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Li C, Liang Y, Sun Y, Wang W, Zhang J, Zhang T. Elucidation of interaction between serum albumin and ginsenoside CK along with cytotoxic study. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 155:112403. [PMID: 34246707 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
As a main metabolite of ginsenosides, compound K (CK) has a vast array of pharmacological effects. However, due to its low polarity and insoluble in water, its oral application has been greatly limited. In this work, the interaction between serum albumin and ginsenoside CK was elucidated by multi-spectroscopic studies. The result of ultraviolet/visible absorption spectroscopy showed that the conformation of serum albumin could be changed via binding with CK. The result of fluorescence spectroscopy suggested that CK could form complex with serum albumin. CK could quench the fluorescence and the fluorescence residues of serum albumin were located in or near the binding position. Molecular docking indicated that CK bound at Sudlow's site II of serum albumin and formed hydrogen-bonding interactions with three residues. Furthermore, the flexible side chain of CK was difficult to be stabilized at the binding site, resulting in its serious perturbation during dynamics simulation. This work also performed the cytotoxic study and the result showed that serum albumin enhanced the inhibitory effect of CK on the proliferation of both Caco-2 and HCT-116 cells. To sum up, this work revealed that serum albumin might be an appropriate carrier of hydrophobic compounds, with the advantage of improving their biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenfei Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Yuan Liang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Yantong Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Wencheng Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
| | - Tiehua Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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Jing J, Zhang R, Wang Y, Tang S, Yang H, Du L, Lin B, Shao L, Zhang F, Xue P. Less polar ginsenosides have better protective effects on mice infected by Listeria monocytogenes. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2021; 213:112065. [PMID: 33636464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes widely exists in the natural environment and does great harm, which can cause worldwide public safety problem. Infection with L. monocytogenes can cause rapid death of Kupffer cell (KCs) in liver tissue and liver damage. American ginseng saponins is a natural compound in plants, which has great potential in inhibiting L. monocytogenes infection. Therefore, American ginseng stem-leaf saponins (AGS) and American ginseng heat-transformed saponins (HTS) were used as raw materials to study their bacteriostatic experiments in vivo and in vitro. In this experiment, female Kunming mice were randomly divided into five groups: control group, negative group, AGS group, HTS group (10 mg/kg/day in an equal volume via gastric administration) and penicillin group, each group containing six mice. Profiles AGS and HTS components were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. The bacteriostatic effect of AGS and HTS on L. monocytogenes was evaluated by inhibition zone test, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The bacteriostatic effect of AGS and HTS pretreatment on mice infected with L. monocytogenes were studies by animal experimental. The results showed that the content of polar saponins in AGS was 0.81 ± 0.003 mg/mg, less polar saponins was 0.08 ± 0.02 mg/mg, the content of polar saponins in HTS was 0.10 ± 0.01 mg/mg, less polar saponins was 0.76 ± 0.02 mg/mg. The in vitro bacteriostatic diameter of HTS (16.6 ± 0.8 mm) is large than that of AGS (10.2 ± 1.2 mm). AGS and HTS pretreatment could reduce the colony numbers in the livers of mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ in the livers of mice in the pretreatment group were significantly lower than those in the negative group. There were obvious leukoplakia, calcification and other liver damage on the liver surface in the negative control group, and obvious inflammatory cell infiltration in HE sections. AGS and HTS pretreatment can reduce liver injury caused by L. monocytogenes and protect the liver. Compared with AGS, HTS has higher content of less polar saponins and better bacteriostatic effect in vitro. The count of bacterial in liver tissue of HTS group was significantly lower, the survival rate was significantly higher than that of AGS group. Less polar saponins had better bacteriostatic effect. Collectively, less polar saponins pretreatment has a protective effect on mice infected with L. monocytogenes, to which alleviated liver damage, improved anti-inflammatory ability and immunity of the body, protected liver may contribute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjin Jing
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruoyu Zhang
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunhai Wang
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaojian Tang
- School of Pharmacy, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Hanchao Yang
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Lidong Du
- Clinical Medical Colleges, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingjie Lin
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Lijun Shao
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengxiang Zhang
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Xue
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, People's Republic of China.
