Convallatoxin Promotes M2 Macrophage Polarization to Attenuate Atherosclerosis Through PPARγ-Integrin αvβ5 Signaling Pathway

Curcumin Equipped Nanozyme-Like Metal-Organic Framework Platform for the Targeted Atherosclerosis Treatment with Lipid Regulation and Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging Capability

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) has become the leading cause of death worldwide, and early diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis (AS) are crucial for reducing the occurrence of acute cardiovascular events. However, early diagnosis of AS is challenging, and oral anti-AS drugs suffer from limitations like imprecise targeting and low bioavailability. To overcome the aforementioned shortcomings, Cur/MOF@DS is developed, a nanoplatform integrating diagnosis and treatment by loading curcumin (Cur) into metal-organic frameworks with nanozymes and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) properties. In addition, the surface-modification of dextran sulfate (DS) enables PCN-222(Mn) effectively target scavenger receptor class A in macrophages or foam cells within the plaque region. This nanoplatform employs mechanisms that effectively scavenge excessive reactive oxygen species in the plaque microenvironment, promote macrophage autophagy and regulate macrophage polarization to realize lipid regulation. In vivo and in vitro experiments confirm that this nanoplatform has outstanding MRI performance and anti-AS effects, which may provide a new option for early diagnosis and treatment of AS.

In vitro study of cold atmospheric plasma-activated liquids inhibits malignant melanoma by affecting macrophage polarization through the ROS/JAK2/STAT1 pathway

Melanoma is a prevalent malignant skin tumor known for its high invasive ability and a high rate of metastasis, making clinical treatment exceptionally challenging. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant immune cells in the tumor microenvironment and play a crucial role in tumor survival and development. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is an emerging tool for tumor treatment that has garnered attention from scholars due to its interaction with non-tumor cells in the tumor microenvironment. Here, we used the macrophage lines THP-1 and RAW264.7, as well as the melanoma cell lines A375 and MV3, as research subjects to investigate the effect of plasma-activated liquid (PAL) on macrophage differentiation and its inhibitory effect on melanoma cell proliferation. We confirmed that the killing effect of PAL on melanoma cells was selective. Using flow cytometry and PCR, we discovered that PAL can influence macrophage differentiation. Through in vitro cell coculture, we demonstrated that PAL-treated macrophages can significantly impede tumor cell development and progression, and the effect is more potent than that of PAL directly targeting tumor cells. Furthermore, we have proposed the hypothesis that PAL promotes the differentiation of macrophages into the M1 type through the ROS/JAK2/STAT1 pathway. To test the hypothesis, we employed catalase and fludarabine to block different sites of the pathway. The results were then validated through Western Blot, qPCR and ELISA. This study illustrates that PAL therapy is an effective tumor immunotherapy and expands the scope of tumor immunotherapy. Furthermore, these findings establish a theoretical foundation for potential clinical applications of PAL.

Roles of Integrin in Cardiovascular Diseases: From Basic Research to Clinical Implications

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) pose a significant global health threat due to their complex pathogenesis and high incidence, imposing a substantial burden on global healthcare systems. Integrins, a group of heterodimers consisting of α and β subunits that are located on the cell membrane, have emerged as key players in mediating the occurrence and progression of CVDs by regulating the physiological activities of endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, platelets, fibroblasts, cardiomyocytes, and various immune cells. The crucial role of integrins in the progression of CVDs has valuable implications for targeted therapies. In this context, the development and application of various integrin antibodies and antagonists have been explored for antiplatelet therapy and anti-inflammatory-mediated tissue damage. Additionally, the rise of nanomedicine has enhanced the specificity and bioavailability of precision therapy targeting integrins. Nevertheless, the complexity of the pathogenesis of CVDs presents tremendous challenges for monoclonal targeted treatment. This paper reviews the mechanisms of integrins in the development of atherosclerosis, cardiac fibrosis, hypertension, and arrhythmias, which may pave the way for future innovations in the diagnosis and treatment of CVDs.

