Folic acid-modified ginsenoside Rg5-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles for targeted cancer therapy in vitro and in vivo

Natural compounds-based nanomedicines for cancer treatment: Future directions and challenges

Several efforts have been extensively accomplished for the amelioration of the cancer treatments using different types of new drugs and less invasives therapies in comparison with the traditional therapeutic modalities, which are widely associated with numerous drawbacks, such as drug resistance, non-selectivity and high costs, restraining their clinical response. The application of natural compounds for the prevention and treatment of different cancer cells has attracted significant attention from the pharmaceuticals and scientific communities over the past decades. Although the use of nanotechnology in cancer therapy is still in the preliminary stages, the application of nanotherapeutics has demonstrated to decrease the various limitations related to the use of natural compounds, such as physical/chemical instability, poor aqueous solubility, and low bioavailability. Despite the nanotechnology has emerged as a promise to improve the bioavailability of the natural compounds, there are still limited clinical trials performed for their application with various challenges required for the pre-clinical and clinical trials, such as production at an industrial level, assurance of nanotherapeutics long-term stability, physiological barriers and safety and regulatory issues. This review highlights the most recent advances in the nanocarriers for natural compounds secreted from plants, bacteria, fungi, and marine organisms, as well as their role on cell signaling pathways for anticancer treatments. Additionally, the clinical status and the main challenges regarding the natural compounds loaded in nanocarriers for clinical applications were also discussed.

Albumin Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Nanoparticle-based systems are extensively investigated for drug delivery. Among others, with superior biocompatibility and enhanced targeting capacity, albumin appears to be a promising carrier for drug delivery. Albumin nanoparticles are highly favored in many disease therapies, as they have the proper chemical groups for modification, cell-binding sites for cell adhesion, and affinity to protein drugs for nanocomplex generation. Herein, this review summarizes the recent fabrication techniques, modification strategies, and application of albumin nanoparticles. We first discuss various albumin nanoparticle fabrication methods, from both pros and cons. Then, we provide a comprehensive introduction to the modification section, including organic albumin nanoparticles, metal albumin nanoparticles, inorganic albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanoparticle-based hybrids. We finally bring further perspectives on albumin nanoparticles used for various critical diseases.

Nanoencapsulation of extracts and isolated compounds of plant origin and their cytotoxic effects on breast and cervical cancer treatments: Advantages and new challenges

This review analyzes the current progress in loaded nanoparticles (NPs) of plant extracts or isolated antineoplastic compounds used in breast and cervical cancer treatments. Also, it provides a comprehensive overview of the contributions made by traditional medicine and nanomedicine to the research of two of the most prevalent types of cancer in women worldwide: breast and cervical cancer. Searches were conducted in electronic databases to gather relevant information related to the biological activity of the NPs, which were meticulously reviewed. Nanomedicine has advanced to incorporate plant compounds including their crude extracts, in the preparation of NPs. The most used method is green synthesis, whose most outstanding advantages, is the reduced preparation time, and the variety of results that can be obtained depending on the reaction times, pH, temperature, and concentration of both the bio-reducing agent and the compound or plant extract. Most of the studies focus on evaluating crude extracts with high polarity, such as aqueous, alcoholic, and hydroalcoholic extracts. In conclusion, exploring the use of organic compounds is considered an area of opportunity for further research and future perspectives. Most of the analyzed studies were conducted using in vitro assays, highlighting the relatively recent nature of this field. It is expected that future research will involve more in vivo assays, particularly focusing on isolated cell lines representing the most difficult-to-treat types of cancer, such as triple-negative breast cancer like MDA-MB-231. Notably the MCF-7 cell line is one of the most used, while limited studies were found concerning cervical cancer.

Ginsenoside Rg5 as an anticancer drug: a comprehensive review on mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, and prospects for clinical advancement

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death in the world. Despite the considerable success of conventional treatment strategies, the incidence and mortality rates are still high, making developing new effective anticancer therapies an urgent priority. Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5) is a minor ginsenoside constituent obtained exclusively from ginseng species and is known for its broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. This article aimed to comprehensively review the anticancer properties of Rg5, focusing on action mechanisms, structure-activity relationship (SAR), and pharmacokinetics attributes. The in vitro and in vivo activities of Rg5 have been proven against several cancer types, such as breast, liver, lung, bone, and gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. The modulation of multiple signaling pathways critical for cancer growth and survival mediates these activities. Nevertheless, human clinical studies of Rg5 have not been addressed before, and there is still considerable ambiguity regarding its pharmacokinetics properties. In addition, a significant shortage in the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of Rg5 has been identified. Therefore, future efforts should focus on further optimization by performing extensive SAR studies to uncover the structural features essential for the potent anticancer activity of Rg5. Thus, this review highlights the value of Rg5 as a potential anticancer drug candidate and identifies the research areas requiring more investigation.

