Salidroside-Mitigated Inflammatory Injury of Hepatocytes with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease via Inhibition TRPM2 Ion Channel Activation

Targeting TRPs in autophagy regulation and human diseases

Transient receptor potential channels (TRPs) are widely recognized as a group of ion channels involved in various sensory perceptions, such as temperature, taste, pressure, and vision. While macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy) is primarily regulated by core machinery, the ion exchange mediated by TRPs between intracellular and extracellular compartments, as well as within organelles and the cytoplasm, plays a crucial role in autophagy regulation as an important signaling transduction mechanism. Moreover, certain TRPs can directly interact with autophagy regulatory proteins to participate in autophagy regulation. In this article, we provide an in-depth review of the current understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of autophagy, with a specific focus on TRPs. Furthermore, we highlight the potential prospects for drug development targeting TRPs in autophagy for the treatment of human diseases.

Salidroside inhibits insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis by downregulating miR-21 and subsequent activation of AMPK and upregulation of PPARα in the liver and muscles of high fat diet-fed rats

This study evaluated if salidroside (SAL) alleviates high-fat diet (HFD)-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) by downregulating miR-21. Rats (n = 8/group) were treated for 12 weeks as normal diet (control/ND), ND + agmoir negative control (NC) (150 µg/kg), ND + SAL (300 mg/kg), HFD, HFD + SAL, HFD + compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) (200 ng/kg), HFD + SAL + NXT629 (a PPAR-α antagonist) (30 mg/kg), and HFD + SAL + miR-21 agomir (150 µg/kg). SAL improved glucose and insulin tolerance and preserved livers in HFD-fed rats. In ND and HFD-fed rats, SAL reduced levels of serum and hepatic lipids and the hepatic expression of SREBP1, SREBP2, fatty acid (FA) synthase, and HMGCOAR. It also activated hepatic Nrf2 and increased hepatic/muscular activity of AMPK and levels of PPARα. All effects afforded by SAL were prevented by CC, NXT629, and miR-21 agmoir. In conclusion, activation of AMPK and upregulation of PPARα mediate the anti-steatotic effect of SAL.

TRPM2-dependent autophagy inhibition exacerbates oxidative stress-induced CXCL16 secretion by keratinocytes in vitiligo

Vitiligo is a depigmented skin disease due to the destruction of melanocytes. Under oxidative stress, keratinocyte-derived chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 16 (CXCL16) plays a critical role in recruiting CD8+ T cells, which kill melanocytes. Autophagy serves as a protective cell survival mechanism and impairment of autophagy has been linked to increased secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines. However, the role of autophagy in the secretion of CXCL16 under oxidative stress has not been investigated. Herein, we initially found that autophagy was suppressed in both keratinocytes of vitiligo lesions and keratinocytes exposed to oxidative stress in vitro. Autophagy inhibition also promoted CXCL16 secretion. Furthermore, upregulated transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 2 (TRPM2) functioned as an upstream oxidative stress sensor to inhibit autophagy. Moreover, TRPM2-mediated Ca2+ influx activated calpain to shear autophagy related 5 (Atg5) and Atg12-Atg5 conjugate formation was blocked to inhibit autophagy under oxidative stress. More importantly, Atg5 downregulation enhanced the binding of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) to the CXCL16 promoter region by activating Tank-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), thus promoting CXCL16 secretion. These findings suggested that TRPM2-restrained autophagy promotes CXCL16 secretion via the Atg5-TBK1-IRF3 signaling pathway under oxidative stress. Inhibition of TRPM2 may serve as a potential target for the treatment of vitiligo. © 2024 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

High fat diet-induced downregulation of TRPV2 mediates hepatic steatosis via p21 signalling

The global prevalence and incidence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are exhibiting an increasing trend. NAFLD is characterized by a significant accumulation of lipids, though its underlying mechanism is still unknown. Here we report that high-fat diet (HFD) feeding induced hepatic steatosis in mice, which was accompanied by a reduction in the expression and function of hepatic TRPV2. Moreover, conditional knockout of TRPV2 in hepatocytes exacerbated HFD-induced hepatic steatosis. In an in vitro model of NAFLD, TRPV2 regulated lipid accumulation in HepG2 cells, and TRPV2 activation inhibited the expression of the cellular senescence markers p21 and p16, all of which were mediated by AMPK phosphorylation. Finally, we found that administration of probenecid, a TRPV2 agonist, impaired HFD-induced hepatic steatosis and suppressed HFD-induced elevation in p21 and p16. Collectively, our findings imply that hepatic TRPV2 protects against the accumulation of lipids by modulating p21 signalling.