PPARs in atherosclerosis: The spatial and temporal features from mechanism to druggable targets

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is a chronic and complex disease caused by lipid disorder, inflammation, and other factors. It is closely related to cardiovascular diseases, the chief cause of death globally. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are valuable anti-atherosclerosis targets that showcase multiple roles at different pathological stages of atherosclerosis and for cell types at different tissue sites.

AIM OF REVIEW

Considering the spatial and temporal characteristics of the pathological evolution of atherosclerosis, the roles and pharmacological and clinical studies of PPARs were summarized systematically and updated under different pathological stages and in different vascular cells of atherosclerosis. Moreover, selective PPAR modulators and PPAR-pan agonists can exert their synergistic effects meanwhile reducing the side effects, thereby providing novel insight into future drug development for precise spatial-temporal therapeutic strategy of anti-atherosclerosis targeting PPARs.

KEY SCIENTIFIC

Concepts of Review: Based on the spatial and temporal characteristics of atherosclerosis, we have proposed the importance of stage- and cell type-dependent precision therapy. Initially, PPARs improve endothelial cells' dysfunction by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress and then regulate macrophages' lipid metabolism and polarization to improve fatty streak. Finally, PPARs reduce fibrous cap formation by suppressing the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Therefore, research on the cell type-specific mechanisms of PPARs can provide the foundation for space-time drug treatment. Moreover, pharmacological studies have demonstrated that several drugs or compounds can exert their effects by the activation of PPARs. Selective PPAR modulators (that specifically activate gene subsets of PPARs) can exert tissue and cell-specific effects. Furthermore, the dual- or pan-PPAR agonist could perform a better role in balancing efficacy and side effects. Therefore, research on cells/tissue-specific activation of PPARs and PPAR-pan agonists can provide the basis for precision therapy and drug development of PPARs.

Use of Machine Learning for the Identification and Validation of Immunogenic Cell Death Biomarkers and Immunophenotypes in Coronary Artery Disease

Objective

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) is part of the immune system's response to coronary artery disease (CAD). In this study, we bioinformatically evaluated the diagnostic and therapeutic utility of immunogenic cell death-related genes (IRGs) and their relationship with immune infiltration features in CAD.

Methods

We acquired the CAD-related datasets GSE12288, GSE71226, and GSE120521 from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and the IRGs from the GeneCards database. After identifying the immune cell death-related differentially expressed genes (IRDEGs), we developed a risk model and detected immune subtypes in CAD. IRDEGs were identified using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) analysis. Using a nomogram, we confirmed that both the LASSO model and ICD signature genes had good diagnostic performance.

Results

There was a high degree of coincidence and immune representativeness between two CAD groups based on characteristic genes and hub genes. Hub genes were associated with the interaction of neuroactive ligands with receptors and cell adhesion receptors. The two groups differed in terms of adipogenesis, allograft rejection, and apoptosis, as well as the ICD signature and hub gene expression levels. The two CAD-ICD subtypes differed in terms of immune infiltration.

Conclusion

Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) correlated CAD with the expression of OAS3, ITGAV, and PIBF1. The ICD signature genes are candidate biomarkers and reference standards for immune grouping in CAD and can be beneficial in precise immune-targeted therapy.

The Role of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis: Participants and Therapists

Currently, atherosclerosis, characterized by the dysfunction of lipid metabolism and chronic inflammation in the intimal space of the vessel, is considered to be a metabolic disease. As the most abundant innate immune cells in the body, macrophages play a key role in the onset, progression, or regression of atherosclerosis. For example, macrophages exhibit several polarization states in response to microenvironmental stimuli; an increasing proportion of macrophages, polarized toward M2, can suppress inflammation, scavenge cell debris and apoptotic cells, and contribute to tissue repair and fibrosis. Additionally, specific exosomes, generated by macrophages containing certain miRNAs and effective efferocytosis of macrophages, are crucial for atherosclerosis. Therefore, macrophages have emerged as a novel potential target for anti-atherosclerosis therapy. This article reviews the role of macrophages in atherosclerosis from different aspects: origin, phenotype, exosomes, and efferocytosis, and discusses new approaches for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