Self-assembled nanodrug delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs from traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a combination of raw herbs and herbal extracts with a plethora of documented beneficial bioactivities, which has unique advantages in anti-tumor therapy, and many of its major bioactive molecules have been identified in recent years due to advances in chemical separation and structural analysis. However, the major chemical classes of plant-derived bioactive compounds frequently possess chemical properties, including poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability, that limit their therapeutic application. Alternatively, natural small molecules (NSMs) containing these components possess modifiable groups, multiple action sites, hydrophobic side chains, and a rigid skeleton with self-assembly properties that can be exploited to construct self-assembled nanoparticles with therapeutic effects superior to their individual constituents. For instance, the construction of a self-assembled nanodrug delivery system can effectively overcome the strong hydrophobicity and poor in vivo stability of NSMs, thereby greatly improving their bioavailability and enhancing their anti-tumor efficacy. This review summarizes the self-assembly methods, mechanisms, and applications of a variety of NSMs, including terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and saponins, providing a theoretical basis for the subsequent research on NSMs and the development of SANDDS.

Package delivered: folate receptor-mediated transporters in cancer therapy and diagnosis

Neoplasias pose a significant threat to aging society, underscoring the urgent need to overcome the limitations of traditional chemotherapy through pioneering strategies. Targeted drug delivery is an evolving frontier in cancer therapy, aiming to enhance treatment efficacy while mitigating undesirable side effects. One promising avenue utilizes cell membrane receptors like the folate receptor to guide drug transporters precisely to malignant cells. Based on the cellular folate receptor as a cancer cell hallmark, targeted nanocarriers and small molecule-drug conjugates have been developed that comprise different (bio) chemistries and/or mechanical properties with individual advantages and challenges. Such modern folic acid-conjugated stimuli-responsive drug transporters provide systemic drug delivery and controlled release, enabling reduced dosages, circumvention of drug resistance, and diminished adverse effects. Since the drug transporters' structure-based de novo design is increasingly relevant for precision cancer remediation and diagnosis, this review seeks to collect and debate the recent approaches to deliver therapeutics or diagnostics based on folic acid conjugated Trojan Horses and to facilitate the understanding of the relevant chemistry and biochemical pathways. Focusing exemplarily on brain and breast cancer, recent advances spanning 2017 to 2023 in conjugated nanocarriers and small molecule drug conjugates were considered, evaluating the chemical and biological aspects in order to improve accessibility to the field and to bridge chemical and biomedical points of view ultimately guiding future research in FR-targeted cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Angelica Sinensis Polysaccharide-Based Nanoparticles for Liver-Targeted Delivery of Oridonin

The present work aimed to study the feasibility of Angelica sinensis polysaccharide (ASP) as an instinctive liver targeting drug delivery carrier for oridonin (ORI) in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). ASP was reacted with deoxycholic acid (DOCA) via an esterification reaction to form an ASP-DOCA conjugate. ORI-loaded ASP-DOCA nanoparticles (ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs) were prepared by the thin-film water method, and their size was about 195 nm in aqueous solution. ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs had a drug loading capacity of up to 9.2%. The release of ORI in ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs was pH-dependent, resulting in rapid decomposition and accelerated drug release at acidic pH. ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs significantly enhanced the accumulation of ORI in liver tumors through ASGPR-mediated endocytosis. In vitro results showed that ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs increased cell uptake and apoptosis in HepG2 cells, and in vivo results showed that ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs caused effective tumor suppression in H22 tumor-bearing mice compared with free ORI. In short, ORI/ASP-DOCA NPs might be a simple, feasible, safe and effective ORI nano-drug delivery system that could be used for the targeted delivery and treatment of liver tumors.

Use of Albumin for Drug Delivery as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tool

Drug delivery is an important topic that has attracted the attention of researchers in recent years. Albumin nanoparticles play a significant role in drug delivery as a carrier due to their unique characteristics. Albumin is non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable. Its structure is such that it can interact with different drugs, which makes the treatment of the disease faster and also reduces the side effects of the drug. Albumin nanoparticles can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases, including cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer's, etc. These nanoparticles can connect to some compounds, such as metal nanoparticles, antibodies, folate, etc. and create a powerful nanostructure for drug delivery. In this paper, we aim to investigate albumin nanoparticles in carrier format for drug delivery application. In the beginning, different types of albumin and their preparation methods were discussed, and then albumin nanoparticles were discussed in detail in diagnosing and treating various diseases.

