO-1 decreased the proliferation and migration of T47D cells and increased cisplatin-induced apoptosis: an in vitro study

Breast cancer is the most common type of neoplasm and the second cause of cancer-related death in women. Despite the development of novel therapeutic strategies and improved the clinical outcomes, the mortality rate for breast cancer is still high. Therefore, development of a new modality, particularly based on knocking out key genes, is under focus of investigation. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) deregulation has been associated with various neoplasms-related behaviors of many types of tumor cells including breast cancer. In the current study, in order to evaluate the role of the HO-1 gene in breast cancer, we utilized the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to knock out HO-1 gene in T47D breast cancer cell line and studied its potential therapeutic effects in vitro. The cell proliferation and their sensitivity to Cisplatin were determined by CCK-8 kit. In addition, the apoptosis and the migratory potential of the cells were evaluated using Hoechst staining, and Transwell/Scratch methods, respectively. Our findings revealed that HO-1 suppression significantly reduced the proliferation ability of T47D cells (P < 0.001). Moreover, sensitivity to Cisplatin-induced toxicity increased significantly in KO-T47D cells compared to the control T47D cells. Furthermore, our findings indicated that Cisplatin-induced apoptosis increased in the KO-T47D cells. Moreover, the migratory capability of KO-T47D cells was abolished significantly (P < 0.001) as determined by Transwell migration assay. In a nutshell, our findings strongly suggest that HO-1 involved in breast cancer progression and metastasis and chemotherapy resistance. However, further comprehensive studies are required to clarify the precise role of the HO-1 gene on breast cancer cells.

Protection is not always a good thing: The immune system's impact on gene therapy

There are many clinical trials underway for the development of gene therapies, and some have resulted in gene therapy products being commercially approved already. Significant progress was made to develop safer and more effective strategies to deliver and regulate genetic products. An unsolved aspect is the immune system, which can affect the efficiency of gene therapy in different ways. Here we present an overview of approved gene therapy products and the immune response elicited by gene delivery systems. These include responses against the vector or its content after delivery and against the product of the corrected gene. Strategies to overcome the hurdles include hiding the vector or/and the transgene product from the immune system and hiding the immune system from the vector/transgene product. Combining different strategies, such as patient screening and intelligent vector design, gene therapy is set to make a difference in the life of patients with severe genetic diseases.

The role of EphA7 in different tumors

Ephrin receptor A7 (EphA7) is a member of the Eph receptor family. It is widely involved in signal transduction between cells, regulates cell proliferation and differentiation, and participates in developing neural tubes and brain. In addition, EphA7 also has a dual role of tumor promoter and tumor suppressor. It can participate in cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis through various mechanisms, and affect tumor differentiation, staging and prognosis. EphA7 may be a potential diagnostic marker and tumor treatment target. This article reviews the effects of EphA7 on a variety of tumor biological processes and pathological characteristics, as well as specific effects and regulatory mechanisms.

Therapy resistance: opportunities created by adaptive responses to targeted therapies in cancer

Normal cells explore multiple states to survive stresses encountered during development and self-renewal as well as environmental stresses such as starvation, DNA damage, toxins or infection. Cancer cells co-opt normal stress mitigation pathways to survive stresses that accompany tumour initiation, progression, metastasis and immune evasion. Cancer therapies accentuate cancer cell stresses and invoke rapid non-genomic stress mitigation processes that maintain cell viability and thus represent key targetable resistance mechanisms. In this Review, we describe mechanisms by which tumour ecosystems, including cancer cells, immune cells and stroma, adapt to therapeutic stresses and describe three different approaches to exploit stress mitigation processes: (1) interdict stress mitigation to induce cell death; (2) increase stress to induce cellular catastrophe; and (3) exploit emergent vulnerabilities in cancer cells and cells of the tumour microenvironment. We review challenges associated with tumour heterogeneity, prioritizing actionable adaptive responses for optimal therapeutic outcomes, and development of an integrative framework to identify and target vulnerabilities that arise from adaptive responses and engagement of stress mitigation pathways. Finally, we discuss the need to monitor adaptive responses across multiple scales and translation of combination therapies designed to take advantage of adaptive responses and stress mitigation pathways to the clinic.

