Enhanced anticancer activity and intracellular uptake of paclitaxel-containing solid lipid nanoparticles in multidrug-resistant breast cancer cells

Precision arrows: Navigating breast cancer with nanotechnology siRNA

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, including siRNA, present an innovative approach to treating breast cancer, which disproportionately affects women. These systems enable personalized and targeted therapies, adept at managing drug resistance and minimizing off-target effects. This review delves into the current landscape of nanotechnology-derived siRNA transport systems for breast cancer treatment, discussing their mechanisms of action, preclinical and clinical research, therapeutic applications, challenges, and future prospects. Emphasis is placed on the importance of targeted delivery and precise gene silencing in improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes. The review addresses specific hurdles such as specificity, biodistribution, immunological reactions, and regulatory approval, offering potential solutions and avenues for future research. SiRNA drug delivery systems hold promise in revolutionizing cancer care and improving patient outcomes, but realizing their full potential necessitates ongoing research, innovation, and collaboration. Understanding the intricacies of siRNA delivery mechanisms is pivotal for designing effective cancer treatments, overcoming challenges, and advancing siRNA-based therapies for various diseases, including cancer. The article provides a comprehensive review of the methods involved in siRNA transport for therapeutic applications, particularly in cancer treatment, elucidating the complex journey of siRNA molecules from extracellular space to intracellular targets. Key mechanisms such as endocytosis, receptor-mediated uptake, and membrane fusion are explored, alongside innovative delivery vehicles and technologies that enhance siRNA delivery efficiency. Moreover, the article discusses challenges and opportunities in the field, including issues related to specificity, biodistribution, immune response, and clinical translation. By comprehending the mechanisms of siRNA delivery, researchers can design and develop more effective siRNA-based therapies for various diseases, including cancer.

Anticancer and Chemosensitizing Effects of Menadione-Containing Peptide-Targeted Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Vitamin K derivatives such as menadione (MD) have been recognized as promising redox-modulating and chemosensitizing agents for anticancer therapy, however, their cellular activities in peptide-targeted nanocarriers have not been elucidated to date. This study provides the guidelines for developing MD-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) modified with extracellular matrix (ECM)-derived peptides. Relationships between RGD peptide concentration and changes in DLS characteristics as well as accumulation of SLN in cancer cells were revealed to adjust the peptide-lipid ratio. SLN system maintained adequate nanoparticle concentration and low dispersity after introduction of MD and MD/RGD, whereas formulated MD was protected from immediate conjugation with reduced glutathione (GSH). RGD-modified MD-containing SLN showed enhanced prooxidant, GSH-depleting and cytotoxic activities toward PC-3 prostate cancer cells attributed to improved cellular pharmacokinetics of the targeted formulation. Furthermore, this formulation effectively sensitized PC-3 cells and OVCAR-4 ovarian cancer cells to free doxorubicin and cisplatin so that cell growth was inhibited by MD-drug composition at nontoxic concentrations of the ingredients. These results provide an important background for further improving chemotherapeutic methods based on combination of conventional cytostatics with peptide-targeted SLN formulations of MD.

Targeted Nanoparticle-Based Diagnostic and Treatment Options for Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), one of the deadliest cancers, presents significant challenges in diagnosis and treatment due to its aggressive, metastatic nature and lack of early detection methods. A key obstacle in PDAC treatment is the highly complex tumor environment characterized by dense stroma surrounding the tumor, which hinders effective drug delivery. Nanotechnology can offer innovative solutions to these challenges, particularly in creating novel drug delivery systems for existing anticancer drugs for PDAC, such as gemcitabine and paclitaxel. By using customization methods such as incorporating conjugated targeting ligands, tumor-penetrating peptides, and therapeutic nucleic acids, these nanoparticle-based systems enhance drug solubility, extend circulation time, improve tumor targeting, and control drug release, thereby minimizing side effects and toxicity in healthy tissues. Moreover, nanoparticles have also shown potential in precise diagnostic methods for PDAC. This literature review will delve into targeted mechanisms, pathways, and approaches in treating pancreatic cancer. Additional emphasis is placed on the study of nanoparticle-based delivery systems, with a brief mention of those in clinical trials. Overall, the overview illustrates the significant advances in nanomedicine, underscoring its role in transcending the constraints of conventional PDAC therapies and diagnostics.

A comprehensive review on lipid nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment: fabrication, future prospects and clinical trials

Over the last few decades, cancer has been considered a clinical challenge, being among the leading causes of mortality all over the world. Although many treatment approaches have been developed for cancer, chemotherapy is still the most utilized in the clinical setting. However, the available chemotherapeutics-based treatments have several caveats including their lack of specificity, adverse effects as well as cancer relapse and metastasis which mainly explains the low survival rate of patients. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been utilized as promising nanocarrier systems for chemotherapeutics to overcome the challenges of the currently applied therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Loading chemotherapeutic agent(s) into LNPs improves drug delivery at different aspects including specific targeting of tumours, and enhancing the bioavailability of drugs at the tumour site through selective release of their payload, thus reducing their undesired side effects on healthy cells. This review article delineates an overview of the clinical challenges in many cancer treatments as well as depicts the role of LNPs in achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the review contains a comprehensive description of the many LNPs categories used as nanocarriers in cancer treatment to date, as well as the potential of LNPs for future applications in other areas of medicine and research.