CD7 protein plays a crucial role in T cell infiltration in tumors

CD7 protein as a target is being used to treat CD7⁺ lymphoma; however, the role of CD7 in the hematopoietic system remains largely unknown. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of CD7 KO in mice. The differentiation of the hematopoietic system in the bone marrow and the number of various cell types in the thymus and spleen did not differ between CD7 KO and WT mice. After subcutaneous inoculation of B16-F10 melanoma cells, tumors from CD7 KO mice grew more rapidly, and the proportion of CD8⁺ T cells in the spleen and tumors decreased. In vitro, the infiltration and adhesion of CD8⁺ T cells from the spleen of CD7 KO mice were weakened. Blocking CD7 in normal T cells did not alter the migration and infiltration, but in Jurkat, CCRF-CEM, and KG-1a tumor cell lines, migration and invasion were significantly reduced after blocking CD7. Therefore, CD7 does not affect hematopoietic system development but plays a crucial role in T cell infiltration into tumors.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein regulates macrophage polarization in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the pathological basis of acute cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Oxidized LDL has been recognized as a major atherogenic factor in the vessel wall for decades. A growing body of evidence suggests that oxidized LDL modulates macrophage phenotypes in atherosclerosis. This article reviews the research progress on the regulation of macrophage polarization by oxidized LDL. Mechanistically, oxidized LDL induces macrophage polarization via cell signaling, metabolic reprogramming, epigenetic regulation, and intercellular regulation. This review is expected to provide new targets for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

The Interplay between Integrins and Immune Cells as a Regulator in Cancer Immunology

Integrins are a group of heterodimers consisting of α and β subunits that mediate a variety of physiological activities of immune cells, including cell migration, adhesion, proliferation, survival, and immunotolerance. Multiple types of integrins act differently on the same immune cells, while the same integrin may exert various effects on different immune cells. In the development of cancer, integrins are involved in the regulation of cancer cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and angiogenesis; conversely, integrins promote immune cell aggregation to mediate the elimination of tumors. The important roles of integrins in cancer progression have provided valuable clues for the diagnosis and targeted treatment of cancer. Furthermore, many integrin inhibitors have been investigated in clinical trials to explore effective regimens and reduce side effects. Due to the complexity of the mechanism of integrin-mediated cancer progression, challenges remain in the research and development of cancer immunotherapies (CITs). This review enumerates the effects of integrins on four types of immune cells and the potential mechanisms involved in the progression of cancer, which will provide ideas for more optimal CIT in the future.

Heparin-mimicking polymer-based hydrogel matrix regulates macrophage polarization by controlling cell adhesion

The physicochemical properties of biomaterials influence cell adhesion, shape, and polarization of macrophages. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the polarization of macrophages in terms of the regulation of cell adhesion and how synthetic mimics for heparin and poly(sodium-4-styrenesulfonate) can regulate macrophage polarization by modulating cell shape, focal adhesion, cell traction force, and intracellular tension. Our initial findings showed that macrophages cultured with heparin-mimicking polymer-based hydrogel matrix showed reduced expression of cell adhesion markers such as integrins, vinculin, RhoA, and ROCK1/2 and reduced cell shape, elongation, cell-matrix traction force, and intracellular tension. Furthermore, we observed a significant decrease in cell adhesion in cells cultured on the hydrogel, resulting in the promotion of M1 polarization. These findings offer insights into the important roles of cell-matrix interactions in macrophage polarization and offer a platform for heparin-mimicking polymer-based hydrogel matrices to induce M1 polarization by inducing cell adhesion without classical activators.