Methods on improvements of the poor oral bioavailability of ginsenosides: Pre-processing, structural modification, drug combination, and micro- or nano- delivery system

Panax ginseng Meyer is a traditional Chinese medicine that is widely used as tonic in Asia. The main pharmacologically active components of ginseng are the dammarane-type ginsenosides, which have been shown to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic regulatory activities. Moreover, some of ginsenosides (eg, Rh2 and Rg3) have been developed into nutraceuticals. However, the utilization of ginsenosides in clinic is restrictive due to poor permeability in cells and low bioavailability in human body. Obviously, the dammarane skeleton and glycosyls of ginsenosides are responsible for these limitations. Therefore, improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides has become a pressing issue. Here, based on the structures of ginsenosides, we summarized the understanding of the factors affecting the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides, introduced the methods to enhance the oral bioavailability and proposed the future perspectives on improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides.

Study the Anticancer Properties of Thymol-Loaded PEGylated Bovine Serum Albumin Nanoparticles Conjugated with Folic Acid

Phenolic compounds such as Thymol have an effective role in suppressing cancer, however, their low solubility in aqueous solution has limited their use. This study aimed to prepare Thymol (TY)-loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles surface-modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated with folic acid (FA) and evaluate their inhibitory activity on cancer cells. The TY-BSA-PEG-FA was characterized using DLS, FESEM, and FTIR. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was evaluated indirectly by using UV absorption. The antioxidant property of nanoparticles was evaluated by 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and ferric reducing ability of plasm (FRAP) methods. The effects of nanoparticles against cancer cells were investigated by MTT, AO/PI, flow cytometry, and real-time qPCR methods. The results showed the spherical morphology of TY-BSA-PEG-FA with an average size of 70.0 nm, a PDI of 0.32, a zeta potential of -11.3 mV, and an EE of 89.0±2.3 %. The cytotoxicity effects of nanoparticles against all cell lines were in a concentration-dependent manner. AGS gastric cancer cells were reported to be the most vulnerable to treatment, while pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1) and normal skin cells (HFF) would be the most resistant. The SubG1 phase arrest of about 66 % occurred at 85 μg/mL. An increase in apoptotic cells in fluorescent staining, along with decreased expression of Bcl-2 and increased expression of the BAX gene demonstrated the induction of apoptosis in treated cells. The powerful inhibitory effect of nanoparticles in inhibiting ABTS free radicals (IC50 =82 μg/mL) and DPPH free radicals (IC50 =844 μg/mL) and the ability to reduce iron ions indicated the antioxidant effects of TY-BSA-PEG-FA. Based on these results, the synthesized nanoparticles may be suitable for further investigation in the treatment of cancer, notably gastric cancer.

Protective effects of ginseng and ginsenosides in the development of osteoarthritis (Review)

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease. Traditional chinese medicine provides a resource for drug screening for OA treatment. Ginseng and the associated bioactive compound, ginsenosides, may reduce inflammation, which is considered a risk factor for the development of OA. Specifically, ginsenosides may exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress activities, and inhibit extracellular matrix degradation by suppressing the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Notably, specific ginsenosides, such as compound K and Rk1, may physically interact with IκB kinase and inhibit the associated phosphorylation. Thus, ginsenosides exhibit potential as therapeutic candidates in the management of OA. However, the low water solubility limits the clinical applications of ginsenosides. Numerous effective strategies have been explored to improve bioavailability; however, further investigations are still required.

A comprehensive and systemic review of ginseng-based nanomaterials: Synthesis, targeted delivery, and biomedical applications

Among 17 Panax species identified across the world, Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (Chinese ginseng) are highly recognized for the presence of bioactive compound, ginsenosides and their pharmacological effects. P. ginseng is widely used for synthesis of different types of nanoparticles compared to P. quinquefolius and P. notoginseng. The use of nano-ginseng could increase the oral bioavailability, membrane permeability, and thus provide effective delivery of ginsenosides to the target sites through transport system. In this review, we explore the synthesis of ginseng nanoparticles using plant extracts from various organs, microbes, and polymers, as well as their biomedical applications. Furthermore, we highlight transporters involved in transport of ginsenoside nanoparticles to the target sites. Size, zeta potential, temperature, and pH are also discussed as the critical parameters affecting the quality of ginseng nanoparticles synthesis.