Nanomedicine-Based Drug-Targeting in Breast Cancer: Pharmacokinetics, Clinical Progress, and Challenges

Breast cancer (BC) is a malignant neoplasm that begins in the breast tissue. After skin cancer, BC is the second most common type of cancer in women. At the end of 2040, the number of newly diagnosed BC cases is projected to increase by over 40%, reaching approximately 3 million worldwide annually. The hormonal and chemotherapeutic approaches based on conventional formulations have inappropriate therapeutic effects and suboptimal pharmacokinetic responses with nonspecific targeting actions. To overcome such issues, the use of nanomedicines, including liposomes, nanoparticles, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, etc., has gained wider attention in the treatment of BC. Smaller dimensional nanomedicine (especially 50-200 nm) exhibited improved in vivo effectiveness, such as better tissue penetration and more effective tumor suppression through enhanced retention and permeation, as well as active targeting of the drug. Additionally, nanotechnology, which further extended and developed theranostic nanomedicine by incorporating diagnostic and imaging agents in one platform, has been applied to BC. Furthermore, hybrid and theranostic nanomedicine has also been explored for gene delivery as anticancer therapeutics in BC. Moreover, the nanocarriers' size, shape, surface charge, chemical compositions, and surface area play an important role in the nanocarriers' stability, cellular absorption, cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and toxicity. Additionally, nanomedicine clinical translation for managing BC remains a slow process. However, a few cases are being used clinically, and their progress with the current challenges is addressed in this Review. Therefore, this Review extensively discusses recent advancements in nanomedicine and its clinical challenges in BC.

(Nano)platforms in breast cancer therapy: Drug/gene delivery, advanced nanocarriers and immunotherapy

Breast cancer is the most malignant tumor in women, and there is no absolute cure for it. Although treatment modalities including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are utilized for breast cancer, it is still a life-threatening disease for humans. Nanomedicine has provided a new opportunity in breast cancer treatment, which is the focus of the current study. The nanocarriers deliver chemotherapeutic agents and natural products, both of which increase cytotoxicity against breast tumor cells and prevent the development of drug resistance. The efficacy of gene therapy is boosted by nanoparticles and the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9, Noncoding RNAs, and RNAi, promoting their potential for gene expression regulation. The drug and gene codelivery by nanoparticles can exert a synergistic impact on breast tumors and enhance cellular uptake via endocytosis. Nanostructures are able to induce photothermal and photodynamic therapy for breast tumor ablation via cell death induction. The nanoparticles can provide tumor microenvironment remodeling and repolarization of macrophages for antitumor immunity. The stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, including pH-, redox-, and light-sensitive, can mediate targeted suppression of breast tumors. Besides, nanoparticles can provide a diagnosis of breast cancer and detect biomarkers. Various kinds of nanoparticles have been employed for breast cancer therapy, including carbon-, lipid-, polymeric- and metal-based nanostructures, which are different in terms of biocompatibility and delivery efficiency.

Nanotechnology revolutionises breast cancer treatment: harnessing lipid-based nanocarriers to combat cancer cells

One of the most common cancers that occur in females is breast cancer. Despite the significant leaps and bounds that have been made in treatment of breast cancer, the disease remains one of the leading causes of death among women and a major public health challenge. The therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutics is hindered by chemoresistance and toxicity. Nano-based lipid drug delivery systems offer controlled drug release, nanometric size and site-specific targeting. Breast cancer treatment includes surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Despite this, no single method of treatment for the condition is currently effective due to cancer stem cell metastasis and chemo-resistance. Therefore, the employment of nanocarrier systems is necessary in order to target breast cancer stem cells. This article addresses breast cancer treatment options, including modern treatment procedures such as chemotherapy, etc. and some innovative therapeutic options highlighting the role of lipidic nanocarriers loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs such as nanoemulsion, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and liposomes, and their investigations have demonstrated that they can limit cancer cell growth, reduce the risk of recurrence, as well as minimise post-chemotherapy metastasis. This article also explores FDA-approved lipid-based nanocarriers, commercially available formulations, and ligand-based formulations that are being considered for further research.

Organic Nanodelivery Systems as a New Platform in the Management of Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review from Preclinical to Clinical Studies

Breast cancer accounts for approximately 25% of cancer cases and 16.5% of cancer deaths in women, and the World Health Organization predicts that the number of new cases will increase by almost 70% over the next two decades, mainly due to an ageing population. Effective diagnostic and treatment strategies are, therefore, urgently required for improving cure rates among patients since current therapeutic modalities have many limitations and side effects. Nanomedicine is evolving as a promising approach for cancer management, including breast cancer, and various types of organic and inorganic nanomaterials have been investigated for their role in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. Following an overview on breast cancer characteristics and pathogenesis and challenges of the current treatment strategies, the therapeutic potential of biocompatible organic-based nanoparticles such as liposomes and polymeric micelles that have been tested in breast cancer models are reviewed. The efficacies of different drug delivery and targeting strategies are documented, ranging from synthetic to cell-derived nanoformulations together with a summary of the interaction of nanoparticles with externally applied energy such as radiotherapy. The clinical translation of nanoformulations for breast cancer treatment is summarized including those undergoing clinical trials.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Applications and Prospects in Cancer Treatment

Recent advancements in drug delivery technologies paved a way for improving cancer therapeutics. Nanotechnology emerged as a potential tool in the field of drug delivery, overcoming the challenges of conventional drug delivery systems. In the field of nanotechnology, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) play a vital role with a wide range of diverse applications, namely drug delivery, clinical medicine, and cancer therapeutics. SLNs establish a significant role owing to their ability to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds, biocompatibility, ease of surface modification, scale-up feasibility, and possibilities of both active and passive targeting to various organs. In cancer therapy, SLNs have emerged as imminent nanocarriers for overcoming physiological barriers and multidrug resistance pathways. However, there is a need for special attention to be paid to further improving the conceptual understanding of the biological responses of SLNs in cancer therapeutics. Hence, further research exploration needs to be focused on the determination of the structure and strength of SLNs at the cellular level, both in vitro and in vivo, to develop potential therapeutics with reduced side effects. The present review addresses the various modalities of SLN development, SLN mechanisms in cancer therapeutics, and the scale-up potential and regulatory considerations of SLN technology. The review extensively focuses on the applications of SLNs in cancer treatment.