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Li C, Wang Z, Wang T, Wang G, Li G, Sun C, Lin J, Sun L, Sun X, Cho S, Wang H, Gao Y, Tian J. Repeated-dose 26-week oral toxicity study of ginsenoside compound K in Beagle dogs. J Ethnopharmacol 2020; 248:112323. [PMID: 31639487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginsenoside compound K (CK), a product produced by the intestinal bacteria-mediated breakdown of ginsenoside, exhibits a wide array of pharmacological activities against diverse targets. However, few of preclinical safety evaluation of CK is reported. AIMS OF THE STUDY The present study therefore sought to assess the toxicity of oral CK in Beagle dogs over a 26-week period. MATERIAL AND METHODS All dogs received 4, 12, or 36 mg/kg oral CK doses for 26 weeks with regular monitoring, followed by a 4-week recovery period. Animals were monitored through measurements of temperature, weight, food intake, blood chemistry and hematological findings, electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements, urinalysis, gross necropsy and organ weight and tissue histopathology. RESULTS Animals in the 36 mg/kg group exhibited an apparent reduction in body weight over the study period, in addition to the presence of focal liver necrosis and increased plasma enzyme levels (alanine aminotransferase, ALT; alkaline phosphatase, ALP) consistent with hepatotoxicity, although there was some evidence suggesting this toxicity was reversible. Animals in the 4 and 12 mg/kg groups did not exhibit any apparent toxicity for any measured parameters. CONCLUSION These results thus indicate that the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) in dogs is 12 mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmei Li
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Zhezhe Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Tong Wang
- School of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Guangfei Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Guisheng Li
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Chengfeng Sun
- School of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Jian Lin
- School of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Liqin Sun
- School of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Xilin Sun
- Yantai Laishan Changen Hospital, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Susan Cho
- NutraSource, Inc., Clarksville, MD, 21029, USA
| | - Hongbo Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Yonglin Gao
- School of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China.
| | - Jingwei Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China.
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Huang CH, Wang FT, Chan WH. Dosage-related beneficial and deleterious effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on mouse oocyte maturation and fertilization and fetal development. Environ Toxicol 2019; 34:1001-1012. [PMID: 31112002 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), the major saponin component of ginseng root, has a wide range of therapeutic applications for various diseases. Previously, our group showed that GRb1 triggers ROS-mediated apoptotic cascades in mouse blastocysts, leading to decreased cell viability and impairment of pre- and postimplantation embryonic development, both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we further found that GRb1 exerted dose-dependent effects on oocyte maturation and sequent development in vitro. Oocytes preincubated with 25 μg/mL GRB1 displayed significantly enhanced maturation and in vitro fertilization (IVF) rates, along with progression of subsequent embryonic development. In contrast, treatment with 50 and 100 μg/mL GRB1 led to impairment of mouse oocyte maturation, decreased IVF rates, and injurious effects on subsequent embryonic development. In vivo, intravenous injection of 1 mg/kg body weight GRb1 significantly promoted mouse oocyte maturation, IVF, and early-stage embryo development after fertilization while administration of 5 mg/kg body weight GRb1 led to a marked decrease in oocyte maturation and IVF rates concomitant with impairment of early embryonic development in our animal model. In terms of the mechanisms underlying the regulatory effects of GRb1 demonstrated increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis in the 100 μg/mL GRb1 treatment group. However, we observed a significant decrease in total intracellular ROS content and inhibition of apoptosis events in the 25 μg/mL GRb1 treatment group, signifying that the intracellular ROS content serves as a key upstream regulator of GRb1 that influences its dose-dependent beneficial or deleterious effects on oocyte maturation and sequent embryonic development. For further clarification of the mechanisms underlying GRb1-triggered injurious effects, oocytes were pretreated with Ac-DEVD-CHO, a caspase-3-specific inhibitor, which effectively blocked injury to oocyte maturation, fertilization, and sequent development. In sum, study findings highlight the potential involvement of p53-, p21-, and caspase-3-dependent regulatory signaling cascades in GRb1-mediated apoptotic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsun Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taoyuan General Hospital, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ting Wang
- Rehabilitation and Technical Aid Center, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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Abstract
The use of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius in traditional Chinese medicine dates back to about 5000 years ago thanks to its several beneficial and healing properties. Over the past few years, extensive preclinical and clinical evidence in the scientific literature worldwide has supported the beneficial effects of P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius in significant central nervous system, metabolic, infectious and neoplastic diseases. There has been growing research on ginseng because of its favorable pharmacokinetics, including the intestinal biotransformation which is responsible for the processing of ginsenosides - contained in the roots or extracts of ginseng - into metabolites with high pharmacological activity and how such principles act on numerous cell targets. The aim of this review is to provide a simple and extensive overview of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius, focusing on the clinical evidence which has shown particular effectiveness in specific diseases, such as dementia, diabetes mellitus, respiratory infections, and cancer. Furthermore, the review will also provide data on toxicological factors to support the favorable safety profile of these medicinal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesare Mancuso
- Institute of Pharmacology, Catholic University School of Medicine, Largo F. Vito, 1, 00168 Rome, Italy.
