Induction of mitophagy-mediated antitumor activity with folate-appended methyl-β-cyclodextrin

Cinnamaldehyde ameliorates STZ-induced diabetes through modulation of autophagic process in adipocyte and hepatic tissues on rats

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a worldwide public health issue. In the globe, Egypt has the ninth-highest incidence of diabetes. Due to its crucial role in preserving cellular homeostasis, the autophagy process has drawn a lot of attention in recent years, Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the traditional medication metformin with the novel therapeutic effects of cinnamondehyde on adipocyte and hepatic autophagy in a model of high-fat diet/streptozotocin-diabetic rats. The study was conducted on 40 male albino rats, classified into 2 main groups, the control group and the diabetic group, which was subdivided into 4 subgroups (8 rats each): untreated diabetic rats, diabetic rats received oral cinnamaldehyde 40 mg/kg/day, diabetic rats received oral metformin 200 mg/kg/day and diabetic rats received a combination of both cinnamaldehyde and metformin daily for 4 weeks. The outcomes demonstrated that cinnamaldehyde enhanced the lipid profile and glucose homeostasis. Moreover, Cinnamaldehyde had the opposite effects on autophagy in both tissues; by altering the expression of genes that control autophagy, such as miRNA 30a and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), it reduced autophagy in adipocytes and stimulated it in hepatic tissues. It may be inferred that by increasing the treatment efficacy of metformin and lowering its side effects, cinnamaldehyde could be utilized as an adjuvant therapy with metformin for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Folate-Appended Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin Induces Autophagic Cell Death in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogenous myeloid neoplasm that remains challenging to treat. Because intensive conventional chemotherapy reduces survival rates in elderly patients, drugs with lower toxicity and fewer side effects are needed urgently. 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CyD) is used clinically as a pharmaceutical excipient for poorly water-soluble drugs. Previously, we showed that HP-β-CyD exerts antitumor activity by disrupting cholesterol homeostasis. Recently, we developed folate-conjugated HP-β-CyD (FA-HP-β-CyD) and demonstrated its potential as a new antitumor agent that induces not only apoptosis, but also autophagic cell death; however, we do not know whether FA-HP-β-CyD exerts these effects against AML. Here, we investigated the effects of FA-HP-β-CyD on folate receptor (FR)-expressing AML cells. We found that the cytotoxic activity of FA-HP-β-CyD against AML cells was stronger than that of HP-β-CyD. Also, FA-HP-CyD induced the formation of autophagosomes in AML cell lines. FA-HP-β-CyD increased the inhibitory effects of cytarabine and a BCL-2-selective inhibitor, Venetoclax, which are commonly used treat elderly AML patients. Notably, FA-HP-β-CyD suppressed the proliferation of AML cells in BALB/c nude recombinase-activating gene-2 (Rag-2)/Janus kinase 3 (Jak3) double-deficient mice with AML. These results suggest that FA-HP-β-CyD acts as a potent anticancer agent for AML chemotherapy by regulating autophagy.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Adiponectin Receptor Agonist AdipoRon against Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Adiponectin, a hormone secreted by adipocytes, has anti-inflammatory effects and is involved in various physiological and pathological processes such as obesity, inflammatory diseases, and cartilage diseases. However, the function of adiponectin in intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is not well understood. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of AdipoRon, an agonist of adiponectin receptor, on human IVD nucleus pulposus (NP) cells, using a three-dimensional in vitro culturing system. This study also aimed to elucidate the effects of AdipoRon on rat tail IVD tissues using an in vivo puncture-induced IVD degeneration model. Analysis using quantitative polymerase chain reaction demonstrated the downregulation of gene expression of proinflammatory and catabolic factors by interleukin (IL)-1β (10 ng/mL) in human IVD NP cells treated with AdipoRon (2 μM). Furthermore, western blotting showed AdipoRon-induced suppression of p65 phosphorylation (p < 0.01) under IL-1β stimulation in the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. Intradiscal administration of AdipoRon was effective in alleviating the radiologic height loss induced by annular puncture of rat tail IVD, histomorphological degeneration, production of extracellular matrix catabolic factors, and expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, AdipoRon could be a new therapeutic candidate for alleviating the early stage of IVD degeneration.