Chlorella vulgaris extract and Imiquimod as new therapeutic targets for leishmaniasis: An immunological approach

The therapeutic regimen for the treatment of American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis (ATL) is targeted at the death of the parasite; therefore, it is essential to develop a treatment that can act on the parasite, combined with the modulation of the inflammatory profile. Thus, the aim of this study was to make an in vitro evaluation of the therapeutic potential of Chlorella vulgaris extract (CV) and Imiquimod for ATL. Selectivity indices (SI) were determined by inhibitory concentration assays (IC50) in L. braziliensis cells and cytotoxic concentrations (CC50) were measured in human cells using the MTT method, based on the CV microalgae extract (IC50 concentrations of 15.63 to 500 µg/mL; CC50 concentrations of 62.5-1000 µg/mL) in comparison with the reference drugs and Imiquimod. The immune response was evaluated in healthy human cells by gene expression (RT-qPCR) and cytokine production (Flow Cytometry). The CV extract (SI = 6.89) indicated promising results by showing higher SI than meglumine antimoniate (SI = 3.44) (reference drug). In all analyses, CV presented a protective profile by stimulating the production of Th1 profile cytokines to a larger extent than the reference drugs. Imiquimod showed a high expression for Tbx21, GATA3, RORc and Foxp3 genes, with increased production only of the TNF cytokine. Therefore, the data highlight the natural extract and Imiquimod as strong therapeutic or adjuvant candidates against ATL, owing to modulation of immune response profiles, low toxicity in human cells and toxic action on the parasite.

Salidroside alleviates acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity via Sirt1-mediated activation of Akt/Nrf2 pathway and suppression of NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome axis

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose-induced hepatotoxicity is the most common cause of drug-induced liver injury worldwide, which is significantly linked to oxidative stress and sterile inflammation. Salidroside is the main active component extracted from Rhodiola rosea L., with anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Herein, we investigated the protective effects of salidroside on APAP-induced liver injury and its underlying mechanisms. Pretreatment with salidroside reversed the impacts of APAP on cell viability, LDH release, and cell apoptosis in L02 cells. Moreover, the phenomena of ROS accumulation and MMP collapse caused by APAP were reverted by salidroside. Salidroside elevated the levels of nuclear Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO1. Using PI3k/Akt inhibitor LY294002 further confirmed that salidroside mediated the Nrf2 nuclear translocation through the Akt pathway. Pretreatment with Nrf2 siRNA or LY294002 markedly prevented the anti-apoptotic effect of salidroside. Additionally, salidroside reduced the levels of nuclear NF-κB, NLRP3, ASC, cleaved caspase-1, and mature IL-1β elevated by APAP. Moreover, salidroside pretreatment increased Sirt1 expression, whereas Sirt1 knock-down diminished the protective activities of salidroside, simultaneously reversing the up-regulation of the Akt/Nrf2 pathway and the down-regulation of NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome axis mediated by salidroside. We then used C57BL/6 mice to establish APAP-induced liver injury models and found that salidroside significantly alleviated liver injury. Furthermore, western blot analyses showed that salidroside promoted the Sirt1 expression, activated the Akt/Nrf2 pathway, and inhibited the NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome axis in APAP-treated mice. The findings of this study support a possible application of salidroside in the amelioration of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Expression and functions of transient receptor potential channels in liver diseases

