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Yoosefian M, Sabaghian H, Kermanshahaninezhad SO. The interplay of COVID-19 and HIV: A comprehensive review of clinical outcomes and demographic associations. J Natl Med Assoc 2024; 116:362-377. [PMID: 39138033 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnma.2024.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
AIM The COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented challenges to global healthcare, particularly affecting respiratory systems and impacting individuals with pre-existing conditions, including those with HIV. METHOD HIV's impact on clinical outcomes was assessed in four Statistical Population, synchronized with control groups. The study also explored the influence of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 treatments. Ultimately, a comparison was drawn between patients with and without HIV. RESULTS In the first Statistical Population of COVID-19 patients with HIV, predominantly African-American men with risk factors such as obesity, hypertension, and diabetes were present. Diagnostic results showed no significant differences between the two groups. In the second Statistical Population, half of the patients were asymptomatic, with diagnoses mostly based on clinical symptoms; 6 individuals developed severe respiratory illness. In the third Statistical Population, 81 % of patients were treated at home, and all hospitalized patients had CD4+ lymphocyte counts above 350 cells/mm³. Most patients improved, with fatalities attributed to comorbid conditions. In the fourth Statistical Population, HIV patients were less likely to benefit from antimicrobial drugs, and mortality was higher, though synchronized analysis did not reveal significant differences. CONCLUSION HIV patients are more susceptible to COVID-19, but the direct impact is less significant than other factors. Additional factors contribute to increased risk, while early improvement, accurate diagnosis, and intensive care reduce fatalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Yoosefian
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran; Department of Nanotechnology, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran.
| | - Hanieh Sabaghian
- Department of Nanotechnology, Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran
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2
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Karaşın MF, Bayraktar Z, Toygar-Deniz M, Akhan S, Özdemir MK. COVID-19 Vaccines and COVID-19 in People Living with HIV. INFECTIOUS DISEASES & CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY 2024; 6:78-82. [PMID: 39005697 PMCID: PMC11243773 DOI: 10.36519/idcm.2024.271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Objective Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread rapidly around the world, and COVID-19 and HIV co-infection also became common. In this study, we aimed to investigate the impact of vaccination preferences and vaccination rates on the severity of COVID-19 in patients with HIV co-infection. Materials and Methods People living with HIV who were followed in our hospital during the COVID-19 pandemic (January 2020- December 2022) were retrospectively included in the study. The diagnosis of COVID-19 was made by detecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA in nasopharyngeal swab specimens using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Patients requiring hospital admission were classified as severe. The patient's demographics and vaccination status were collected from the hospital data system. Results Our study included 205 patients using antiretroviral therapy for HIV. The mean day count between the last vaccine date and SARS-CoV-2 PCR positivity was 163 days in the Comirnaty® group,149 days in the CoronaVac® group, and 154 days in the mixed-vaccinated group. Those vaccinated with Comirnaty® were statistically significantly less infected with COVID-19 after vaccination (p<0.05). Conclusion The course and the outcomes of COVID-19 among SARS-CoV-2 vaccinated people living with HIV, especially with well-controlled HIV infection, seem to be similar to people living without HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammed Fatih Karaşın
- Department of Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Kocaeli University School of Medicine, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Zeynep Bayraktar
- Department of Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Kocaeli University School of Medicine, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Müge Toygar-Deniz
- Department of Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Kocaeli University School of Medicine, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Sıla Akhan
- Department of Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Kocaeli University School of Medicine, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Mehmet Kağan Özdemir
- Department of Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Kocaeli University School of Medicine, Kocaeli, Türkiye
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Lee K, Horino T, Hoshina T, Sawaki K, Sakamoto Y, Miyajima M, Nakaharai K, Nakazawa Y, Yoshida M. Factors associated with IgG titers against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein after second vaccination in people living with HIV controlled with anti-retroviral therapy. J Infect Chemother 2024; 30:53-57. [PMID: 37708942 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2023.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to identify factors associated with the response to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in people living with HIV (PLWH). METHODS This study was conducted at the Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan. IgG antibodies against spike and nucleocapsid proteins were detected using Abbott SARS-CoV-2 IgG II Quant assays. RESULTS During the investigation period, 371 PLWH were enrolled in this study. PLWH with previous COVID-19 infection, untreated or poorly controlled HIV infection, and those whose blood samples were obtained within less than seven days after the second vaccination were excluded. A total of 310 PLWH controlled with anti-retroviral therapy were included in the final analysis. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that chronic kidney disease (CKD) (β = -0.353, p = 0.049) and the duration between the second vaccination and blood sampling (β = -0.005, p < 0.001) were associated with low spike protein IgG titers. CONCLUSION Even without hemodialysis or kidney transplant, CKD was associated with vaccine response in PLWH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwangyeol Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Horino
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Tokio Hoshina
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenji Sawaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yohei Sakamoto