Mannose-methyl-β-cyclodextrin suppresses tumor growth by targeting both colon cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages

Methylated β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) can extract cholesterol from lipid rafts and induce apoptosis in cancer cells by inhibiting activation of the PI3K-Akt-Bad pathway. In this study, we modified MβCD with mannose (Man-MβCD) and assessed its in vitro and in vivo potential for targeting colon cancer cells expressing the mannose receptor (MR) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM). Man-MβCD showed a significantly greater level of cellular association with colon-26 cells and M2 macrophages, and much more prominent anticancer activity than that of MβCD against MR-positive colon-26 cells. These results revealed that autophagy was the main mechanism of cell death associated with Man-MβCD. Furthermore, compared with MβCD, Man-MβCD significantly reduced tumor development following intravenous delivery to tumor-bearing mice, with no apparent side effects. Thus, Man-MβCD has the potential to be a novel anticancer drug.

Nanoparticles of folic acid-methyl-β-cyclodextrin (FA-MβCD)/adamantane-albumin exhibit enhanced antitumor activity compared with FA-MβCD alone

Supramolecular drug carriers are a promising approach for delivering anticancer drugs with high blood retention after administration. We previously synthesized folic acid-modified methyl-β-cyclodextrin (FA-MβCD) as an anticancer drug. FA-MβCD has a selective autophagy-mediated antitumor effect on folic acid receptor (FR)-expressing cancer cells. Here, we enhanced the antitumor effect and safety of FA-MβCD by preparing a supramolecular nanoparticle formulation of FA-MβCD via host-guest interactions using an adamantane conjugate with human serum albumin (Ad-HSA). The Ad-HSA/FA-MβCD supramolecular complex prolonged the blood retention of FA-MβCD and improved its antitumor effect and safety after intravenous administration in tumor-bearing mice xenografted with FR-expressing cancer cells. These results suggest that the supramolecular technique using Ad-HSA is a promising approach for the delivery of CD-based anticancer drugs.

NEAT1 Confers Radioresistance to Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells by Inducing PINK1/Parkin-Mediated Mitophagy

A long noncoding RNA, nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1) variant 1 (NEAT1v1), confers radioresistance to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells by inducing autophagy via γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor-associated protein (GABARAP). Radiation induces oxidative stress to damage cellular components and organelles, but it remains unclear how NEAT1v1 protects HCC cells from radiation-induced oxidative stress via autophagy. To address this, we precisely investigated NEAT1v1-induced autophagy in irradiated HCC cell lines. X-ray irradiation significantly increased cellular and mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial DNA content in HCC cells while NEAT1v1 suppressed them. NEAT1v1 concomitantly induced the phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced kinase 1 (PINK1)/parkin-mediated mitophagy. Interestingly, parkin expression was constitutively upregulated in NEAT1v1-overexpressing HCC cells, leading to increased mitochondrial parkin levels. Superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) was also upregulated by NEAT1v1, and GABARAP or SOD2 knockdown in NEAT1v1-overexpressing cells increased mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial DNA content after irradiation. Moreover, it was suggested that SOD2 was involved in NEAT1v1-induced parkin expression, and that GABARAP promoted parkin degradation via mitophagy. This study highlights the unprecedented roles of NEAT1v1 in connecting radioresistance and mitophagy in HCC.

Novel mitochondria-targeting compounds selectively kill human leukemia cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous group of aggressive hematological malignancies commonly associated with treatment resistance, high risk of relapse, and mitochondrial dysregulation. We identified six mitochondria-affecting compounds (PS compounds) that exhibit selective cytotoxicity against AML cells in vitro. Structure-activity relationship studies identified six analogs from two original scaffolds that had over an order of magnitude difference between LD50 in AML and healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Mechanistically, all hit compounds reduced ATP and selectively impaired both basal and ATP-linked oxygen consumption in leukemic cells. Compounds derived from PS127 significantly upregulated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in AML cells and triggered ferroptotic, necroptotic, and/or apoptotic cell death in AML cell lines and refractory/relapsed AML primary samples. These compounds exhibited synergy with several anti-leukemia agents in AML, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), or chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Pilot in vivo efficacy studies indicate anti-leukemic efficacy in a MOLM14/GFP/LUC xenograft model, including extended survival in mice injected with leukemic cells pre-treated with PS127B or PS127E and in mice treated with PS127E at a dose of 5 mg/kg. These compounds are promising leads for development of future combinatorial therapeutic approaches for mitochondria-driven hematologic malignancies such as AML, ALL, and CML.