Liver diseases constitute a major healthcare burden globally, including acute hepatic injury resulted from acetaminophen overdose, ischemia-reperfusion or hepatotropic viral infection and chronic hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease (ALD), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Attainable treatment strategies for most liver diseases remain inadequate, highlighting the importance of substantial pathogenesis. The transient receptor potential (TRP) channels represent a versatile signalling mechanism regulating fundamental physiological processes in the liver. It is not surprising that liver diseases become a newly explored field to enrich our knowledge of TRP channels. Here, we discuss recent findings revealing TRP functions across the fundamental pathological course from early hepatocellular injury caused by various insults, to inflammation, subsequent fibrosis and hepatoma. We also explore expression levels of TRPs in liver tissues of ALD, NAFLD and HCC patients from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) or The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and survival analysis estimated by Kaplan-Meier Plotter. At last, we address the therapeutical potential and challenges by pharmacologically targeting TRPs to treat liver diseases. The aim is to provide a better understanding of the implications of TRP channels in liver diseases, contributing to the discovery of novel therapeutic targets and efficient drugs.

Salidroside in the Treatment of NAFLD/NASH

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the commonest reason for chronic liver diseases in the world and is commonly related to the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a deteriorating form of NAFLD, which can eventually develop into fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. The reason for NAFLD/NASH development is complicated, such as liver lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, apoptosis and autophagy, liver fibrosis and gut microbiota. Apart from bariatric surgery and lifestyle changes, officially approved drug therapy for NAFLD/NASH treatment is lacking. Salidroside (SDS) is a phenolic compound extensively distributed in the tubers of Rhodiola plants, which possesses many significant biological activities. This review summarized the related targets regulated by SDS in treating NAFLD/NASH. It is indicated that SDS could improve the status of NAFLD/NASH by ameliorating abnormal lipid metabolism, inhibiting oxidative stress, regulating apoptosis and autophagy, reducing inflammatory response, alleviating fibrosis and regulating gut microbiota. In conclusion, although the multiple bioactivities of SDS have been confirmed, the clinical data are inadequate and need to become the focus of attention in the later study.

The identification of the key residues E829 and R845 involved in transient receptor potential melastatin 2 channel gating

Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2), a non-selective cation channel, is involved in many physiological and pathological processes, including temperature sensing, synaptic plasticity regulation, and neurodegenerative diseases. However, the gating mechanism of TRPM2 channel is complex, which hinders its functional research. With the discovery of the Ca2+ binding site in the S2–S3 domain of TRPM2 channel, more and more attention has been drawn to the role of the transmembrane segments in channel gating. In this study, we focused on the D820-F867 segment around the S2 domain, and identified the key residues on it. Functional assays of the deletion mutants displayed that the deletions of D820-W835 and L836-P851 destroyed channel function totally, indicating the importance of these two segments. Sequence alignments on them found three polar and charged residues with high conservation (D820, E829, and R845). D820A, E829A, and R845A which removed the charge and the side chain of the residues were tested by 500 μM adenosine diphosphate-ribose (ADPR) or 50 mM Ca2+. E829A and R845A affected the characteristic of channel currents, while D820A behaved similarly to WT, indicating the participations of E829 and R845 in channel gating. The charge reversing mutants, E829K and R845D were then constructed and the electrophysiological tests showed that E829A and E829K made the channel lose function. Interestingly, R845A and R845D exhibited an inactivation process when using 500 μM ADPR, but activated normally by 50 mM Ca2+. Our data suggested that the negative charge at E829 took a vital part in channel activation, and R845 increased the stability of the Ca2+ combination in S2-S3 domain, thus guaranteeing the opening of TRPM2 channel. In summary, our identification of the key residues E829 and R845 in the transmembrane segments of TRPM2. By exploring the gating process of TRPM2 channel, our work helps us better understand the mechanism of TRPM2 as a potential biomarker in neurodegenerative diseases, and provides a new approach for the prediction, diagnosis, and prognosis of neurodegenerative diseases.