Magnetite Nanoparticles in Magnetic Hyperthermia and Cancer Therapies: Challenges and Perspectives

Until now, strategies used to treat cancer are imperfect, and this generates the need to search for better and safer solutions. The biggest issue is the lack of selective interaction with neoplastic cells, which is associated with occurrence of side effects and significantly reduces the effectiveness of therapies. The use of nanoparticles in cancer can counteract these problems. One of the most promising nanoparticles is magnetite. Implementation of this nanoparticle can improve various treatment methods such as hyperthermia, targeted drug delivery, cancer genotherapy, and protein therapy. In the first case, its feature makes magnetite useful in magnetic hyperthermia. Interaction of magnetite with the altered magnetic field generates heat. This process results in raised temperature only in a desired part of a patient body. In other therapies, magnetite-based nanoparticles could serve as a carrier for various types of therapeutic load. The magnetic field would direct the drug-related magnetite nanoparticles to the pathological site. Therefore, this material can be used in protein and gene therapy or drug delivery. Since the magnetite nanoparticle can be used in various types of cancer treatment, they are extensively studied. Herein, we summarize the latest finding on the applicability of the magnetite nanoparticles, also addressing the most critical problems faced by smart nanomedicine in oncological therapies.

Targeted Liposomes: A Nonviral Gene Delivery System for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is the second most frequent cause of death worldwide, with 28.4 million new cases expected for 2040. Despite de advances in the treatment, it remains a challenge because of the tumor heterogenicity and the increase in multidrug resistance mechanisms. Thus, gene therapy has been a potential therapeutic approach owing to its ability to introduce, silence, or change the content of the human genetic code for inhibiting tumor progression, angiogenesis, and metastasis. For the proper delivery of genes to tumor cells, it requires the use of gene vectors for protecting the therapeutic gene and transporting it into cells. Among these vectors, liposomes have been the nonviral vector most used because of their low immunogenicity and low toxicity. Furthermore, this nanosystem can have its surface modified with ligands (e.g., antibodies, peptides, aptamers, folic acid, carbohydrates, and others) that can be recognized with high specificity and affinity by receptor overexpressed in tumor cells, increasing the selective delivery of genes to tumors. In this context, the present review address and discuss the main targeting ligands used to functionalize liposomes for improving gene delivery with potential application in cancer treatment.

Genesis and Mechanism of Some Cancer Types and an Overview on the Role of Diet and Nutrition in Cancer Prevention

Cancer is a major disease with a high mortality rate worldwide. In many countries, cancer is considered to be the second most common cause of death after cardiovascular disease. The clinical management of cancer continues to be a challenge as conventional treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy, have limitations due to their toxicity profiles. Unhealthy lifestyle and poor dietary habits are the key risk factors for cancer; having a healthy diet and lifestyle may minimize the risk. Epidemiological studies have shown that a high fruit and vegetable intake in our regular diet can effectively reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancers due to the high contents of antioxidants and phytochemicals. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that phytochemicals exert significant anticancer effects due to their free radical scavenging capacity potential. There has been extensive research on the protective effects of phytochemicals in different types of cancers. This review attempts to give an overview of the etiology of different types of cancers and assesses the role of phytonutrients in the prevention of cancers, which makes the present review distinct from the others available.

Ultrasound-Enhanced Reactive Oxygen Species Responsive Charge-Reversal Polymeric Nanocarriers for Efficient Pancreatic Cancer Gene Delivery

Inefficient intracellular gene release and transfection limit nonviral gene delivery applications in cancer therapy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) responsive nonviral gene delivery is the most widely explored strategy for such applications, yet the development of fast and safe ROS responsive nanocarriers proves to be a challenge because of the intracellular chemical equilibrium of high ROS and glutathione levels. Here, we report an ultrasound-enhanced ROS responsive charge-reversal polymeric nanocarrier (BTIL) for fast and efficient pancreatic cancer gene delivery. The BTIL is composed of B-PDEAEA/DNA polyplex-based cores and IR780-loaded liposome coatings. The IR780 is able to produce an excess of ROS under low intensity ultrasound irradiation, thus disequilibrating the chemical equilibrium of ROS and glutathione, and promoting the ROS-responsive positive-to-negative charge-reversal of the B-PDEAEA polymer. This charge conversion results in fast polyplex dissociation and intracellular gene release, inducing efficient gene transfection and cancer cell apoptosis. Moreover, following the intravenous administration, BTIL maintains a stable and long circulation in the bloodstream, achieves orthotopic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma distribution, and exhibits potent antitumor activity with negligible side effects. Our results reveal the proposed strategy to be both promising and universal for the development of fast and safe ROS responsive nonviral gene delivery in cancer therapy.

Gene Therapy Targeting p53 and KRAS for Colorectal Cancer Treatment: A Myth or the Way Forward?