Protective Effects of Growth Differentiation Factor-6 on the Intervertebral Disc: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Growth differentiation factors (GDFs) regulate homeostasis by amplifying extracellular matrix anabolism and inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production in the intervertebral disc (IVD). The aim of this study was to elucidate the effects of GDF-6 on human IVD nucleus pulposus (NP) cells using a three-dimensional culturing system in vitro and on rat tail IVD tissues using a puncture model in vivo. In vitro, Western blotting showed decreased GDF-6 expression with age and degeneration severity in surgically collected human IVD tissues (n = 12). Then, in moderately degenerated human IVD NP cells treated with GDF-6 (100 ng/mL), immunofluorescence demonstrated an increased expression of matrix components including aggrecan and type II collagen. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis also presented GDF-6-induced downregulation of pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (p = 0.014) and interleukin (IL)-6 (p = 0.016) gene expression stimulated by IL-1β (10 ng/mL). Furthermore, in the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, Western blotting displayed GDF-6-induced suppression of p38 phosphorylation (p = 0.041) under IL-1β stimulation. In vivo, intradiscal co-administration of GDF-6 and atelocollagen was effective in alleviating rat tail IVD annular puncture-induced radiologic height loss (p = 0.005), histomorphological degeneration (p < 0.001), matrix metabolism (aggrecan, p < 0.001; type II collagen, p = 0.001), and pro-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α, p < 0.001; IL-6, p < 0.001). Consequently, GDF-6 could be a therapeutic growth factor for degenerative IVD disease.

Folic Acid-Appended Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin Exhibits Potent Antitumor Activity in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Cells via Autophagic Cell Death

Simple Summary

2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CyD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide widely used as an excipient in pharmaceutical preparations, in addition to also being used as a cholesterol regulator. HP-β-CyD was used in clinical trials for patients with Niemann-Pick Type C disease to remove accumulated intracellular lipid. HP-β-CyD has anti-leukemia activity by inducing apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest; however, the antitumor activity of HP-β-CyD lacks tumor cell-selectivity. Taking advantage of the fact that folate receptors are highly expressed in many cancer cells, we synthesized folate-appended HP-β-CyD (FA-HP-β-CyD) to confer tumor cell-selectivity to HP-β-CyD. FA-HP-β-CyD inhibited the proliferation of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells and the mechanism underlying the effect of FA-HP-β-CyD in inducing cell death may involve autophagy. The combination of FA-HP-β-CyD and ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors (imatinib and ponatinib) had a synergistic inhibitory effect on CML cells. In a mouse model of BCR-ABL-induced leukemia, FA-HP-β-CyD had a stronger inhibitory effect on leukemia progression than HP-β-CyD or imatinib.

Abstract

2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CyD) is widely used as an enabling excipient in pharmaceutical formulations. We previously demonstrated that HP-β-CyD disrupted cholesterol homeostasis, and inhibited the proliferation of leukemia cells by inducing apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest. Recently developed drug delivery systems using folic acid (FA) and folic acid receptors (FR) are currently being used in cancer treatment. To confer tumor cell-selectivity to HP-β-CyD, we synthesized folate-appended HP-β-CyD (FA-HP-β-CyD) and evaluated the potential of FA-HP-β-CyD as an anticancer agent using chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells in vitro and in vivo. FA-HP-β-CyD inhibited the growth of FR-expressing cells but not that of FR-negative cells. FA-HP-β-CyD had stronger anti-leukemia and cell-binding activities than HP-β-CyD in CML cells. Unlike HP-β-CyD, FA-HP-β-CyD entered CML cells through endocytosis and induced both apoptosis and autophagy via mitophagy. FA-HP-β-CyD increased the inhibitory effects of the ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors imatinib mesylate and ponatinib, which are commonly used in CML. In vivo experiments in a BCR-ABL leukemia mouse model showed that FA-HP-β-CyD was more effective than HP-β-CyD at a ten-fold lower dose. These results indicate that FA-HP-β-CyD may be a novel tumor-targeting agent for the treatment of leukemia.

Nujiangexanthone A Inhibits Cervical Cancer Cell Proliferation by Promoting Mitophagy

Nujiangexanthone A (NJXA), a bioactive component isolated from the leaves of Garcinia nujiangensis, has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. Our previous work has shown that NJXA induced G0/1 arrest and apoptosis, thus suppressing cervical cancer cell growth. The present study provides new evidence that NJXA can induce cell death in HeLa cells by promoting mitophagy. We first identified that NJXA triggered GFP-LC3 and YFP-Parkin puncta accumulation, which are biomarkers of mitophagy. Moreover, NJXA degraded the mitochondrial membrane proteins Tom20 and Tim23 and mitochondrial fusion proteins MFN1 and MFN2, downregulated Parkin, and stabilized PINK1. Additionally, we revealed that NJXA induced lysosome degradation and colocalization of mitochondria and autophagosomes, which was attenuated by knocking down ATG7, the key regulator of mitophagy. Furthermore, since mitophagy is induced under starvation conditions, we detected the cytotoxic effect of NJXA in nutrient-deprived HeLa cells and observed better cytotoxicity. Taken together, our work contributes to the further clarification of the mechanism by which NJXA inhibits cervical cancer cell proliferation and provides evidence that NJXA has the potential to develop anticancer drugs.