Glioblastoma Multiforme: Probing Solutions to Systemic Toxicity towards High-Dose Chemotherapy and Inflammatory Influence in Resistance against Temozolomide

Temozolomide (TMZ), the first-line chemotherapeutic drug against glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), often fails to provide the desired clinical outcomes due to inflammation-induced resistance amid inefficient drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The current study utilized solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs) for targeted delivery of TMZ against GBM. After successful formulation and characterization of SLNPs and conjugation with TMZ (SLNP-TMZ), their in-vitro anti-cancer efficacy and effect on the migratory potential of cancer cells were evaluated using temozolomide-sensitive (U87-S) as well as TMZ-resistant (U87-R) glioma cell lines. Elevated cytotoxicity and reduction in cell migration in both cell lines were observed with SLNP-TMZ as compared to the free drug (p < 0.05). Similar results were obtained in-vivo using an orthotopic xenograft mouse model (XM-S and XM-R), where a reduction in tumor size was observed with SLNP-TMZ treatment compared to TMZ. Concomitantly, higher concentrations of the drug were found in brain tissue resections of mice treated with SLNP-TMZ as compared to other vital organs than mice treated with free TMZ. Expression of inflammatory markers (Interleukin-1β, Interleukin-6 and Tumor Necrosis factor-α) in a resistant cell line (U87-R) and its respective mouse model (XM-R) were also found to be significantly elevated as compared to the sensitive U87-S cell line and its respective mouse model (XM-S). Thus, the in-vitro and in-vivo results of the study strongly support the potential application of SLNP-TMZ for TMZ-sensitive and resistant GBM therapy, indicatively through inflammatory mechanisms, and thus merit further detailed insights.

Enhanced drug delivery to cancer cells through a pH-sensitive polycarbonate platform

Polymer-drug conjugates are widely investigated to enhance the selectivity of therapeutic drugs to cancer cells, as well as increase circulation lifetime and solubility of poorly soluble drugs. In order to direct these structures selectively to cancer cells, targeting agents are often conjugated to the nanoparticle surface as a strategy to limit drug accumulation in non-cancerous cells and therefore reduce systemic toxicity. Here, we report a simple procedure to generate biodegradable polycarbonate graft copolymer nanoparticles that allows for highly efficient conjugation and intracellular release of S-(+)-camptothecin, a topoisomerase I inhibitor widely used in cancer therapy. The drug-polymer conjugate showed strong efficacy in inhibiting cell proliferation across a range of cancer cell lines over non-cancerous phenotypes, as a consequence of the increased intracellular accumulation and subsequent drug release specifically in cancer cells. The enhanced drug delivery towards cancer cells in vitro demonstrates the potential of this platform for selective treatments without the addition of targeting ligands.

Permeation enhancers loaded bilosomes for improved intestinal absorption and cytotoxic activity of doxorubicin

The clinical utility of doxorubicin is compromised due to dose related toxic side effects and limited oral bioavailability with no oral formulation being marketed. Enhancement of intestinal absorption and magnification of cytotoxicity can overcome these limitations. Accordingly, the objective was to probe penetration enhancers, bilosomes and their combinations for enhanced intestinal absorption and improved cytotoxicity of doxorubicin. Piperine and dipyridamole were tested as enhancers alone or encapsulated in bilosomes comprising Span60, cholesterol and bile salts. Bilosomes were nanosized spherical vesicles with negative zeta potential and were able to entrap doxorubicin with efficiency ranging from 45.3 % to 53 %. Intestinal absorption studies utilized in-situ rabbit intestinal perfusion which revealed site dependent doxorubicin absorption correlating with regional distribution of efflux transporters. Co-perfusion with the enhancer increased intestinal absorption with further augmentation after bilosomal encapsulation. The latter increased the % fraction absorbed by 4.5-6 and 1.8-2.5-fold from jejuno-ileum and colon, respectively, depending on bilosomes composition. Additionally, doxorubicin cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells (MCF-7) was significantly improved after bilosomal encapsulation and the recorded doxorubicin IC₅₀ value was reduced from 13.3 μM to 0.1 μM for the best formulation. The study introduced bilosomes encapsulating absorption enhancers as promising carriers for enhanced cytotoxicity and oral absorption of doxorubicin.

Emerging nanotechnology-based therapeutics to combat multidrug-resistant cancer

Cancer often develops multidrug resistance (MDR) when cancer cells become resistant to numerous structurally and functionally different chemotherapeutic agents. MDR is considered one of the principal reasons for the failure of many forms of clinical chemotherapy. Several factors are involved in the development of MDR including increased expression of efflux transporters, the tumor microenvironment, changes in molecular targets and the activity of cancer stem cells. Recently, researchers have designed and developed a number of small molecule inhibitors and derivatives of natural compounds to overcome various mechanisms of clinical MDR. Unfortunately, most of the chemosensitizing approaches have failed in clinical trials due to non-specific interactions and adverse side effects at pharmacologically effective concentrations. Nanomedicine approaches provide an efficient drug delivery platform to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapy and improve therapeutic effectiveness. Multifunctional nanomaterials have been found to facilitate drug delivery by improving bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs to overcome MDR. In this review article, we discuss the major factors contributing to MDR and the limitations of existing chemotherapy- and nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems to overcome clinical MDR mechanisms. We critically review recent nanotechnology-based approaches to combat tumor heterogeneity, drug efflux mechanisms, DNA repair and apoptotic machineries to overcome clinical MDR. Recent successful therapies of this nature include liposomal nanoformulations, cRGDY-PEG-Cy5.5-Carbon dots and Cds/ZnS core–shell quantum dots that have been employed for the effective treatment of various cancer sub-types including small cell lung, head and neck and breast cancers.

Antitumor Effects of a Solid Lipid Nanoparticle Loaded with Gemcitabine and Oxaliplatin on the Viability, Apoptosis, Autophagy and Hsp90 of Ovarian Cancer Cells

Aim: The present study aimed to explore the sensitizing capability of the anticancer agents, gemcitabine (GEM) and oxaliplatin (OXA), encapsulated in a novel SLN (GEM:OXA-SLN) against the ovarian cancer cell lines.