TRPM2 regulates autophagy to participate in hepatitis B virus replication

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) affects over 300 million people across the world and is further associated with the self-digesting process of autophagy. Accordingly, the current study set out to explore the role of transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 2 (TRPM2) in HBV replication. Firstly, Huh-7 cells were transfected with the pHBV1.3 plasmid to detect the expression patterns of TRPM2 and neutrophil cytosolic factor 1 (p47 phox), followed by evaluating the role of TRPM2 in autophagy and HBV replication and exploring the interaction between TRPM2 and p47 phox. Collaborative experiments were further designed to explore the role of p47 phox and autophagy in TRPM2 regulation of HBV replication, in addition to animal experimentation to validate the role of TRPM2/p47 phox axis in vivo. It was found that TRPM2 up-regulation was associated with HBV replication. On the other hand, silencing of TRPM2 inhibited HBV replication and autophagy in vitro and in vivo, as evidenced by reduced HBV DNA load, HBV mRNA, HBeAg and HBsAg, and diminished autophagic spot number, LC3 II/I ratio, Beclin-1 expressions and increased p62 expressions. Mechanistic experimentation illustrated that TRPM2 interacted with p47 phox and positively regulated p47 phox, such that p47 phox up-regulation or use of Rapamycin (autophagy activator) weakened the inhibitory role of silencing TRPM2. Collectively, our findings indicated that HBV infection promotes TRPM2 expression, and TRPM2 interacts with p47 phox to induce autophagy and facilitate HVB replication.

Dietary Supplementation of Salidroside Alleviates Liver Lipid Metabolism Disorder and Inflammatory Response to Promote Hepatocyte Regeneration via PI3K/AKT/Gsk3-β Pathway

Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS) is a chronic hepatic disease which occurs when there is a disorder in lipid metabolism. FLHS is often observed in caged laying hens and characterized by a decrease in egg production and dramatic increase of mortality. Salidroside (SDS) is an herbal drug which has shown numerous pharmacological activities, such as protecting mitochondrial function, attenuating cell apoptosis and inflammation, and promoting antioxidant defense system. We aimed to determine the therapeutic effects of SDS on FLHS in laying hens and investigate the underlying mechanisms through which SDS operates these functions. We constructed oleic acid (OA)-induced fatty liver model in vitro and high-fat diet-induced FLHS of laying hens in vivo. The results indicated that SDS inhibited OA-induced lipid accumulation in chicken primary hepatocytes, increased hepatocyte activity, elevated the mRNA expression of proliferation related genes PCNA, CDK2, and cyclinD1 and increased the protein levels of PCNA and CDK2 (P < 0.05), as well as decreased the cleavage levels of Caspase-9, Caspase-8, and Caspase-3 and apoptosis in hepatocytes (P < 0.05). Moreover, SDS promoted the phosphorylation levels of PDK1, AKT, and Gsk3-β, while inhibited the PI3K inhibitor (P < 0.05). Additionally, we found that high-fat diet-induced FLHS hens had heavier body weight, liver weight, and abdominal fat weight, and severe steatosis in histology, compared with the control group (Con). However, hens fed with SDS maintained lighter body weight, liver weight, and abdominal fat weight, as well as normal liver without hepatic steatosis. In addition, high-fat diet-induced FLHS hens had high levels of serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), alanine transaminase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) compared to the Con group, however, in the Model+SDS group, the levels of TC, TG, ALT, and AST decreased significantly, whereas the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased significantly (P < 0.05). We also found that SDS significantly decreased the mRNA expression abundance of PPARγ, SCD, and FAS in the liver, as well as increased levels of PPARα and MTTP, and decreased the mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in the Model+SDS group (P < 0.05). In summary, this study showed that 0.3 mg/mL SDS attenuated ROS generation, inhibited lipid accumulation and hepatocyte apoptosis, and promoted hepatocyte proliferation by targeting the PI3K/AKT/Gsk3-β pathway in OA-induced fatty liver model in vitro, and 20 mg/kg SDS alleviated high-fat-diet-induced hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response in laying hens in vivo.

Potential Natural Compounds for the Prevention and Treatment of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Review on Molecular Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a kind of metabolic stress-induced liver injury closely related to insulin resistance and genetic susceptibility, and there is no specific drug for its clinical treatment currently. In recent years, a large amount of literature has reported that many natural compounds extracted from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) can improve NAFLD through various mechanisms. According to the latest reports, some emerging natural compounds have shown great potential to improve NAFLD but are seldom used clinically due to the lacking special research.