Twenty Years of Research on Cyclodextrin Conjugates with PAMAM Dendrimers

Recently, the number of gene and oligonucleotide drugs are increasing. Of various drug delivery systems (DDSs) for gene and oligonucleotide drugs, few examples of the clinical application of polymer as drug carriers are known, despite development of the novel polymers has been progressing. Cyclodextrin (CD) conjugates with starburst polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer (CDEs), as a new type of polymer-based carriers, were first published in 2001. After that, galactose-, lactose-, mannose-, fucose-, folate-, and polyethyleneglycol (PEG)-appended CDEs have been prepared for passive and active targeting for gene, oligonucleotide, and low-molecular-weight drugs. PEG-appended CDE formed polypsuedorotaxanes with α-CD and γ-CD, which are useful for a sustained release system of gene and oligonucleotide drugs. Interestingly, CDEs were found to have anti-inflammatory effects and anti-amyloid effects themselves, which have potential as active pharmaceutical ingredients. Most recently, CDE is reported to be a useful Cas9-RNA ribonucleoproteins (Cas9 RNP) carrier that induces genome editing in the neuron and brain. In this review, the history and progression of CDEs are overviewed.

Mingmu Xiaomeng Tablets Restore Autophagy and Alleviate Diabetic Retinopathy by Inhibiting PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling

Objective: To investigate the effect of Mingmu Xiaomeng tablets (MMXM) on the expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-related proteins in a diabetic rat model.

Methods: Thirty-two male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: normal control (NC), diabetic model (DM) control, MMXM, and calcium dobesilate (CD) Rats injected with streptozotocin (STZ) were used as an experimental diabetes model. After 14 weeks, autophagy and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway proteins were detected by western blot. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression in Müller cells was examined by immunohistochemistry. Retinal function was evaluated with electroretinography, and retinal ultrastructure was observed by transmission electron microscopy. Serum cytokine levels were detected with protein chip technology.

Results: MMXM restored autophagy by decreasing the protein expression of LC3-II and p62 and reducing the phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt, and mTOR, thus promoting autophagy. MMXM decreased GFAP expression in retinal Müller cells; restored electrophysiology indexes and retinal ultrastructures; and reduced serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and vascular endothelial growth factor.

Conclusion: MMXM may protect the diabetic retina by inhibiting PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and enhancing autophagy.

B, Fejes Z, Fenyvesi F. Investigation of the Cellular Effects of Beta- Cyclodextrin Derivatives on Caco-2 Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Cyclodextrins are widely used excipients for increasing water-solubility, delivery and bioavailability of lipophilic drugs. By using fluorescent cyclodextrin derivatives, we showed previously that cyclodextrins are able to enter Caco-2 intestinal cells by endocytosis, but the influence of different fluorescent labeling on the same cyclodextrin derivative has not been studied. The consequences of the cellular internalization of cyclodextrins have not been revealed yet either. The aims of this study were to compare the cellular internalization of fluorescein- and rhodamine-labeled (2-hydroxypropyl)-, (HPBCD) and randommethyl-β-cyclodextrins (RAMEB) and to investigate the intracellular effects of these derivatives on Caco-2 cells. Stimulation of the NF-kappa B pathway and autophagy and localization of these derivatives in lysosomes were tested. The endocytosis of these derivatives was examined by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Both fluorescein- and rhodamine-labeled derivatives entered the cells, therefore the type of the fluorescent labeling did not influence their internalization. Cyclodextrin pretreatment did not activate the translocation of the p65 subunit of the NF-kappa B heterodimer into the cell nuclei from the cytoplasm. After HPBCD or RAMEB treatment, formation of the autophagosomes did not increase compared to the control sample and at the same time these derivatives could be detected in lysosomes after internalization.