Nanoconstructs for theranostic application in cancer: Challenges and strategies to enhance the delivery

Nanoconstructs are made up of nanoparticles and ligands, which can deliver the loaded cargo at the desired site of action. Various nanoparticulate platforms have been utilized for the preparation of nanoconstructs, which may serve both diagnostic as well as therapeutic purposes. Nanoconstructs are mostly used to overcome the limitations of cancer therapies, such as toxicity, nonspecific distribution of the drug, and uncontrolled release rate. The strategies employed during the design of nanoconstructs help improve the efficiency and specificity of loaded theranostic agents and make them a successful approach for cancer therapy. Nanoconstructs are designed with a sole purpose of targeting the requisite site, overcoming the barriers which hinders its right placement for desired benefit. Therefore, instead of classifying modes for delivery of nanoconstructs as actively or passively targeted systems, they are suitably classified as autonomous and nonautonomous types. At large, nanoconstructs offer numerous benefits, however they suffer from multiple challenges, too. Hence, to overcome such challenges computational modelling methods and artificial intelligence/machine learning processes are being explored. The current review provides an overview on attributes and applications offered by nanoconstructs as theranostic agent in cancer.

Advanced Phytochemical-Based Nanocarrier Systems for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

As the world's most prevalent cancer, breast cancer imposes a significant societal health burden and is among the leading causes of cancer death in women worldwide. Despite the notable improvements in survival in countries with early detection programs, combined with different modes of treatment to eradicate invasive disease, the current chemotherapy regimen faces significant challenges associated with chemotherapy-induced side effects and the development of drug resistance. Therefore, serious concerns regarding current chemotherapeutics are pressuring researchers to develop alternative therapeutics with better efficacy and safety. Due to their extremely biocompatible nature and efficient destruction of cancer cells via numerous mechanisms, phytochemicals have emerged as one of the attractive alternative therapies for chemotherapeutics to treat breast cancer. Additionally, phytofabricated nanocarriers, whether used alone or in conjunction with other loaded phytotherapeutics or chemotherapeutics, showed promising results in treating breast cancer. In the current review, we emphasize the anticancer activity of phytochemical-instigated nanocarriers and phytochemical-loaded nanocarriers against breast cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Since diverse mechanisms are implicated in the anticancer activity of phytochemicals, a strong emphasis is placed on the anticancer pathways underlying their action. Furthermore, we discuss the selective targeted delivery of phytofabricated nanocarriers to cancer cells and consider research gaps, recent developments, and the druggability of phytoceuticals. Combining phytochemical and chemotherapeutic agents with nanotechnology might have far-reaching impacts in the future.

Mannose-decorated ginsenoside Rb1 albumin nanoparticles for targeted anti-inflammatory therapy

Ginsenoside Rb1 is a potential anti-inflammatory natural molecule, but its therapeutic efficacy was tremendously hampered by the low solubility and non-targeted delivery. In this study, we innovatively developed a mannose (Man)-modified albumin bovine serum albumin carrier (Man-BSA) to overcome the previously mentioned dilemmas of Rb1. The constructed Man-BSA@Rb1 NPs could improve the solubility and increase the cellular uptake of Rb1, finally leading to the enhanced anti-inflammatory effects. The robust therapeutics of Man-BSA@Rb1 NPs were measured in terms of nitrite, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels, which might be achieved by potently inhibiting nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced Raw264.7 cells. Moreover, the therapeutic efficacy of Man-BSA@Rb1 NPs was further confirmed in the d-Gal/LPS-induced liver injury model. The results indicated that Man-BSA may offer a promising system to improve the anti-inflammatory therapy of Rb1.

Preparation and pharmacological effects of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles: a review

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to Panax genus of Araliaceae. Ginsenosides are a kind of important compounds in ginseng and minor ginsenosides are secondary metabolic derivatives of ginsenosides. Studies have shown that minor ginsenosides have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-platelet aggregation, and neuroprotective effects. However, the therapeutic effects of minor ginsenosides are limited due to poor solubility in water, short half-life, and poor targeting accuracy. In recent years, to improve the application efficiency, the research on the nanocrystallization of minor ginsenosides have attracted extensive attention from researchers. This review focuses on the classification, preparation methods, pharmacological effects, and action mechanisms of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles, as well as existing problems and future direction of relevant research, which provides a reference for the in-depth research of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles.

Developing a Copper(II) Agent Based on His-146 and His-242 Residues of Human Serum Albumin Nanoparticles: Integration To Overcome Cisplatin Resistance and Inhibit the Metastasis of Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer

To overcome the resistance of nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells to cisplatin and inhibit their metastasis, we proposed to develop a Cu(II) agent based on the specific residue(s) of HSA nanoparticles (NPs) for multitargeting the tumor microenvironment (TME). To this end, we not only synthesized four Cu(II) 2-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone compounds (C1-C4), obtaining a Cu compound (C4) with significant cytotoxicity by studying their structure-activity relationships, but also revealed the binding mechanism of C4 to HSA through X-ray crystallography and confirmed the successful construction of a new HSA-C4 NPs delivery system. C4 and HSA-C4 NPs inhibited the A549cisR tumor growth and metastasis, and HSA NPs optimized the anticancer behavior of C4. We further confirmed the anticancer mechanism of the C4/HSA-C4 NP multitargeting TME to overcome cisplatin resistance: killing tumor cells by acting on the mtDNA and inducing apoptosis, polarizing M2-type macrophages to the M1-type, and inhibiting angiogenesis.