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makiko Miyajima
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Nakaharai
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasushi Nakazawa
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Yoshida
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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4
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Batu TD, Obsu LL, Deressa CT. Co-infection dynamics of COVID-19 and HIV/AIDS. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18437. [PMID: 37891225 PMCID: PMC10611792 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45520-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although there are many results that can be used to treat and prevent Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), these diseases continue to be public health concerns and cause socioeconomic consequences. Following compromised immunity, COVID-19 is considered to be a challenge for people with HIV. People with advanced HIV are considered a vulnerable population at high risk in several case studies that discuss COVID-19 and HIV co-infection. As there is no cure for HIV and there is a chance of contracting COVID-19 again, co-infection continues to pose a problem. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of intervention strategies and identify the role of different parameters in risking people living with HIV to death when they get infected with COVID-19. This is achieved through the development and rigorous analysis of a mathematical model that considers a population at risk of death due to COVID-19 and HIV. The model formulation provides a detailed explanation of the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 and HIV co-infection. The solution's invariant region, positivity, and boundedness were established. The reproduction numbers of the sub-models and the co-infection model were determined. The existence and stability of equilibria, including backward bifurcation for the COVID-19 sub-model, were examined. The epidemiological significance of backward bifurcation is that the condition [Formula: see text] less than 1 for eliminating COVID-19, though necessary, is no longer sufficient. Parametric estimation and curve fitting were performed based on data from Ethiopia. Numerical simulations were employed to support and clarify the analytical findings and to show some parameter effects on COVID-19 and HIV co-infection. Accordingly, the simulations indicated that parameters [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text], related to HIV patients' exposure to other diseases and the increase in infectiousness, have a positive role in increasing the number of co-infections. On the other hand, an increase in COVID-19 vaccination ([Formula: see text]) shows the suppression of co-infection cases. In addition, treating co-infected individuals for COVID-19, increasing treatment rates [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], reduces the death risk of HIV-infected individuals due to the co-infection burden. It was implied that improving vaccine delivery programs and other medical interventions have important contributions to lowering the risk of COVID-19 infection-related fatalities in HIV patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tesfaneh Debele Batu
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
| | - Legesse Lemecha Obsu
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia.
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Vanetti C, Milazzo L, Ardizzone F, Oreni L, Cappelletti G, Trabattoni D, Biasin M. Humoral and Cellular Immune Response Elicited by Two Doses of mRNA BNT162b2 Vaccine Against SARS-CoV-2 in People Living with HIV. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2023; 39:495-499. [PMID: 37031355 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2022.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/10/2023] Open
Abstract
At present, whether severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines can elicit robust humoral and cellular immune responses in people living with HIV (PLWH) is still controversial. We assessed humoral and cellular immune response after the administration of the BNT162b2-mRNA-vaccine in seven antiretroviral therapy-treated PLWH patients and in nine HIV-negative health care workers (PWOH) over a 3-month span of time from the first vaccine dose. The neutralizing activity against both the European and the Delta variants declined after 3 months equally in both PLWH and PWOH. The gene expression analysis of factors involved in the antiviral immune response did not show any significant difference between PLWH and PWOH; among circulating cytokines/chemokines, a progressive decline was observed in the mean values of IL-1β, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13, and IL-15 in both PLWH and PWOH. Conversely, the ratio between naive and terminally differentiated T-CD4+ effector memory showed a reduction trend over time in PLWH. Our findings showed no significant differences in the ability to mount an immune response after the administration of two SARS-CoV-2 mRNA BNT162b2 doses in PLWH and PWOH. However, as BNT162b2 vaccinated PLWH display an early waning immunity in the T cell compartment, the administration of a booster dose may be necessary to maintain a SARS-CoV-2-specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Vanetti
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Milazzo
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Infectious Diseases, L. Sacco Hospital, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Ardizzone
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Letizia Oreni
- Department of Infectious Diseases, L. Sacco Hospital, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Gioia Cappelletti
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Daria Trabattoni
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Mara Biasin
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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HIV and SARS-CoV-2 Co-Infection: From Population Study Evidence to In Vitro Studies. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12122089. [PMID: 36556453 PMCID: PMC9781275 DOI: 10.3390/life12122089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have caused two major viral outbreaks during the last century. Two major aspects of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection have been extensively investigated and deserve attention. First, the impact of the co-infection on the progression of disease caused by HIV-1 or SARS-CoV-2. Second, the impact of the HIV-1 anti-retroviral treatment on SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review, we aim to summarize and discuss the works produced since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic ranging from clinical studies to in vitro experiments in the context of co-infection and drug development.