PURPOSE

This paper aims to summarize the molecular mechanisms of the potential natural compounds on improving NAFLD, thus providing a direction and basis for further research on the pathogenesis of NAFLD and the development of effective drugs for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

METHODS

By searching various online databases, such as Web of Science, SciFinder, PubMed, and CNKI, NAFLD and these natural compounds were used as the keywords for detailed literature retrieval.

RESULTS

The pathogenesis of NAFLD and the molecular mechanisms of the potential natural compounds on improving NAFLD have been reviewed.

CONCLUSION

Many natural compounds from traditional Chinese medicine have a good prospect in the treatment of NAFLD, which can serve as a direction for the development of anti-NAFLD drugs in the future.

TRPM2 in ischemic stroke: Structure, molecular mechanisms, and drug intervention

Ischemic stroke has a high lethality rate worldwide, and novel treatments are limited. Calcium overload is considered to be one of the mechanisms of cerebral ischemia. Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2) is a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive calcium channel. Cerebral ischemia-induced TRPM2 activation triggers abnormal intracellular Ca2+ accumulation and cell death, which in turn causes irreversible brain damage. Thus, TRPM2 has emerged as a new therapeutic target for ischemic stroke. This review provides data on the expression, structure, and function of TRPM2 and illustrates its cellular and molecular mechanisms in ischemic stroke. Natural and synthetic TRPM2 inhibitors (both specific and nonspecific) are also summarized. The three-dimensional protein structure of TRPM2 has been identified, and we speculate that molecular simulation techniques will be essential for developing new drugs that block TRPM2 channels. These insights about TRPM2 may be the key to find potent therapeutic approaches for the treatment of ischemic stroke.

TRPM2 Non-Selective Cation Channels in Liver Injury Mediated by Reactive Oxygen Species

TRPM2 channels admit Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ across the plasma membrane and release Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺ from lysosomes. Channel activation is initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to a subsequent increase in ADP-ribose and the binding of ADP-ribose to an allosteric site in the cytosolic NUDT9 homology domain. In many animal cell types, Ca²⁺ entry via TRPM2 channels mediates ROS-initiated cell injury and death. The aim of this review is to summarise the current knowledge of the roles of TRPM2 and Ca²⁺ in the initiation and progression of chronic liver diseases and acute liver injury. Studies to date provide evidence that TRPM2-mediated Ca²⁺ entry contributes to drug-induced liver toxicity, ischemia–reperfusion injury, and the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease to cirrhosis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Of particular current interest are the steps involved in the activation of TRPM2 in hepatocytes following an increase in ROS, the downstream pathways activated by the resultant increase in intracellular Ca²⁺, and the chronology of these events. An apparent contradiction exists between these roles of TRPM2 and the role identified for ROS-activated TRPM2 in heart muscle and in some other cell types in promoting Ca²⁺-activated mitochondrial ATP synthesis and cell survival. Inhibition of TRPM2 by curcumin and other “natural” compounds offers an attractive strategy for inhibiting ROS-induced liver cell injury. In conclusion, while it has been established that ROS-initiated activation of TRPM2 contributes to both acute and chronic liver injury, considerable further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms involved, and the conditions under which pharmacological inhibition of TRPM2 can be an effective clinical strategy to reduce ROS-initiated liver injury.

Plant-Based Foods and Their Bioactive Compounds on Fatty Liver Disease: Effects, Mechanisms, and Clinical Application

Fatty liver disease (FLD), including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), is a serious chronic metabolic disease that affects a wide range of people. Lipid accumulation accompanied by oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver is the most important pathogenesis of FLD. The plant-based, high-fiber, and low-fat diet has been recommended to manage FLD for a long time. This review discusses the current state of the art into the effects, mechanisms, and clinical application of plant-based foods in NAFLD and AFLD, with highlighting related molecular mechanisms. Epidemiological evidence revealed that the consumption of several plant-based foods was beneficial to alleviating FLD. Further experimental studies found out that fruits, spices, teas, coffee, and other plants, as well as their bioactive compounds, such as resveratrol, anthocyanin, curcumin, and tea polyphenols, could alleviate FLD by ameliorating hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, gut dysbiosis, and apoptosis, as well as regulating autophagy and ethanol metabolism. More importantly, clinical trials confirmed the beneficial effects of plant-based foods on patients with fatty liver. However, several issues need to be further studied especially the safety and effective doses of plant-based foods and their bioactive compounds. Overall, certain plant-based foods are promising natural sources of bioactive compounds to prevent and alleviate fatty liver disease.