Carnosic Acid Encapsulated in Albumin Nanoparticles Induces Apoptosis in Breast and Colorectal Cancer Cells

Carnosic acid (CA) is a natural phenolic compound with several biomedical actions. This work was performed to study the use of CA-loaded polymeric nanoparticles to improve the antitumor activity of breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and colon cancer cells (Caco-2). CA was encapsulated in bovine serum albumin (BSA), chitosan (CH), and cellulose (CL) nanoparticles. The CA-loaded BSA nanoparticles (CA-BSA-NPs) revealed the most promising formula as it showed good loading capacity and the best release rate profile as the drug reached 80% after 10 h. The physicochemical characterization of the CA-BSA-NPs and empty carrier (BSA-NPs) was performed by the particle size distribution analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and zeta potential. The antitumor activity of the CA-BSA-NPs was evaluated by measuring cell viability, apoptosis rate, and gene expression of GCLC, COX-2, and BCL-2 in MCF-7 and Caco-2. The cytotoxicity assay (MTT) showed elevated antitumor activity of CA-BSA-NPs against MCF-7 and Caco-2 compared to free CA and BSA-NPs. Moreover, apoptosis test data showed an arrest of the Caco-2 cells at G2/M (10.84%) and the MCF-7 cells at G2/M (4.73%) in the CA-BSA-NPs treatment. RT-PCR-based gene expression analysis showed an upregulation of the GCLC gene and downregulation of the BCL-2 and COX-2 genes in cells treated with CA-BSA-NPs compared to untreated cells. In conclusion, CA-BSA-NPs has been introduced as a promising formula for treating breast and colorectal cancer.

Targeted delivery of albumin nanoparticles for breast cancer: A review

Breast cancer has been identified as one of the most common cancers diagnosed in women. Various nanotechnology platforms offering unique features are considered in breast cancer treatment. Albumin is a versatile biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic and non-immunogenic protein nanocarrier. These characteristics attracted strong attention to fabricate albumin nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapeutic agents without major adverse effects. Albumin nanoparticles can undergo surface modifications using different ligands promoting tumor-targeted drug delivery. Moreover, multifunctional albumin nanoparticle is an upcoming strategy to attain efficient cancer therapy. This review gives an account of the potential albumin nanoparticles developed for chemotherapeutic drug delivery and its targeted approach for breast cancer. It also covers different multifunctional therapies available using albumin nanoparticles as breast cancer theranostics.

Progress on the Elucidation of the Antinociceptive Effect of Ginseng and Ginsenosides in Chronic Pain

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is a traditional Oriental herbal drug widely used in East Asia. Its main active ingredients are ginsenosides whose constituents are known to have various pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antinociception, and neuroprotection. The analgesic effects of ginsenosides, such as Rg1, Rg2, and Rb1, as well as compound K, are well known and the analgesic mechanism of action in inflammatory pain models is thought to be the down regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (TNF-α IL-1β, and IL-6). Several studies have also demonstrated that ginsenosides regulate neuropathic pain through the modulation of estrogen receptors. Recently, an increasing number of pathways have emerged in relation to the antinociceptive effect of ginseng and ginsenosides. Therefore, this review presents our current understanding of the effectiveness of ginseng in chronic pain and how its active constituents regulate nociceptive responses and their mechanisms of action.

Bioactive compounds: Application of albumin nanocarriers as delivery systems

Enriched products with bioactive compounds (BCs) show the capacity to produce a wide range of possible health effects. Most BCs are essentially hydrophobic and sensitive to environmental factors; so, encapsulation becomes a strategy to solve these problems. Many globular proteins have the intrinsic ability to bind, protect, encapsulate, and introduce BCs into nutraceutical or pharmaceutical matrices. Among them, albumins as human serum albumin (HSA), bovine serum albumin (BSA), ovalbumin (OVA) and α-lactalbumin (ALA) are widely abundant, available, and applied in many industrial sectors, becoming promissory materials to encapsulate BCs. Therefore, this review focuses on researches about the main groups of natural origin BCs (namely phenolic compounds, lipids, vitamins, and carotenoids), the different types of nanostructures based on albumins to encapsulate them and the main fields of application for BCs-loaded albumin systems. In this context, phenolic compounds (catechins, quercetin, and chrysin) are the most extensively BCs studied and encapsulated in albumin-based nanocarriers. Other extensively studied subgroups are stilbenes and curcuminoids. Regarding lipids and vitamins; terpenes, carotenoids (β-carotene), and xanthophylls (astaxanthin) are the most considered. The main application areas of BCs are related to their antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Finally, BSA is the most used albumin to produced BCs-loaded nanocarriers.