METHODS

A novel SLN, prepared using hot homogenization by mixing phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, tween 80 and oleic acid, was characterized using Transmission Electron Microscope and zetasizer. The anticancer activities and the underlying molecular mechanisms of GEM:OXA-SLN were investigated.

RESULTS

The average z-diameter of the homogeneous spherical GEM:OXA-SLN was (70.33 ± 0.70) nm with zeta potential (-7.69 ± 0.61) mV. GEM:OXA-SLN significantly inhibited the viability of ovarian cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner within 24 h. It also triggered the induction of autophagy cellular death, suppression of multidrug resistance efflux pump and inhibition of heat shock protein (Hsp90).

CONCLUSION

The encapsulation of GEM and OXA in SLN improved the efficacy of the drugs and diminished the ovarian cancer cell's resistance.

Receptor-Mediated Targeting in Breast Cancer through Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Its Mechanism

Nanoparticles have gained prominence in many areas and domains worldwide, such as metallic NP, carbon dots, quantum dots, polymeric NP, nano-suspension, nanocrystals, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), etc. and have been applied in the field of medicine as nanomedicine with promising results. Rise in cancer mortality rate has been an issue for a long time with female breast cancer as one of the most detected cancers. No permanent treatment has been developed till date could combat breast cancer with minimum side effects that are not long-lasting as there is no proper technique through which the anticancer drugs can recognize benign or malignant or normal cells that causes systematic toxicity. Advancement in technology has led to the discovery of many biological pathways and mechanisms. Tumor cells or cancer cells overexpress some high-affinity receptors that can be targeted to deliver the anticancer drugs at specific site using these pathways and mechanisms. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) are among some of the excellent drug delivery systems, especially stealth SLN (sSLN). SLN, when conjugated with a ligand (called as sSLN), has affinity and specificity towards a specific receptor, and can deliver the drug in breast cancer cells overexpressing the receptors. Using this technique, various investigations have reported better anti-breast cancer activity than simple SLN (non-conjugated to ligand or no receptor targeting). This review includes the investigations and data on receptor-mediated targeting in breast cancer from 2010 to 2021 by searching different databases. Overall, information on SLN in different cancers is reviewed. In vivo investigations, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and stability are discussed to describe the efficacy of sSLN. Investigations included in this review demonstrate that sSLN delivers the drug by overcoming the biological barriers and shows enhanced and better activity than non-conjugated SLN which also verifies that a lesser concentration of drug can show anti-breast cancer activity. The efficacy of medicines could be increased with lower cancer deaths through stealth-SLN. Due to the low cost of synthesis, biocompatibility and easy to formulate, more study is needed in vitro and in vivo so that this novel technique could be utilized in the treatment of human breast cancer.

Solid Self-Nano Emulsifying Nanoplatform Loaded with Tamoxifen and Resveratrol for Treatment of Breast Cancer

The solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (s-SNEDDS) is a growing platform for the delivery of drugs via oral route. In the present work, tamoxifen (TAM) was loaded in SNEDDS with resveratrol (RES), which is a potent chemotherapeutic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and P-gp inhibitor for enhancing bioavailability and to obtain synergistic anti-cancer effect against breast cancer. SNEDDS were developed using capmul MCM as oil, Tween 80 as surfactant and transcutol-HP as co-surfactant and optimized by central composite rotatable design. Neusilin US2 concentration was optimized for adsorption of liquid SNEDDS to prepare s-SNEDDS. The developed formulation was characterized and investigated for various in vitro and cell line comparative studies. Optimized TAM-RES-s-SNEDDS showed spherical droplets of a size less than 200 nm. In all in vitro studies, TAM-RES-s-SNEDDS showed significantly improved (p ˂ 0.05) release and permeation across the dialysis membrane and intestinal lumen. Moreover, TAM-RES-s-SNEDDS possessed significantly greater therapeutic efficacy (p < 0.05) and better internalization on the MCF-7 cell line as compared to the conventional formulation. Additionally, oral bioavailability of TAM from SNEDDS was 1.63 folds significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of combination suspension and 4.16 folds significantly higher (p < 0.05) than TAM suspension. Thus, findings suggest that TAM- RES-s-SNEDDS can be the future delivery system that potentially delivers both drugs to cancer cells for better treatment.

pH-sensitive nanoliposomes for passive and CXCR-4-mediated marine yessotoxin delivery for cancer therapy

Background: Yessotoxin (YTX), a marine-derived drug, was encapsulated in PEGylated pH-sensitive nanoliposomes, covalently functionalized (strategy I) with SDF-1α and by nonspecific adsorption (strategy II), to actively target chemokine receptor CXCR-4. Methods: Cytotoxicity to normal human epithelial cells (HK-2) and prostate (PC-3) and breast (MCF-7) adenocarcinoma models, with different expression levels of CXCR-4, were tested. Results: Strategy II exerted the highest cytotoxicity toward cancer cells while protecting normal epithelia. Acid pH-induced fusion of nanoliposomes seemed to serve as a primary route of entry into MCF-7 cells but PC-3 data support an endocytic pathway for their internalization. Conclusion: This work describes an innovative hallmark in the current marine drug clinical pipeline, as the developed nanoliposomes are promising candidates in the design of groundbreaking marine flora-derived anticancer nanoagents.