Lactose-appended β-cyclodextrin as an effective nanocarrier for brain delivery

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents the permeability of drugs into the brain, and as such limits the management of various brain diseases. To overcome this barrier, drug-encapsulating nanoparticles or vesicles, drug conjugates, and other types of drug delivery systems (DDSs) have been developed. However, the brain-targeting ability of nanoparticles or vesicles is still insufficient. Recently, among the various brain-targeting ligands previously studied for facilitating transcellular BBB transport, several sugar-appended nanocarriers for brain delivery were identified. Meanwhile, cyclodextrins (CyDs) have been used as nanocarriers for drug delivery since they can encapsulate hydrophobic compounds with high biocompatibility. Therefore, in this study, we created various sugar-appended β-cyclodextrins (β-CyDs) to discover novel brain-targeting ligands. As a result, of the six sugar-appended CyDs, lactose-appended β-CyD (Lac-β-CyD) showed greater cellular uptake in hCMEC/D3 cells, human brain microvascular endothelial cells, than other sugar-appended β-CyDs did. In addition, the permeability of Lac-β-CyD within the in vitro human BBB model was greater than that of other sugar-appended β-CyDs. Moreover, Lac-β-CyD significantly accumulated in the mouse brain after intravenous administration. Thus, Lac-β-CyD efficiently facilitated the accumulation of the model drug into the mouse brain. These findings suggest that Lac-β-CyD has the potential to be a novel carrier for drugs across the BBB.

Mitochondrial DNA Mutation, Diseases, and Nutrient-Regulated Mitophagy

A wide spectrum of human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic disorders, have been shown to be associated with mitochondrial dysfunction through multiple molecular mechanisms. Mitochondria are particularly susceptible to nutrient deficiencies, and nutritional intervention is an essential way to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. Recent advances in genetic manipulation and next-generation sequencing reveal the crucial roles of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in various pathophysiological conditions. Mitophagy, a term coined to describe autophagy that targets dysfunctional mitochondria, has emerged as an important cellular process to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis and has been shown to be regulated by various nutrients and nutritional stresses. Given the high prevalence of mtDNA mutations in humans and their impact on mitochondrial function, it is important to investigate the mechanisms that regulate mtDNA mutation. Here, we discuss mitochondrial genetics and mtDNA mutations and their implications for human diseases. We also examine the role of mitophagy as a therapeutic target, highlighting how nutrients may eliminate mtDNA mutations through mitophagy.

[Delivery of Anticancer Drugs Using a Supramolecular Complex to Cancer Tissues Having High Interstitial Fluid Pressure]

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth-leading cause of death from cancer in Japan, after lung, colorectal, and stomach cancers and has the lowest survival among these tumors, because of not only no symptoms, no screening tool and no biomarkers but also high rates of recurrence and metastasis. In addition, pancreatic cancer has excessive stroma which serves as a severe biological barrier for anticancer drug delivery and successful treatment. Therefore, there are many challenges for drug delivery systems for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Recently, we developed self-assembly PEGylation retaining activity (SPRA) technology, which comprises a reversible pegylated protein complex without loss of bioactivity. SPRA technology is based on a host-guest interaction between PEGylated β-cyclodextrin and adamantane-appended protein. In this review, first pancreatic cancer is introduced, second, principle drug delivery systems for the treatment of pancreatic cancer are described, and third the concept of SPRA technology as well as examples of SPRA proteins, especially focusing on the potential of SPRA-bromelain for treatment of pancreatic cancer, are introduced.

IL-33 Is Essential for Adjuvant Effect of Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodexrin on the Protective Intranasal Influenza Vaccination

Vaccine adjuvants are traditionally used to augment and modulate the immunogenicity of vaccines, although in many cases it is unclear which specific molecules contribute to their stimulatory activity. We previously reported that both subcutaneous and intranasal administration of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), a pharmaceutical excipient widely used to improve solubility, can act as an effective adjuvant for an influenza vaccine. However, the mechanisms by which mucosal immune pathway is critical for the intranasal adjuvant activity of HP-β-CD have not been fully delineated. Here, we show that intranasally administered HP-β-CD elicits a temporary release of IL-33 from alveolar epithelial type 2 cells in the lung; notably, IL-33 expression in these cells is not stimulated following the use of other vaccine adjuvants. The experiments using gene deficient mice suggested that IL-33/ST2 signaling is solely responsible for the adjuvant effect of HP-β-CD when it is administered intranasally. In contrast, the subcutaneous injection of HP-β-CD and the intranasal administration of alum, as a damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)-inducing adjuvant, or cholera toxin, as a mucosal adjuvant, enhanced humoral immunity in an IL-33-independent manner, suggesting that the IL-33/ST2 pathway is unique to the adjuvanticity of intranasally administered HP-β-CD. Furthermore, the release of IL-33 was involved in the protective immunity against influenza virus infection which is induced by the intranasal administration of HP-β-CD-adjuvanted influenza split vaccine. In conclusion, our results suggest that an understanding of administration route- and tissue-specific immune responses is crucial for the design of unique vaccine adjuvants.