Functionalized Liposome and Albumin-Based Systems as Carriers for Poorly Water-Soluble Anticancer Drugs: An Updated Review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In the available treatments, chemotherapy is one of the most used, but has several associated problems, namely the high toxicity to normal cells and the resistance acquired by cancer cells to the therapeutic agents. The scientific community has been battling against this disease, developing new strategies and new potential chemotherapeutic agents. However, new drugs often exhibit poor solubility in water, which led researchers to develop functionalized nanosystems to carry and, specifically deliver, the drugs to cancer cells, targeting overexpressed receptors, proteins, and organelles. Thus, this review is focused on the recent developments of functionalized nanosystems used to carry poorly water-soluble drugs, with special emphasis on liposomes and albumin-based nanosystems, two major classes of organic nanocarriers with formulations already approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for cancer therapeutics.

Strategies for Remodeling the Tumor Microenvironment Using Active Ingredients of Ginseng-A Promising Approach for Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a key role in promoting the initiation and progression of tumors, leading to chemoradiotherapy resistance and immunotherapy failure. Targeting of the TME is a novel anti-tumor therapeutic approach and is currently a focus of anti-tumor research. Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (ginseng), an ingredient of well-known traditional Asia medicines, exerts beneficial anti-tumor effects and can regulate the TME. Here, we present a systematic review that describes the current status of research efforts to elucidate the functions and mechanisms of ginseng active components (including ginsenosides and ginseng polysaccharides) for achieving TME regulation. Ginsenosides have variety effects on TME, such as Rg3, Rd and Rk3 can inhibit tumor angiogenesis; Rg3, Rh2 and M4 can regulate the function of immune cells; Rg3, Rd and Rg5 can restrain the stemness of cancer stem cells. Ginseng polysaccharides (such as red ginseng acidic polysaccharides and polysaccharides extracted from ginseng berry and ginseng leaves) can regulate TME mainly by stimulating immune cells. In addition, we propose a potential mechanistic link between ginseng-associated restoration of gut microbiota and the tumor immune microenvironment. Finally, we describe recent advances for improving ginseng efficacy, including the development of a nano-drug delivery system. Taken together, this review provides novel perspectives on potential applications for ginseng active ingredients as anti-cancer adjuvants that achieve anti-cancer effects by reshaping the tumor microenvironment.

Elaborated survey in the scope of nanocarriers engineering for boosting chemotherapy cytotoxicity: A meta-analysis study

Cancer is the prime cause of mortality throughout the world. Although the conventional chemotherapeutic agents damage the cancerous cells, they exert prominent injury to the normal cells owing to their lack of specificity. With advances in science, many research studies have been established to boost the cytotoxic effect of the chemotherapeutic agents via innovating novel nano-formulations having different variables. In the current meta-analysis study, combined data from different research articles were gathered for the evidence-based proof of the superiority of drug loaded nanocarriers over their corresponding conventional solutions in boosting the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapy in terms of IC50 values. The meta-analysis was subdivided into three subgroups; nanoparticles versus nanofibers, surface functionalized nanocarriers versus naked ones, and protein versus non-protein-based platforms. The different subgroups interestingly showed distinct scoring outcome data paving the road for cytotoxicity enhancement of the anti-cancer drugs in an evidence-based manner.

Development, Optimization, and Pharmacokinetics Study of Bufalin/Nintedanib Co-loaded Modified Albumin Sub-microparticles Fabricated by Coaxial Electrostatic Spray Technology

Coaxial electrostatic spray technology has received extensive attention in fabricating micro/nanoparticles for drug delivery. However, there are few reports on applying this technology in preparing albumin nanoparticles. In this study, the bufalin (BF) and nintedanib (NDNB) co-loaded ursodeoxycholic acid and p-biguanides benzoic acid decorated albumin sub-microparticles (BN-DUB subMPs) were fabricated by coaxial electrostatic spray technology and optimized by central composite design. Five percent of albumin (contained 0.7% polyethylene oxide) solution was selected as the shell solution which ejected through outer axis with the flow rate of 0.07 mm/min, while the core solution which contained by BF and NDNB ethanol solution was ejected through inner axis with the flow rate of 0.05 mm/min. In vitro cell studies revealed that the modified albumin possessed good biocompatibility. What's more, the BN-DUB subMPs enhanced the inhibitory effect on the growth of LLC cells efficiently. The pharmacokinetics study showed that the t_1/2 and AUC_0-t of BN-DUB subMPs increased significantly compared with that of the drug solution, which indicated the improved in vivo stability of modified albumin nanoparticles. Thus, this study provided a novel and simple technical platform for the development of albumin-based drug carriers.