Nanomedicine-Based Delivery Strategies for Breast Cancer Treatment and Management

Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among women globally. It is caused by mutations in the estrogen/progesterone receptors and conventional treatment methods are commonly utilized. About 70–80 percent of individuals with the early-stage non-metastatic disease may be cured. Conventional treatment is far less than the optimal ratio, as demonstrated through the high mortality rate of women with this cancer. However, conventional treatment methods like surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are not as effective as expected and lead to concerns about low bioavailability, low cellular uptake, emerging resistance, and adverse toxicities. A nanomedicine-based approach is a promising alternative for breast cancer treatment. The present era is witnessing rapid advancements in nanomedicine as a platform for investigating novel therapeutic applications and modern intelligent healthcare management strategies. This paper focuses on nanomedicine-based therapeutic interventions that are becoming more widely accepted for improving treatment effectiveness and reducing undesired side effects in breast cancer patients. By evaluating the state-of-the-art tools and taking the challenges involved into consideration, various aspects of the proposed nano-enabled therapeutic approaches have been discussed in this review.

Magnetic Solid Nanoparticles and Their Counterparts: Recent Advances towards Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is currently a leading cause of death worldwide. The World Health Organization estimates an increase of 60% in the global cancer incidence in the next two decades. The inefficiency of the currently available therapies has prompted an urgent effort to develop new strategies that enable early diagnosis and improve response to treatment. Nanomedicine formulations can improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of conventional therapies and result in optimized cancer treatments. In particular, theranostic formulations aim at addressing the high heterogeneity of tumors and metastases by integrating imaging properties that enable a non-invasive and quantitative assessment of tumor targeting efficiency, drug delivery, and eventually the monitoring of the response to treatment. However, in order to exploit their full potential, the promising results observed in preclinical stages need to achieve clinical translation. Despite the significant number of available functionalization strategies, targeting efficiency is currently one of the major limitations of advanced nanomedicines in the oncology area, highlighting the need for more efficient nanoformulation designs that provide them with selectivity for precise cancer types and tumoral tissue. Under this current need, this review provides an overview of the strategies currently applied in the cancer theranostics field using magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), where both nanocarriers have recently entered the clinical trials stage. The integration of these formulations into magnetic solid lipid nanoparticles—with different composition and phenotypic activity—constitutes a new generation of theranostic nanomedicines with great potential for the selective, controlled, and safe delivery of chemotherapy.

Paclitaxel Drug Delivery Systems: Focus on Nanocrystals' Surface Modifications

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a chemotherapeutic agent that belongs to the taxane family and which was approved to treat various kinds of cancers including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, advanced non-small-cell lung cancer, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. Several delivery systems for PTX have been developed to enhance its solubility and pharmacological properties involving liposomes, nanoparticles, microparticles, micelles, cosolvent methods, and the complexation with cyclodextrins and other materials that are summarized in this article. Specifically, this review discusses deeply the developed paclitaxel nanocrystal formulations. As PTX is a hydrophobic drug with inferior water solubility properties, which are improved a lot by nanocrystal formulation. Based on that, many studies employed nano-crystallization techniques not only to improve the oral delivery of PTX, but IV, intraperitoneal (IP), and local and intertumoral delivery systems were also developed. Additionally, superior and interesting properties of PTX NCs were achieved by performing additional modifications to the NCs, such as stabilization with surfactants and coating with polymers. This review summarizes these delivery systems by shedding light on their route of administration, the methods used in the preparation and modifications, the in vitro or in vivo models used, and the advantages obtained based on the developed formulations.

Drug Delivery of Natural Products Through Nanocarriers for Effective Breast Cancer Therapy: A Comprehensive Review of Literature

Despite recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer (BC), it remains a global health issue affecting millions of women annually. Poor prognosis in BC patients is often linked to drug resistance as well as the lack of effective therapeutic options for metastatic and triple-negative BC. In response to these unmet needs, extensive research efforts have been devoted to exploring the anti-BC potentials of natural products owing to their multi-target mechanisms of action and good safety profiles. Various medicinal plant extracts/essential oils and natural bioactive compounds have demonstrated anti-cancer activities in preclinical BC models. Despite the promising preclinical results, however, the clinical translation of natural products has often been hindered by their poor stability, aqueous solubility and bioavailability. There have been attempts to overcome these limitations, particularly via the use of nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs). This review highlights the tumour targeting mechanisms of NDDSs, the advantages and disadvantages of the major classes of NDDSs and their current clinical status in BC treatment. Besides, it also discusses the proposed anti-BC mechanisms and nanoformulations of nine medicinal plants' extracts/essential oils and nine natural bioactive compounds; selected via the screening of various scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar, based on the following keywords: "Natural Product AND Nanoparticle AND Breast Cancer". Overall, these nanoformulations exhibit improved anti-cancer efficacy against preclinical BC models, with some demonstrating biocompatibility with normal cell lines and mouse models. Further clinical studies are, however, warranted to ascertain their efficacy and biocompatibility in humans.

Nanotherapeutics approaches to overcome P-glycoprotein-mediated multi-drug resistance in cancer

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer chemotherapy is a growing concern for medical practitioners. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression is one of the major reasons for multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy. The P-gp overexpression in cancer cells depends on several factors like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis, hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α), and drug physicochemical properties such as lipophilicity, molecular weight, and molecular size. Further multiple exposures of anticancer drugs to the P-gp efflux protein cause acquired P-gp overexpression. Unique structural and functional characteristics of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems provide opportunities to circumvent P-gp mediated MDR. The primary mechanism behind the nanocarrier systems in P-gp inhibition includes: bypassing or inhibiting the P-gp efflux pump to combat MDR. In this review, we discuss the role of P-gp in MDR and highlight the recent progress in different nanocarriers to overcome P-gp mediated MDR in terms of their limitations and potentials.