Advances in the research of the role of macrophage/microglia polarization-mediated inflammatory response in spinal cord injury

It is often difficult to regain neurological function following spinal cord injury (SCI). Neuroinflammation is thought to be responsible for this failure. Regulating the inflammatory response post-SCI may contribute to the recovery of neurological function. Over the past few decades, studies have found that macrophages/microglia are one of the primary effector cells in the inflammatory response following SCI. Growing evidence has documented that macrophages/microglia are plastic cells that can polarize in response to microenvironmental signals into M1 and M2 macrophages/microglia. M1 produces pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce inflammation and worsen tissue damage, while M2 has anti-inflammatory activities in wound healing and tissue regeneration. Recent studies have indicated that the transition from the M1 to the M2 phenotype of macrophage/microglia supports the regression of inflammation and tissue repair. Here, we will review the role of the inflammatory response and macrophages/microglia in SCI and repair. In addition, we will discuss potential molecular mechanisms that induce macrophage/microglia polarization, with emphasis on neuroprotective therapies that modulate macrophage/microglia polarization, which will provide new insights into therapeutic strategies for SCI.

The Role of Transcription Factor PPAR-γ in the Pathogenesis of Psoriasis, Skin Cells, and Immune Cells

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor PPAR-γ is one of three PPAR nuclear receptors that act as ligand-activated transcription factors. In immune cells, the skin, and other organs, PPAR-γ regulates lipid, glucose, and amino acid metabolism. The receptor translates nutritional, pharmacological, and metabolic stimuli into the changes in gene expression. The activation of PPAR-γ promotes cell differentiation, reduces the proliferation rate, and modulates the immune response. In the skin, PPARs also contribute to the functioning of the skin barrier. Since we know that the route from identification to the registration of drugs is long and expensive, PPAR-γ agonists already approved for other diseases may also represent a high interest for psoriasis. In this review, we discuss the role of PPAR-γ in the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of skin and immune cells affected by psoriasis and in contributing to the pathogenesis of the disease. We also evaluate whether the agonists of PPAR-γ may become one of the therapeutic options to suppress the inflammatory response in lesional psoriatic skin and decrease the influence of comorbidities associated with psoriasis.

The Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma and Atherosclerosis: Post-translational Modification and Selective Modulators

Atherosclerosis is the hallmark of cardiovascular disease (CVD) which is a leading cause of death in type 2 diabetes patients, and glycemic control is not beneficial in reducing the potential risk of CVD. Clinically, it was shown that Thiazolidinediones (TZDs), a class of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) agonists, are insulin sensitizers with reducing risk of CVD, while the potential adverse effects, such as weight gain, fluid retention, bone loss, and cardiovascular risk, restricts its use in diabetic treatment. PPARγ, a ligand-activated nuclear receptor, has shown to play a crucial role in anti-atherosclerosis by promoting cholesterol efflux, repressing monocytes infiltrating into the vascular intima under endothelial layer, their transformation into macrophages, and inhibiting vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation as well as migration. The selective activation of subsets of PPARγ targets, such as through PPARγ post-translational modification, is thought to improve the safety profile of PPARγ agonists. Here, this review focuses on the significance of PPARγ activity regulation (selective activation and post-translational modification) in the occurrence, development and treatment of atherosclerosis, and further clarifies the value of PPARγ as a safe therapeutic target for anti-atherosclerosis especially in diabetic treatment.

FOXM1 accelerates wound healing in diabetic foot ulcer by inducing M2 macrophage polarization through a mechanism involving SEMA3C/NRP2/Hedgehog signaling

AIMS

The diabetic wound environment is accompanied with prolonged inflammation leading to impaired wound healing in diabetic foot ulcer (DFU). Our study illustrated the molecular mechanisms by which Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) enhanced M2 polarization and wound healing of DFU.

METHODS

Diabetes was modeled in vivo by streptozotocin injection in rats and in vitro by exposure to high glucose in human dermal fibroblasts (HDF). Macrophages were exposed to IL-4 to induce M2 phenotype polarization. Ectopic expression or knockdown of FOXM1 was performed to observe collagen deposition, angiogenesis, the proliferation and migration of HDF, as well as macrophage polarization.