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Elijah IM, Amsalu E, Jian X, Cao M, Mibei EK, Kerosi DO, Mwatsahu FG, Wang W, Onyangore F, Wang Y. Characterization and determinant factors of critical illness and in-hospital mortality of COVID-19 patients: A retrospective cohort of 1,792 patients in Kenya. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2022; 4:330-338. [PMID: 35782165 PMCID: PMC9236624 DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2022.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Limited data is available on the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), critical illness rate, and in-hospital mortality in the African setting. This study investigates determinants of critical illness and in-hospital mortality among COVID-19 patients in Kenya. We conducted a retrospective cohort study at Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) in Kenya. Multivariate logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard regression were employed to determine predictor factors for intensive care unit (ICU) admission and in-hospital mortality, respectively. In addition, the Kaplan-Meier model was used to compare the survival times using log-rank tests. As a result, 346 (19.3%) COVID-19 patients were admitted to ICU, and 271 (15.1%) died. The majority of those admitted to the hospital were male, 1,137 (63.4%) and asymptomatic, 1,357 (75.7%). The most prevalent clinical features were shortness of breath, fever, and dry cough. In addition, older age, male, health status, patient on oxygen (O2), oxygen saturation levels (SPO2), headache, dry cough, comorbidities, obesity, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), diabetes, chronic lung disease (CLD), and malignancy/cancer can predicate the risk of ICU admission, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) of 0.90 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.88-0.92). Survival analysis indicated 271 (15.1%) patients died and identified older age, male, headache, shortness of breath, health status, patient on oxygen, SPO2, headache, comorbidity, CVDs, diabetes, CLD, malignancy/cancer, and smoking as risk factors for mortality (AUC-ROC: 0.90, 95% CI: 0.89-0.91). This is the first attempt to explore predictors for ICU admission and hospital mortality among COVID-19 patients in Kenya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isinta M Elijah
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Endawoke Amsalu
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa 1005, Ethiopia
| | - Xuening Jian
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Mingyang Cao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Eric K Mibei
- University of Kabianga, School of Health Sciences, Kericho 2030-20200, Kenya
| | - Danvas O Kerosi
- Medical Genetics Laboratory, School of Life Science, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Francis G Mwatsahu
- Department of Environmental Health and Disease Control, School of Public Health, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi 62000 – 00200, Kenya
| | - Wei Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China,Centre for Precision Medicine, Edith Cowan University, Perth WA 6027, Australia
| | - Faith Onyangore
- University of Kabianga, School of Health Sciences, Kericho 2030-20200, Kenya,Corresponding authors: School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, 10 Youanmenwai Xitoutiao Road, Fengtai District, Beijing 100069, China (Y. Wang); University of Kabianga, Department of Public Health, P.O Box 2030-20200, Kericho-Kenya (F. Onyangore)
| | - Youxin Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China,Centre for Precision Medicine, Edith Cowan University, Perth WA 6027, Australia,Corresponding authors: School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, 10 Youanmenwai Xitoutiao Road, Fengtai District, Beijing 100069, China (Y. Wang); University of Kabianga, Department of Public Health, P.O Box 2030-20200, Kericho-Kenya (F. Onyangore)
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Scordio M, Frasca F, Santinelli L, Sorrentino L, Pierangeli A, Turriziani O, Mastroianni CM, Antonelli G, Viscidi RP, d'Ettorre G, Scagnolari C. High frequency of neutralizing antibodies to type I Interferon in HIV-1 patients hospitalized for COVID-19. Clin Immunol 2022; 241:109068. [PMID: 35764258 PMCID: PMC9233547 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2022.109068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The presence of anti-IFN neutralizing antibodies (NAB) has been reported in critically ill COVID-19 patients. We found that 87.5% (7/8) of HIV-1 patients co-infected with SARS-CoV-2 had serum anti-IFN-I NAB against IFN-α subtypes, IFN-β and/or IFN-ω. Anti-IFN-I NAB were also detected in oropharyngeal samples. Patients with NAB were males, and those with high serum anti-IFN-α/ω NAB titer had severe illness and exhibited reduction in the expression of IFN-stimulated genes. Thus, high titer of anti-IFN-α/ω NAB may contribute to the greater severity of COVID-19 in HIV-1 infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Scordio
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Federica Frasca
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Letizia Santinelli
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Leonardo Sorrentino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Pierangeli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Ombretta Turriziani
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy; Microbiology and Virology Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 324, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Claudio M Mastroianni
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Guido Antonelli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy; Microbiology and Virology Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 324, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Raphael P Viscidi
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1800 Orleans Street Baltimore, MD, United States.
| | - Gabriella d'Ettorre
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Carolina Scagnolari
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale di Porta Tiburtina n° 28, 00185 Rome, Italy.
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Lledó GM, Sellares J, Brotons C, Sans M, Antón JD, Blanco J, Bassat Q, Sarukhan A, Miró JM, de Sanjosé S. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome: a new tsunami requiring a universal case definition. Clin Microbiol Infect 2021; 28:315-318. [PMID: 34826619 PMCID: PMC8610558 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2021.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gema M Lledó
- Department of Autoimmune Diseases, University of Barcelona, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Jacobo Sellares
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Hospital Clínic-Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Carlos Brotons
- Sardenya Primary Health Care Centre, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Sans
- Comte Borrell Health Care Centre, CAPSBE, Metges e-Salut, COMB, International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Juana Díez Antón
- Molecular Virology Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Julià Blanco
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias I Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Can Ruti Campus, Badalona, Catalonia, Spain; University of Vic (UVic-UCC), Vic, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Quique Bassat
- ISGlobal, Hospital Clínic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Maputo, Mozambique; ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona, Spain; Paediatrics Department, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Universitat de Barcelona, Esplugues, Barcelona, Spain; Consorcio de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José M Miró
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Silvia de Sanjosé
- ISGlobal, Hospital Clínic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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