A targeted combinatorial therapy for Ewing's sarcoma

Ewing's sarcoma (EwS) is the second most common bone cancer in children and adolescents. Current chemotherapy regimens are mainly ineffective in patients with relapsed disease and cause long-term effects in survivors. Therefore, we have developed a combinatorial therapy based on a novel drug candidate named ML111 that exhibits selective activity against EwS cells and synergizes with vincristine. To increase the aqueous solubility of hydrophobic ML111, polymeric nanoparticles (ML111-NP) were developed. In vitro data revealed that ML111-NP compromise viability of EwS cells without affecting non-malignant cells. Furthermore, ML111-NP exhibit strong synergistic effects in a combination with vincristine on EwS cells, while this drug pair exhibits antagonistic effects towards normal cells. Finally, animal studies validated that ML111-NP efficiently accumulate in orthotopic EwS xenografts after intravenous injection and provide superior therapeutic outcomes in a combination with vincristine without evident toxicity. These results support the potential of the ML111-based combinatorial therapy for EwS.

Glimpse into Cellular Internalization and Intracellular Trafficking of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in Cancer Cells

Lipid-based nanoparticles as drug delivery carriers have been mainly used for delivery of anti-cancer therapeutic agents. Lipid-based nanoparticles, due to their smaller particle size and similarity to cell membranes, are readily internalized into cancer cells. Interestingly, cancer cells also overexpress receptors for specific ligands including folic acid, hyaluronic acid, and transferrin on their surface. This allows the use of these ligands for surface modification of the lipid-based nanoparticle. These modifications then allow the specific recognition of these ligand-coated nanoparticles by their receptors on cancer cells allowing the targeted gradual intracellular accumulation of the functionalized nanoplatforms. These interactions could eventually enhance the internalization of desired drugs via increasing ligand-receptor mediated cellular uptake of the nanoplatforms. The cellular internalization of the nanoplatforms also varies and depends on their physicochemical properties including particle size, zeta potential, and shape. The cellular uptake is also influenced by the types of ligand internalization pathway utilized by cells such as phagocytosis, macropinocytosis, and multiple endocytosis pathways. In this review, we will classify and discuss lipid based nanoparticles engineered to express specific ligands, and are recognized by their receptors on cancer cell, and their cellular internalization pathways. Moreover, the intracellular fate of nanoparticles decorated with specific ligands and the best internalization pathways (caveolae mediated endocytosis) for safe cargo delivery will be discussed.

Role of Endocytosis Pathways in Electropermeablization of MCF7 Cells Using Low Voltage and High Frequency Electrochemotherapy

Objective

The cell membrane is a major barrier for delivery of hydrophilic drugs and molecules into the cells. Although low voltage and high frequency electric fields (LVHF) are proposed to overcome the cell membrane barrier, the mechanism of membrane permeabilization is unclear. The aim of study is to investigate endocytosis pathways as a possible mechanism for enhancing uptake of bleomycin by LVHF.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, MCF-7 cells were exposed to bleomycin or to electric fields with various strengths (10-80 V/cm), frequency of 5 kHz, 4000 electric pulse and 100 µs duration in the presence and absence of three endocytosis inhibitors-chlorpromazine (Cpz), amiloride (Amilo) and genistein (Geni). We determined the efficiency of these chemotherapeutic agents in each group.

Results

LVHF, depending on the intensity, induced different endocytosis pathways. Electric field strengths of 10 and 20 V/cm stimulated the macropinocytosis route. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis was observed at electric field intensities of 10, 30, 60 and 70 V/cm, whereas induction of caveolae-mediated endocytosis was observed only at the lowest electric field intensity (10 V/cm).

Conclusion

The results of this study imply that LVHF can induce different endocytosis pathways in MCF-7 cells, which leads to an increase in bleomycin uptake.

Drug Resistance in Metastatic Breast Cancer: Tumor Targeted Nanomedicine to the Rescue

Breast cancer, specifically metastatic breast, is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in women. This is mainly due to relapse and reoccurrence of tumor. The primary reason for cancer relapse is the development of multidrug resistance (MDR) hampering the treatment and prognosis. MDR can occur due to a multitude of molecular events, including increased expression of efflux transporters such as P-gp, BCRP, or MRP1; epithelial to mesenchymal transition; and resistance development in breast cancer stem cells. Excessive dose dumping in chemotherapy can cause intrinsic anti-cancer MDR to appear prior to chemotherapy and after the treatment. Hence, novel targeted nanomedicines encapsulating chemotherapeutics and gene therapy products may assist to overcome cancer drug resistance. Targeted nanomedicines offer innovative strategies to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapy while permitting enhanced selectivity to cancer cells. Targeted nanotheranostics permit targeted drug release, precise breast cancer diagnosis, and importantly, the ability to overcome MDR. The article discusses various nanomedicines designed to selectively target breast cancer, triple negative breast cancer, and breast cancer stem cells. In addition, the review discusses recent approaches, including combination nanoparticles (NPs), theranostic NPs, and stimuli sensitive or “smart” NPs. Recent innovations in microRNA NPs and personalized medicine NPs are also discussed. Future perspective research for complex targeted and multi-stage responsive nanomedicines for metastatic breast cancer is discussed.

The role of caveolin-1 in the biofate and efficacy of anti-tumor drugs and their nano-drug delivery systems

As one of the most important components of caveolae, caveolin-1 is involved in caveolae-mediated endocytosis and transcytosis pathways, and also plays a role in regulating the cell membrane cholesterol homeostasis and mediating signal transduction. In recent years, the relationship between the expression level of caveolin-1 in the tumor microenvironment and the prognostic effect of tumor treatment and drug treatment resistance has also been widely explored. In addition, the interplay between caveolin-1 and nano-drugs is bidirectional. Caveolin-1 could determine the intracellular biofate of specific nano-drugs, preventing from lysosomal degradation, and facilitate them penetrate into deeper site of tumors by transcytosis; while some nanocarriers could also affect caveolin-1 levels in tumor cells, thereby changing certain biophysical function of cells. This article reviews the role of caveolin-1 in tumor prognosis, chemotherapeutic drug resistance, antibody drug sensitivity, and nano-drug delivery, providing a reference for the further application of caveolin-1 in nano-drug delivery systems.