Ginsenosides emerging as both bifunctional drugs and nanocarriers for enhanced antitumor therapies

Ginsenosides, the main components isolated from Panax ginseng, can play a therapeutic role by inducing tumor cell apoptosis and reducing proliferation, invasion, metastasis; by enhancing immune regulation; and by reversing tumor cell multidrug resistance. However, clinical applications have been limited because of ginsenosides' physical and chemical properties such as low solubility and poor stability, as well as their short half-life, easy elimination, degradation, and other pharmacokinetic properties in vivo. In recent years, developing a ginsenoside delivery system for bifunctional drugs or carriers has attracted much attention from researchers. To create a precise treatment strategy for cancer, a variety of nano delivery systems and preparation technologies based on ginsenosides have been conducted (e.g., polymer nanoparticles [NPs], liposomes, micelles, microemulsions, protein NPs, metals and inorganic NPs, biomimetic NPs). It is desirable to design a targeted delivery system to achieve antitumor efficacy that can not only cross various barriers but also can enhance immune regulation, eventually converting to a clinical application. Therefore, this review focused on the latest research about delivery systems encapsulated or modified with ginsenosides, and unification of medicines and excipients based on ginsenosides for improving drug bioavailability and targeting ability. In addition, challenges and new treatment methods were discussed to support the development of these new tumor therapeutic agents for use in clinical treatment.

Pharmacological activities of ginsenoside Rg5 (Review)

Ginseng, a perennial plant belonging to genus Panax, has been widely used in traditional herbal medicine in East Asia and North America. Ginsenosides are the most important pharmacological component of ginseng. Variabilities in attached positions, inner and outer residues and types of sugar moieties may be associated with the specific pharmacological activities of each ginsenoside. Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5) is a minor ginsenoside synthesized during ginseng steaming treatment that exhibits superior pharmaceutical activity compared with major ginsenosides. With high safety and various biological functions, Rg5 may act as a potential therapeutic candidate for diverse diseases. To date, there have been no systematic studies on the activity of Rg5. Therefore, in this review, all available literature was reviewed and discussed to facilitate further research on Rg5.

Elucidation of interaction between serum albumin and ginsenoside CK along with cytotoxic study

As a main metabolite of ginsenosides, compound K (CK) has a vast array of pharmacological effects. However, due to its low polarity and insoluble in water, its oral application has been greatly limited. In this work, the interaction between serum albumin and ginsenoside CK was elucidated by multi-spectroscopic studies. The result of ultraviolet/visible absorption spectroscopy showed that the conformation of serum albumin could be changed via binding with CK. The result of fluorescence spectroscopy suggested that CK could form complex with serum albumin. CK could quench the fluorescence and the fluorescence residues of serum albumin were located in or near the binding position. Molecular docking indicated that CK bound at Sudlow's site II of serum albumin and formed hydrogen-bonding interactions with three residues. Furthermore, the flexible side chain of CK was difficult to be stabilized at the binding site, resulting in its serious perturbation during dynamics simulation. This work also performed the cytotoxic study and the result showed that serum albumin enhanced the inhibitory effect of CK on the proliferation of both Caco-2 and HCT-116 cells. To sum up, this work revealed that serum albumin might be an appropriate carrier of hydrophobic compounds, with the advantage of improving their biocompatibility.

Inhibitory Effect of pH-Responsive Nanogel Encapsulating Ginsenoside CK against Lung Cancer

Ginsenoside CK is one of the intestinal bacterial metabolites of ginsenoside prototype saponins, such as ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd. Poor water solubility and low bioavailability have limited its application. The nanogel carriers could specifically deliver hydrophobic drugs to cancer cells. Therefore, in this study, a nanogel was constructed by the formation of Schiff base bonds between hydrazide-modified carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-NH₂) and aldehyde-modified β-cyclodextrin (β-CD-CHO). A water-in-oil reverse microemulsion method was utilized to encapsulate ginsenoside CK via the hydrophobic cavity of β-CD. β-CD-CHO with a unique hydrophobic cavity carried out efficient encapsulation of CK, and the drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were 16.4% and 70.9%, respectively. The drug release of CK-loaded nanogels (CK-Ngs) in vitro was investigated in different pH environments, and the results showed that the cumulative release rate at pH 5.8 was 85.5% after 140 h. The methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) toxicity analysis indicated that the survival rates of A549 cells in CK-Ngs at 96 h was 2.98% compared to that of CK (11.34%). In vivo animal experiments exhibited that the inhibitory rates of CK-Ngs against tumor volume was 73.8%, which was higher than that of CK (66.1%). Collectively, the pH-responsive nanogel prepared herein could be considered as a potential nanocarrier for CK to improve its antitumor effects against lung cancer.