RESULTS

FOXM1 was lowly expressed in the wound tissue of DFU rats. In vitro experiments showed that silencing FOXM1 reversed the M2 polarization-induced promotion of HDF proliferation and migration. We further found that FOXM1 bound to the promoter region of SEMA3C to elevate its expression, and SEMA3C upregulated NRP2 and activated the Hedgehog signaling pathway. Silencing of SMO, a signal transducer in the Hedgehog pathway, negated the promoting effect of FOXM1 overexpression in M2 polarization and HDF proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, our results suggest that targeting transcription factor FOXM1 may provide a therapeutic target for promoting wound healing in DFU.

Roles of Macrophages in Atherogenesis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease that may ultimately lead to local proteolysis, plaque rupture, and thrombotic vascular disease, resulting in myocardial infarction, stroke, and sudden cardiac death. Circulating monocytes are recruited to the arterial wall in response to inflammatory insults and differentiate into macrophages which make a critical contribution to tissue damage, wound healing, and also regression of atherosclerotic lesions. Within plaques, macrophages take up aggregated lipoproteins which have entered the vessel wall to give rise to cholesterol-engorged foam cells. Also, the macrophage phenotype is influenced by various stimuli which affect their polarization, efferocytosis, proliferation, and apoptosis. The heterogeneity of macrophages in lesions has recently been addressed by single-cell sequencing techniques. This article reviews recent advances regarding the roles of macrophages in different stages of disease pathogenesis from initiation to advanced atherosclerosis. Macrophage-based therapies for atherosclerosis management are also described.

Recent advancement on development of drug-induced macrophage polarization in control of human diseases

Macrophages, an important part of human immune system, possess a high plasticity and heterogeneity (macrophage polarization) as classically activated macrophages (M1) and alternatively activated macrophages (M2), which exert pro-inflammatory/anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory/pro-tumor effects, respectively. Thus, drug development in induction of macrophage polarization could be used to treat different human diseases. This review summarizes the recent advancement on modulation of macrophage polarization and its related molecular mechanisms induced by a number of agents. Research on the anti-inflammatory drugs to regulate the macrophage polarization accounts for a large proportion in the field and types of diseases investigated could include atherosclerosis, enteritis, nephritis, and the nervous system and skeletal diseases, while study of the anti-tumor agents to modify macrophage polarization is a novel area of research. Future study of the molecular mechanisms by which the different agents regulate the macrophage polarization could lead to an effective control of various human diseases, including inflammation and cancers.

rs10865710 polymorphism in PPARG promoter is associated with the severity of type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease in a Chinese population

BACKGROUND

Relationship between polymorphisms in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and coronary artery disease (CAD) remains to be clarified.

METHODS

635 subjects were divided into T2DM, CAD, T2DM complicated with CAD (T2DM/CAD) and control groups according to diagnostic criteria. The rs10865710 and rs3856806 polymorphisms were genotyped, and the severity of T2DM and CAD was evaluated for all subjects.

RESULTS

In patients with T2DM, G allele carriers of rs10865710 polymorphism had significantly higher levels of glucose, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) than non-carriers, T allele carriers of rs3856806 polymorphism had significantly higher levels of glucose, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), ApoB and Lp(a) than non-carriers. In patients with CAD, G allele carriers of rs10865710 polymorphism had significantly higher levels of total cholesterol (TC), ApoB and Lp(a) than non-carriers, T allele carriers of rs3856806 polymorphism had significantly higher levels of body mass index, blood pressure, TC, LDL-C and ApoB than non-carriers. Patients with one or two G alleles of rs10865710 polymorphism had significantly higher levels of Gensini scores and more diseased coronary branches than those patients without CAD. The rs3856806 polymorphism was not associated with CAD severity, but it was found to be significantly associated with T2DM/CAD, T allele frequency was significantly higher in T2DM/CAD group than that in T2DM/CAD-free group.

CONCLUSIONS

The rs10865710 and rs3856806 polymorphisms in PPARG are significantly associated with glucose levels in patients with T2DM. The rs10865710 polymorphism is significantly associated with the severity of CAD, which is possibly mediated by hyperlipidaemia and hyperglycaemia.