Oral administration co-delivery nanoparticles of docetaxel and bevacizumab for improving intestinal absorption and enhancing anticancer activity

In this study, to improve the intestinal absorption of small molecule chemotherapeutic drug docetaxel (DTX) and macromolecular monoclonal antibody drug bevacizumab (BVZ), we designed and prepared a type of co-delivery nanoparticles for the oral administration of DTX and BVZ. Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) were used as the carrier of DTX nanoparticles (CPNP_DTX), and methoxy polyethylene glycol-poly (β-amino ester) (mPEG-PAE) was used as the carrier of BVZ nanoparticles (PPNP_BVZ). Then, the two nanoparticles were physically mixed in mass ratios to form mixed co-delivery nanoparticles, which was named as CPNP_DTX&PPNP_BVZ. The nanoparticles were characterized with pH-sensitive drug release property. CPNP_DTX&PPNP_BVZ could significantly increase the bioavailability of DTX and BVZ according to the more cellular uptake in Caco-2 cells and the higher absorption in the intestinal tissue. Compared with free DTX and BVZ, CPNP_DTX&PPNP_BVZ showed excellent cytotoxic effects on A549 cells. Our study revealed the potential of co-delivery nanoparticles of binary mixture of chemotherapeutic small molecule and macromolecular antibody drug as an oral administration therapeutic system.

Formulation and Characterization of Phytostanol Ester Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for the Management of Hypercholesterolemia: An ex vivo Study

BACKGROUND

Phytostanols are naturally occurring compounds that reduce blood cholesterol levels significantly. However, their aqueous insolubility poses formulation challenges.

AIM

To formulate and characterize solid lipid nanoparticle carriers for phytostanol esters to enhance the bioavailability of phytostanols.

METHODS

Phytostanol ester solid lipid nanoparticles were formulated by the microemulsion method. They were characterized for particle size distribution, polydispersity index, shape, surface charge, entrapment efficiency, stability, chemical structure, and thermal properties. The uptake of the formulation by cell lines, HepG2 and HT-29, and its effect on cell viability were evaluated.

RESULTS

The formulation of solid lipid nanoparticles was successfully optimised by varying the type of lipids and their concentration relative to that of surfactants in the present study. The optimised formulation had an average diameter of (171 ± 9) nm, a negative surface charge of (-23.0 ± 0.8) mV and was generally spherical in shape. We report high levels of drug entrapment at (89 ± 5)% in amorphous form, drug loading of (9.1 ± 0.5)%, nanoparticle yield of (67 ± 4)% and drug excipient compatibility. The biological safety and uptake of the formulations were demonstrated on hepatic and intestinal cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Phytostanol ester solid lipid nanoparticles were successfully formulated and characterized. The formulation has the potential to provide an innovative drug delivery system for phytostanols which reduce cholesterol and have a potentially ideal safety profile. This can contribute to better management of one of the main risk factors of cardiovascular diseases.

Role of non-coding RNAs in modulating the response of cancer cells to paclitaxel treatment

Paclitaxel is a chemotherapeutic substance that is administered for treatment of an extensive spectrum of human malignancies. In spite of its potent short-term effects against tumor cells, resistance to paclitaxel occurs in a number of patients precluding its long-term application in these patients. Non-coding RNAs have been shown to influence response of cancer cells to this chemotherapeutic agent via different mechanisms. Mechanistically, these transcripts regulate expression of several genes particularly those being involved in the apoptotic processes. Lots of in vivo and in vitro assays have demonstrated the efficacy of oligonucleotide-mediated microRNAs (miRNA)/ long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) silencing in enhancement of response of cancer cells to paclitaxel. Therefore, targeted therapies against non-coding RNAs have been suggested as applicable modalities for combatting resistance to this agent. In the present review, we provide a summary of studies which assessed the role of miRNAs and lncRNAs in conferring resistance to paclitaxel.

Nanoparticles and its biomedical applications in health and diseases: special focus on drug delivery

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology that deals with nanosized particles possessing crucial research roles and application. Disciplines like chemistry, biology, physics, engineering, materials science, and health sciences provide an accumulated knowledge of nanotechnology. Nonetheless, it has vast submissions precisely in biology, electronics, and medicine. Aimed at drug delivery system, nanoparticles are based on the mechanism of entrapment of the drugs or biomolecules into the interior structure of the particles; another mechanism could be that the drugs or the biomolecules can be absorbed onto the exterior surfaces of the particles. Currently, nanoparticles (NPs) are used in the delivery of drugs, proteins, genes, vaccines, polypeptides, nucleic acids, etc. In recent years, various applications of the drug delivery system via NPs have encountered an enormous position sector like pharmaceutical, medical, biological, and others. Considering the impact of NPs in drug delivery systems, this review focuses on the detailed profile of NPs, its impact on biology and medicine, and their commercialization prospects.

Drug uptake-based chemoresistance in breast cancer treatment

Breast cancer is the most prevalent type of tumor and the second leading cause of death due to cancer among women. Although screening methods, diagnosis and therapeutic options have improved in the last decade, chemoresistance remains an important challenge. There is evidence relating breast cancer resistance with signaling pathways involving hormone and growth receptors, survival, apoptosis and the activation of efflux pumps. However, the resistance mechanisms linked to drug uptake are poorly understood, despite it often being observed that the drug content is lower in resistant cancer cells and that the entry of the drug into these cells is a limiting process for the subsequent therapeutic effect.In this review, we provide an overview of drug uptake-based resistance mechanisms developed by cancer cells in the four main types of chemotherapy used in breast cancer: anthracyclines, taxanes, oxazaphosphorines and platinum-based drugs. The contribution of tumor microenvironment to reduced drug-uptake and multidrug resistance is also analyzed. As a developing field, nanomedicine-based approaches provide promising opportunities to improve drug specific targeting, cell interaction and uptake into cancer cells. The endocytic-mediated pathways attributed to the different types of nanoformulations as well as the contribution of nanotherapeutics to overcoming chemoresistance affecting drug uptake in breast cancer will be described. New approaches focusing on drug uptake mechanisms could improve breast cancer chemotherapy, obtaining better dose-response outcomes and reducing toxic side effects.