[Supramolecular Pharmaceutical Sciences: A Novel Concept for Future Pharmaceutical Sciences]

Supramolecular chemistry is a useful and important domain for understanding pharmaceutical sciences, since various physiological reactions (e.g., protein association) and drug activities (e.g., the substrate/receptor reaction) are based on supramolecular chemistry. Biological components, such as DNA and cells, are also supermolecules. However, supramolecular chemistry to date has not been a major domain in the field of pharmaceutical study. In this article, we propose a new concept in pharmaceutical sciences termed "supramolecular pharmaceutical sciences" which combines pharmaceutical sciences and supramolecular chemistry. "Supramolecular pharmaceutical sciences" could encompass strictly controlled molecular arrangement, stimulus responsible molecular motion, new functions beyond those of existing molecules, more accurate drug design, new active pharmaceutical ingredients, new perspectives for the investigation of the drug mechanisms, and novel pharmaceutical technologies. Moreover, pharmaceutical sciences are useful for supramolecular chemistry, because biological reactions are very accurate reactions, making this a win-win relationship. Thus, supramolecular pharmaceutical sciences could be useful for developing new methods, hypotheses, ideas, materials, mechanisms, and strategies in the realm of pharmaceutical science.

Enhanced autophagy induction via the mitochondrial delivery of methylated β-cyclodextrin-threaded polyrotaxanes using a MITO-Porter

Failure of autophagy induction results in the accumulation of abnormal mitochondria to cause neurodegenerative diseases.

Reduction of Mitophagy-Related Oxidative Stress and Preservation of Mitochondria Function Using Melatonin Therapy in an HT22 Hippocampal Neuronal Cell Model of Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity

Recent evidence indicates that autophagy-mediated mitochondrial homeostasis is crucial for oxidative stress-related brain damage and repair. The highest concentration of melatonin is in the mitochondria of cells, and melatonin exhibits well-known antioxidant properties. We investigated the impact and mechanism involved in mitochondrial function and the mitochondrial oxidative stress/autophagy regulator parameters of glutamate cytotoxicity in mouse HT22 hippocampal neurons. We tested the hypothesis that melatonin confers neuroprotective effects via protecting against mitochondrial impairment and mitophagy. Cells were divided into four groups: the control group, melatonin alone group, glutamate injury group, and melatonin pretreatment group. We found that glutamate induced significant changes in mitochondrial function/oxidative stress-related parameters. Leptin administration preserved mitochondrial function, and this effect was associated with increased superoxide dismutase, glutathione (GSH), and mitochondrial membrane potential and decreased GSSG (oxidized glutathione) and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Melatonin significantly reduced the fluorescence intensity of mitophagy via the Beclin-1/Bcl-2 pathway, which involves Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 proteins. The mitophagy inhibitor CsA corrected these glutamate-induce changes, as measured by the fluorescence intensity of Mitophagy-Tracker Red CMXROS, mitochondrial ROS, and mitochondrial membrane potential changes. These findings indicate that melatonin exerts neuroprotective effects against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity by reducing mitophagy-related oxidative stress and maintaining mitochondrial function.

Targeted delivery of paclitaxel by functionalized selenium nanoparticles for anticancer therapy through ROS-mediated signaling pathways

As a therapeutic anticancer agent, the clinical use of paclitaxel (PTX) is limited by its poor water solubility and serious adverse side effects. The targeted-specific intracellular delivery of an anticancer drug as a new therapeutic modality is promising for cancer treatment. The anticancer activity of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) with low toxicity and excellent activity has attracted increasing attention for use in biomedical intervention in recent years. In this study, β-cyclodextrin (β-CD)-folate (FA)-modified selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) (Se@β-CD-FA@PTX) were successfully fabricated through a layer-by-layer method. The nanosystem is able to enter cancer cells through FA receptor-mediated endocytosis to achieve targeted-specific intracellular delivery. Se@β-CD-FA@PTX was found to increase the selectivity between normal and cancer cells. The viability in MCF-7 cells was remarkably lower than in MCF 10A cells, which may promote the specific targeted delivery of Se@β-CD-FA@PTX into MCF-7 cells. Moreover, Se@β-CD-FA@PTX was found to enhance the cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 cells via the induction of apoptosis activation of ROS-mediated p53 and AKT signaling pathways. The results demonstrate that Se@β-CD-FA@PTX nanoparticles provide a strategy for the design of cancer-targeted nanosystems for use in cancer therapy.