Antioxidant Effects of Salidroside in the Cardiovascular System

Cardiovascular disease is one of the main human health risks, and the incidence is increasing. Salidroside is an important bioactive component of Rhodiola rosea L., which is used to treat Alzheimer's disease, tumor, depression, and other diseases. Recent studies have shown that salidroside has therapeutic effects, to some degree, in cardiovascular diseases via an antioxidative mechanism. However, evidence-based clinical data supporting the effectiveness of salidroside in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases are limited. In this review, we discuss the effects of salidroside on cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular diseases and highlight potential antioxidant therapeutic strategies.

Salidroside from Rhodiola wallichiana var. cholaensis reverses insulin resistance and stimulates the GLP-1 secretion by alleviating ROS-mediated activation of MAPKs signaling pathway and mitigating apoptosis

The present study was aimed to investigate the mechanisms of salidroside (SAL) from Rhodiola wallichiana var. cholaensis on hypoglycemic and oxidative stress responses. The palmitate (PA)-induced GLUTag cells model and the glucosamine-induced insulin resistance model in HepG2 cells were built. SAL led to the up-regulation of the serum glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) level by facilitating the SCFAs production, the promotion of GLP-1 synthesis by improving p38 MAPK phosphorylation and regulating insulin resistance. Moreover, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the expression of MAPKs were down-regulated. Furthermore, SAL was found to be able to inhibit PA-induced apoptosis that down-regulates cleaved caspase-3 and Bax expressions, while up-regulating Bcl-2 expression and up-regulates the Bcl-2/Bax ratio in glucosamine induced insulin resistance model. Besides, SAL can also up-regulate the mTOR/p70S6k signaling pathway in the PA-induced GLUTag cells model. Our data demonstrated that SAL could reverse insulin resistance and stimulates the GLP-1 secretion by alleviating ROS-mediated activation of MAPKs signaling pathway and mitigating apoptosis. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Our data showed that SAL could increase the GLP-1 level by stimulating the SCFAs production and p38 phosphorylation and facilitate the IR and GLP-1 synthesis by alleviating ROS-mediated activation of MAPKs signaling pathway and mitigating apoptosis. Furthermore, the SAL has also stimulated the mTOR/p70S6k signaling pathway in PA-induced GLUTag cells model. The results provided a possibility to employ SAL for diabetes treatment.

Salidroside shows anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects by activating the Nrf2-ARE pathway in a pentylenetetrazol-kindling epileptic model

Evidence points towards oxidative stress and neuroinflammation being major processes associated with brain dysfunction in epilepsy. Salidroside reportedly possesses anti-oxidative activity and neuroprotective potential, in addition to exerting an anti-neuroinflammatory response. This study was designed to evaluate the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective role of salidroside in rats with pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) kindling and to explore the underlying mechanism. Male Wistar rats were administered a sub-convulsive dose of PTZ (35 mg/kg) every other day for 15 injections, and salidroside (50 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally along with alternate-day PTZ. The seizure degree, cognitive function, and number of hippocampal neurons were investigated. The expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor- antioxidant response element (Nrf2-ARE) signaling pathways, oxidative stress parameters and inflammatory cytokines were also observed. Our study showed that salidroside treatment suppressed the kindling acquisition process, ameliorated cognitive impairment, and rescued the number of pyramidal neurons in the CA3 regions. Salidroside treatment could activate the Nrf2-ARE signal pathway, and suppressed oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Our findings demonstrated that salidroside exerted anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects in epileptic rats by activating the Nrf2-ARE signal pathway.