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most commonly diagnosed malignancy worldwide and is responsible as one of the main causes of mortality in both men and women. Despite massive efforts to raise public awareness on early screening and significant advancements in the treatment for CRC, the majority of cases are still being diagnosed at the advanced stage. This contributes to low survivability due to this cancer. CRC patients present various genetic changes and epigenetic modifications. The most common genetic alterations associated with CRC are p53 and KRAS mutations. Gene therapy targeting defect genes such as TP53 (tumor suppressor gene encodes for p53) and KRAS (oncogene) in CRC potentially serves as an alternative treatment avenue for the disease in addition to the standard therapy. For the last decade, significant developments have been seen in gene therapy for translational purposes in treating various cancers. This includes the development of vectors as delivery vehicles. Despite the optimism revolving around targeted gene therapy for cancer treatment, it also has various limitations, such as a lack of availability of related technology, high cost of the involved procedures, and ethical issues. This article will provide a review on the potentials and challenges of gene therapy targeting p53 and KRAS for the treatment of CRC.

Dendrimers as Non-Viral Vectors in Gene-Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy

Gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) has been intensively studied as a promising new strategy of prodrug delivery, with its main advantages being represented by an enhanced efficacy and a reduced off-target toxicity of the active drug. In recent years, numerous therapeutic systems based on GDEPT strategy have entered clinical trials. In order to deliver the desired gene at a specific site of action, this therapeutic approach uses vectors divided in two major categories, viral vectors and non-viral vectors, with the latter being represented by chemical delivery agents. There is considerable interest in the development of non-viral vectors due to their decreased immunogenicity, higher specificity, ease of synthesis and greater flexibility for subsequent modulations. Dendrimers used as delivery vehicles offer many advantages, such as: nanoscale size, precise molecular weight, increased solubility, high load capacity, high bioavailability and low immunogenicity. The aim of the present work was to provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances regarding the use of dendrimers as non-viral carriers in the GDEPT therapy.

Development of Tailor-Made Dendrimer Ternary Complexes for Drug/Gene Co-Delivery in Cancer

Cancer gene therapy, mediated by non-viral systems, remains a major research focus. To contribute to this field, in this work we reported on the development of dendrimer drug/gene ternary complexes. This innovative approach explored the great capacity of both polyamidoamine (PAMAM)-paclitaxel (PTX) conjugate and polyethylenimine (PEI) polymers to complex a p53-encoding plasmid DNA (pDNA), highlighting the utility of considering two compacting agents. The pDNA complexation capacity has been investigated as function of the nitrogen to phosphate groups ratio (N/P), which revealed to be a tailoring parameter. The physicochemical properties of the conceived ternary complexes were revealed and were found to be promising for cellular transfection. Furthermore, the formulated co-delivery systems demonstrated to be biocompatible. The ternary systems were able of cellular internalization and payload intracellular release. Confocal microscopy studies showed the co-localization of stained pDNA with the nucleus of cancer cells, after transfection mediated by these carriers. From this achievement, p53 gene expression occurred with the production of protein. Moreover, the activation of caspase-3 indicated apoptosis of cancer cells. This work represents a great progress on the design of dendrimer drug/gene co-delivery systems towards a more efficient cancer therapy. In this way, it instigates further in vitro studies concerning the evaluation of their therapeutic potential, expectedly supported by the synergistic effect, in tumoral cells.

LncRNA MORT (ZNF667-AS1) in Cancer-Is There a Possible Role in Gynecological Malignancies?

Gynecological cancers (GCs) are currently among the major threats to female health. Moreover, there are different histologic subtypes of these cancers, which are defined as ‘rare’ due to an annual incidence of <6 per 100,000 women. The majority of these tend to be associated with a poor prognosis. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a critical role in the normal development of organisms as well as in tumorigenesis. LncRNAs can be classified into tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes, depending on their function within the cellular context and the signaling pathways in which they are involved. These regulatory RNAs are potential therapeutic targets for cancer due to their tissue and tumor specificity. However, there still needs to be a deeper understanding of the mechanisms by which lncRNAs are involved in the regulation of numerous biological functions in humans, both in normal health and disease. The lncRNA Mortal Obligate RNA Transcript (MORT; alias ZNF667-AS1) has been identified as a tumor-related lncRNA. ZNF667-AS1 gene, located in the human chromosome region 19q13.43, has been shown to be silenced by DNA hypermethylation in several cancers. In this review, we report on the biological functions of ZNF667-AS1 from recent studies and describe the regulatory functions of ZNF667-AS1 in human disease, including cancer. Furthermore, we discuss the emerging insights into the potential role of ZNF667-AS1 as a biomarker and novel therapeutic target in cancer, including GCs (ovarian, cervical, and endometrial cancers).