DAMP-Inducing Adjuvant and PAMP Adjuvants Parallelly Enhance Protective Type-2 and Type-1 Immune Responses to Influenza Split Vaccination

Recently, it was reported that 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CyD), a common pharmaceutical additive, can act as a vaccine adjuvant to enhance protective type-2 immunogenicity to co-administered seasonal influenza split vaccine by inducing host-derived damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). However, like most other DAMP-inducing adjuvants such as aluminum hydroxide (Alum), HP-β-CyD may not be sufficient for the induction of protective type-1 (cellular) immune responses, thereby leaving room for improvement. Here, we demonstrate that a combination of HP-β-CyD with a humanized TLR9 agonist, K3 CpG-ODN, a potent pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), enhanced the protective efficacy of the co-administered influenza split vaccine by inducing antigen-specific type-2 and type-1 immune responses, respectively. Moreover, substantial antigen-specific IgE induction by HP-β-CyD, which can cause an allergic response to immunized antigen was completely suppressed by the addition of K3 CpG-ODN. Furthermore, HP-β-CyD- and K3 CpG-ODN-adjuvanted influenza split vaccination protected the mice against lethal challenge with high doses of heterologous influenza virus, which could not be protected against by single adjuvant vaccines. Further experiments using gene deficient mice revealed the unique immunological mechanism of action in vivo, where type-2 and type-1 immune responses enhanced by the combined adjuvants were dependent on TBK1 and TLR9, respectively, indicating their parallel signaling pathways. Finally, the analysis of immune responses in the draining lymph node suggested that HP-β-CyD promotes the uptake of K3 CpG-ODN by plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells, which may contributes to the activation of these cells and enhanced production of IgG2c. Taken together, the results above may offer potential clinical applications for the combination of DAMP-inducing adjuvant and PAMP adjuvant to improve vaccine immunogenicity and efficacy by enhancing both type-2 and type-1 immune responses in a parallel manner.

Is autophagy associated with diabetes mellitus and its complications? A review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an endocrine disorder. In coming decades it will be one of the leading causes of death globally. The key factors in the pathogenesis of diabetes are cellular injuries and disorders of energy metabolism leading to severe diabetic complications. Recent studies have confirmed that autophagy plays a pivotal role in diabetes and its complications. It has been observed that autophagy regulates the normal function of pancreatic β cells and insulin-target tissues, such as skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. This review will summarize the regulation of autophagy in diabetes and its complications, and explore how this process would emerge as a potential therapeutic target for diabetes treatment.

Supramolecular Pharmaceutical Sciences: A Novel Concept Combining Pharmaceutical Sciences and Supramolecular Chemistry with a Focus on Cyclodextrin-Based Supermolecules

Supramolecular chemistry is an extremely useful and important domain for understanding pharmaceutical sciences because various physiological reactions and drug activities are based on supramolecular chemistry. However, it is not a major domain in the pharmaceutical field. In this review, we propose a new concept in pharmaceutical sciences termed "supramolecular pharmaceutical sciences," which combines pharmaceutical sciences and supramolecular chemistry. This concept could be useful for developing new ideas, methods, hypotheses, strategies, materials, and mechanisms in pharmaceutical sciences. Herein, we focus on cyclodextrin (CyD)-based supermolecules, because CyDs have been used not only as pharmaceutical excipients or active pharmaceutical ingredients but also as components of supermolecules.

Dual targeting system by supramolecular complex of folate-conjugated methyl-β-cyclodextrin with adamantane-grafted hyaluronic acid for the treatment of colorectal cancer