Phosphatidylserine targeting peptide-functionalized pH sensitive mixed micelles for enhanced anti-tumor drug delivery

In recent decades, targeted drug delivery systems (TDDS) have been widely used as an ideal method of improving therapeutic effects and reducing systemic side effects of chemotherapeutic agents. Historically, a handful of methods have been developed to further improve the targeting ability of delivery systems. Thus, in this study, two methods, taking advantage of tumor characteristics, were used for the creation of a multi-targeted delivery system. The first was the fabrication of pH-sensitive micelles, lending the ability to increase drug release by exploiting the acidic tumor environment. The second method was through utilization of the surface-exposed phosphatidylserine (PS) of tumors, which is normally found in the inner leaflet in healthy cells. Using PS as a target site, PS binding peptide (PSBP-6) was conjugated to pH-sensitive mixed micelles, (consisting of poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly (D, L-lactide) (PEG-PDLLA) and poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly (L-histidine) (PEG-PHIS)). After successful preparation of micelles, paclitaxel (PTX), a common chemotherapeutic agent, was selected to measure drug loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency, showing 7.9% and 83.5%, respectively. The in vitro release of PTX from mixed micelles at pH 5.0, 6.5, and 7.4 was 78.1, 56.8, and 51.4%, respectively, indicating acid-triggered drug release. The PSBP-6-modified, mixed micelles exhibited significantly enhanced in vitro cytotoxicity and demonstrated more efficient cellular uptake compared to unmodified mixed micelles in the HeLa cell line. Moreover, pharmacokinetic, in vivo biodistribution, and fluorescence imaging studies showed that PSBP-6-PEG-PDLLA/PEG-PHIS mixed micelles provide prolonged time in blood circulation and enhanced tumor accumulation. These results suggest that the use of PS as a novel targeting site is advantageous, and that these new multi-targeted mixed micelles show great potential for realization of broad prospects in the targeted treatment of tumors for chemotherapeutic delivery.

Nanotechnology, in silico and endocrine-based strategy for delivering paclitaxel and miRNA: Prospects for the therapeutic management of breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent and reoccurring cancers and the second most common reason of death in women. Despite advancements in therapeutic strategies for breast cancer, early tumor recurrence and metastasis in patients indicate resistance to chemotherapeutic medicines, such as paclitaxel due to the abnormal expression of ER and EGF2 in breast cancer cells. Therefore, the development of alternatives to paclitaxel is urgently needed to overcome challenges involving drug resistance. An increasing number of studies has revealed miRNAs as novel natural alternative substances that play a crucial role in regulating several physiological processes and have a close, adverse association with several diseases, including breast cancer. Due to the therapeutic potential of miRNA and paclitaxel in cancer research, the current review focuses on the differential roles of various miRNAs in breast cancer development and treatment. miRNA delivery to a specific target site, the development of paclitaxel and miRNA formulations, and nanotechnological strategies for the delivery of nanopaclitaxel in the management of breast cancer are discussed. These strategies involve improving the cellular uptake and bioavailability and reducing the toxicity of free paclitaxel to achieve accumulation tumor site. Furthermore, a molecular docking study was performed to ascertain the enhanced anticancer activity of the nanoformulation of ANG1005 and Abraxane. An in silico analysis revealed that ANG1005 and Abraxane nanoformulations have superior and significantly enhanced interactions with the proteins α-tubulin and Bcl-2. Therefore, ANG1005 and Abraxane may be more suitable in the therapeutic management of breast cancer than the existing free paclitaxel. miRNAs can revert abnormal gene expression to normalcy; since miRNAs serve as tumor suppressors. Therefore, restoration of particular miRNAs levels as a replacement therapy may be an effective endocrine potential strategy for treating ER positive/ negative breast cancers.

Nanomedicine in treatment of breast cancer - A challenge to conventional therapy

Amongst the various types of cancer, breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and known as the leading cause of death among women globally. The extensive interdisciplinary investigation in nanotechnology and cancer biomedical research has been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, the advent of chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer is one of the major confront researchers are facing in achieving successful chemotherapy. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the years have now been revolutionized through the development of smart polymers, lipids, inorganic materials and eventually their surface-engineering with targeting ligands. Moreover, nanotechnology further extended and brings in the notice the new theranostic approach which combining the therapy and imaging simultaneously. Currently, research is being envisaged in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical design viz. liposome, nanotubes, polymer lipid hybrid system, which focuses to make the chemotherapy curative and long-lasting. In this review, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered/targeted nanomedicines that improved the drug efficacy in breast cancer.

Application of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles to Improve the Efficiency of Anticancer Drugs

Drug delivery systems have opened new avenues to improve the therapeutic effects of already-efficient molecules. Particularly, Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have emerged as promising nanocarriers in cancer therapy. SLNs offer remarkable advantages such as low toxicity, high bioavailability of drugs, versatility of incorporation of hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, and feasibility of large-scale production. Their molecular structure is crucial to obtain high quality SLN preparations and it is determined by the relationship between the composition and preparation method. Additionally, SLNs allow overcoming several physiological barriers that hinder drug delivery to tumors and are also able to escape multidrug resistance mechanisms, characteristic of cancer cells. Focusing on cell delivery, SLNs can improve drug delivery to target cells by different mechanisms, such as passive mechanisms that take advantage of the tumor microenvironment, active mechanisms by surface modification of SLNs, and codelivery mechanisms. SLNs can incorporate many different drugs and have proven to be effective in different types of tumors (i.e., breast, lung, colon, liver, and brain), corroborating their potential. Finally, it has to be taken into account that there are still some challenges to face in the application of SLNs in anticancer treatments but their possibilities seem to be high.