Enhanced cytotoxicity and antioxidant capacity of kaempferol complexed with α-lactalbumin

As a dietary polyphenol, kaempferol exhibits numerous biological activities such as antioxidant and anticancer properties. However, its application is limited because of its poor solubility and low permeability. This work aims to investigate the interaction of kaempferol with α-lactalbumin. Multiple-spectroscopic techniques were used to prove the interaction between kaempferol and α-lactalbumin. UV-vis absorption spectra suggested that the conformation of α-lactalbumin could be changed via binding with kaempferol. The fluorescence quenching test showed that kaempferol significantly quenched the intrinsic fluorescence of α-lactalbumin. Circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that the percent helicity of α-lactalbumin secondary structure increased when combined with kaempferol. In addition, the α-lactalbumin-kaempferol complex showed stronger inhibition ability on the growth of HeLa cells compared with kaempferol alone. The complex also showed higher antioxidant capacity than kaempferol alone. Molecular docking provided three predicted binding sites of α-lactalbumin for kaempferol, as well as five predicted binding poses of kaempferol. The weak intermolecular interactions were the main forces to stabilize the α-lactalbumin-kaempferol complex. Besides, the binding stability between α-lactalbumin and kaempferol was explored by molecular dynamics simulation. In conclusion, this work provides a basis for the potential application of α-lactalbumin as a delivery carrier for kaempferol owing to its nontoxic and biocompatible properties.

Recent Advances in Nanotechnology with Nano-Phytochemicals: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications in Cancer Progression

Biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) containing polymers, lipids (liposomes and micelles), dendrimers, ferritin, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, ceramic, magnetic materials, and gold/silver have contributed to imaging diagnosis and targeted cancer therapy. However, only some NP drugs, including Doxil^® (liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin), Abraxane^® (albumin-bound paclitaxel), and Oncaspar^® (PEG-Asparaginase), have emerged on the pharmaceutical market to date. By contrast, several phytochemicals that were found to be effective in cultured cancer cells and animal studies have not shown significant efficacy in humans due to poor bioavailability and absorption, rapid clearance, resistance, and toxicity. Research to overcome these drawbacks by using phytochemical NPs remains in the early stages of clinical translation. Thus, in the current review, we discuss the progress in nanotechnology, research milestones, the molecular mechanisms of phytochemicals encapsulated in NPs, and clinical implications. Several challenges that must be overcome and future research perspectives are also described.

Therapeutic effects of ginsenosides on breast cancer growth and metastasis

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related deaths among women worldwide. Thus, the development of new and effective low-toxicity drugs is vital. The specific characteristics of breast cancer have allowed for the development of targeted therapy towards each breast cancer subtype. Nevertheless, increasing drug resistance is displayed by the changing phenotype and microenvironments of the tumor through mutation or dysregulation of various mechanisms. Recently, emerging data on the therapeutic potential of biocompounds isolated from ginseng have been reported. Therefore, in this review, various roles of ginsenosides in the treatment of breast cancer, including apoptosis, autophagy, metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, epigenetic changes, combination therapy, and drug delivery system, have been discussed.

Albumin nanoscience: homing nanotechnology enabling targeted drug delivery and therapy

Albumin is a biocompatible, non-immunogenic and versatile drug carrier system. It has been widely used to extend the half-life, enhance stability, provide protection from degradation and allow specific targeting of therapeutic agents to various disease states. Understanding the role of albumin as a drug delivery and distribution system has increased remarkably in the recent years from the development of albumin-binding prodrugs to albumin as a drug carrier system. The extraordinary surface property of albumin makes it possible to bind various endogenous and exogenous molecules. This review succinctly deals with several albumin-drug conjugates and nanoparticles along with their preparation techniques and focuses on surface-modified albumin and targeting of albumin formulation to specific organs and tissues. It also summarizes research efforts on albumin nanoparticles used for delivering drugs to tumor cells and describes their role in permeation through tumor vasculature and in receptor mediated endocytosis, which is also described in this review. The versatility of albumin and ease of preparation makes it a suitable drug carrier system, swhich is the major objective of this review.