In our previous study, we demonstrated that folate-appended methyl‑β‑cyclodextrin (FA-M-β-CyD) was a promising antitumor agent for the treatment of folate receptor-α (FR-α)-expressing tumors. In the present study, to enhance the antitumor effect of FA-M-β-CyD against FR-α- and CD44-expressing colorectal cancer cells, we synthesized a dual targeting supramolecular complex composed of FA-M-β-CyD and adamantane-grafted hyaluronic acid (Ad-HA). The supramolecular complex of Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD showed higher cytotoxic activity in HCT116 cells (FR-α (+), CD44 (+)), a human colon cancer cell line, than FA-M-β-CyD alone. In addition, the cytotoxic activity of Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD was significantly impaired by the addition of FA and HA, as inhibitors of FR-α and CD44, respectively. Furthermore, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC)-labeled FA-M-β-CyD was efficiently internalized into HCT116 cells through supramolecular complexation with Ad-HA, compared to that of TRITC-FA-M-β-CyD alone. Additionally, Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD induced mitophagy in HCT116 cells. These results suggest that Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD targeted HCT116 cells, as well as induced mitophagy-mediated cell death. Notably, an intravenous injection of the Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD complex in a mouse model of colorectal cancer significantly ameliorated the growth of tumor polyps. Collectively, these results suggest that Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD has antiproliferation effects in tumors, based on the dual targeting activity.

ER stress-mediated autophagic cell death induction through methylated β-cyclodextrins-threaded acid-labile polyrotaxanes

Autophagy plays a pivotal role in the development and prevention of numerous diseases, and the induction of autophagy is regarded as a potential therapeutic approach for intractable diseases. In this study, the induction of autophagy by methylated β-cyclodextrins (Me-β-CDs)-threaded acid-labile polyrotaxane (Me-PRX) that can release the threaded Me-β-CDs in response to acidic pH in lysosomes was investigated. We hypothesized that the Me-β-CDs released from the Me-PRX interact with the membrane of organelles and cause autophagy. The Me-PRX preferentially accumulated in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and caused ER stress, which was confirmed by gene expression analysis and the expression of an ER stress-marker protein. Accompanying the ER stress, cells treated with Me-PRX showed autophagy, which was not observed in cells treated with non-labile Me-PRX, other chemically modified PRXs, or free Me-β-CD. Furthermore, the Me-PRX treatment induced autophagic cell death and caused cell death even in apoptosis-resistant cells. Overall, this study demonstrates that the acid-labile Me-PRX induces ER stress-mediated autophagic cell death, and the Me-PRX would be a promising candidate to induce effective cell death in apoptosis-resistant malignant tumors.

The Effect of Methyl-β-cyclodextrin on Apoptosis, Proliferative Activity, and Oxidative Stress in Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells of Horses Suffering from Metabolic Syndrome (EMS)

Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide, commonly used as a pharmacological agent to deplete membrane cholesterol. In this study, we examined the effect of MβCD on adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASCs) isolated form healthy horses (ASC_CTRL) and from horses suffering from metabolic syndrome (ASC_EMS). We investigated the changes in the mRNA levels of the glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and found that MβCD application may lead to a significant improvement in glucose transport in ASC_EMS. We also showed that MβCD treatment affected GLUT4 upregulation in an insulin-independent manner via an NO-dependent signaling pathway. Furthermore, the analysis of superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels showed that MβCD treatment was associated with an increased antioxidant capacity in ASC_EMS. Moreover, we indicated that methyl-β-cyclodextrin treatment did not cause a dysfunction of the endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes. Thereby, we propose the possibility of improving the functionality of ASC_EMS by increasing their metabolic stability.

Supramolecular Complex of Methyl-β-cyclodextrin with Adamantane-Grafted Hyaluronic Acid as a Novel Antitumor Agent

Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CyD) exhibits cytotoxic activity, and has the potentials as an antitumor agent. However, a tumor-selectivity of M-β-CyD is low, leading to low antitumor activity and the adverse effects. Meanwhile, hyaluronic acid (HA) is known as a promising tumor targeting ligand, because various cancer cells overexpress CD44, a HA-binding glycoprotein. In the present study, to develop a tumor-selective delivery system for M-β-CyD, we designed a supramolecular complex of M-β-CyD with adamantane-grafted HA (Ad-HA/M-β-CyD) and evaluated it as a tumor-selective antitumor agent. M-β-CyD formed a stable complex with Ad-HA (K_c>10⁴ M^-1). In addition, Ad-HA/M-β-CyD formed slightly a negative-charged nanoparticle with ca. 140 nm of a particle size, indicating the favorable physicochemical properties for antitumor agents. Ad-HA/M-β-CyD showed the superior cytotoxic activity via CD44-mediated endosomal pathways in HCT116 cells (CD44(+)), a human colon cancer cell line. In addition, cytotoxic activity of Ad-HA/M-β-CyD was induced by apoptosis. These results suggest that Ad-HA/M-β-CyD has the potentials as a tumor-selective supramolecular antitumor agent.