| | - Rosaria Santangelo
- Institute of Microbiology, Catholic University School of Medicine, Largo F. Vito, 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
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Ratno Budiarto B, Chan WH. Oxidative stresses-mediated apoptotic effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on pre- and post-implantation mouse embryos in vitro and in vivo. Environ Toxicol 2017; 32:1990-2003. [PMID: 27640876 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rb1, the major saponin component of ginseng root, has a wide range of therapeutic application. Previous studies have established that ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits the cell cycle and induces apoptosis. However, its side-effects, particularly those on embryonic development, have not been well characterized to date. In the current study, we examined whether ginsenoside Rb1 exerts a cytotoxic effect on mouse embryos at the blastocyst stage, and affects subsequent embryonic development in vitro and in vivo. Blastocysts treated with 25-100 μg mL-1 ginsenoside Rb1 exhibited significantly increased apoptosis and a corresponding decrease in total cell number. Notably, the implantation success rate of blastocysts pretreated with ginsenoside Rb1 was lower than that of their control counterparts. Moreover, in vitro treatment with 25-100 μg mL-1 ginsenoside Rb1 was associated with increased resorption of post-implantation embryos and decreased fetal weight. In an in vivo model, intravenous injection with ginsenoside Rb1 (1, 3, 5 mg kg-1 body weight/day) for 4 days resulted in apoptosis of blastocyst stage embryos and early embryonic developmental injury. In addition, ginsenoside Rb1 appeared to induce injury in mouse blastocysts through oxidative stresses-triggered intrinsic apoptotic signaling processes to impair sequent embryonic development. The collective results strongly indicate that ginsenoside Rb1 induces apoptosis and retards early pre- and post-implantation development of mouse embryos, both in vitro and in vivo. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1990-2003, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bugi Ratno Budiarto
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li District, Taoyuan City, 32023, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li District, Taoyuan City, 32023, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, 404, Taiwan
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Anggelia MR, Chan WH. Impairment of preimplantation and postimplantation embryonic development through intrinsic apoptotic processes by ginsenoside Rg1 in vitro and in vivo. Environ Toxicol 2017; 32:1937-1951. [PMID: 28371286 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rg1, which is the most abundant compound found in Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng), has demonstrated various pharmacological actions, including neuroprotective, immune-stimulatory, and antidiabetic effects. Pregnant women, especially in the Asian community, consume ginseng as a nutritive supplement. Thus, the effects of ginsenoside-Rg1 on embryonic development need to be investigated, such as in a mouse model. As previous investigations have found that ginsenoside Rg1 appears to either trigger or prevent apoptosis in different cell lines, the effects of this agent on apoptosis remain to be clarified. In this study, we investigated whether ginsenoside Rg1 exerts a hazardous effect on mouse blastocysts and/or affects subsequent embryonic development in vitro and in vivo. Blastocysts treated with 25-100 μM ginsenoside Rg1 exhibited significant induction of apoptosis and a corresponding decrease in the inner cell mass (ICM) cell number. Importantly, the implantation rate was lower among ginsenoside Rg1-treated blastocysts compared to untreated controls. Moreover, embryo transfer assays revealed that blastocysts treated with 100 μM ginsenoside Rg1 exhibited increased resorption of postimplantation embryos and decreased weight among surviving fetuses. In vivo, intravenous injection of mice with ginsenoside Rg1 (2, 4, or 6 mg/kg body weight/day) for 4 days was associated with increased apoptosis of blastocyst-stage embryos and negatively impacted early embryonic development. Further experiments revealed that these effects may reflect the ability of ginsenoside Rg1 to trigger oxidative stress-mediated intrinsic apoptotic signaling. Our in vitro results indicate that ginsenoside Rg1 treatment increases intracellular oxidative stress, decreases mitochondrial membrane potential, increases the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and activates caspase-9 and caspase-3, but not caspase-8. Taken together, our study results strongly suggest that ginsenoside Rg1 induces apoptosis and impairs the early preimplantation and postimplantation development of mouse embryos, both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madonna Rica Anggelia
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, 32023, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, 32023, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, 404, Taiwan
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Jiao XL, Bi XB, Zhang XS, Gao WW. [Autotoxic effect of ginsenoside extrats on growth of American ginseng in different medium]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 2015; 40:1433-1438. [PMID: 26281575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenosides are the abundant secondary metabolites in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium), it could be released into soil through root exudation and decomposition during plant growth. This study determined ginsenoside contents in American ginseng cultivated soil by HPLC. Three ginsenosides, Rb1, Rb2 and Rd, were detected in the rhizosphere soil of 3-4 years old American ginseng cultivated in Huairou District, Beijing, and their contents were 0.80-3.19 mg x kg(-1). Correspondingly, the contents of the three ginsenosides in soil solution were 4-16 mg x L(-1) at field water-holding capacity of 20%. According to the field soil test data, we designed the concentration of ginsenosides for bioassays (0.2-125 mg x L(-1) in solution or 0.2-125 mg x kg(-1) in soil). The results showed that radicle lengths of American ginseng were reduced by 6%-23% in solution containing 0.2-125 mg x L(-1) ginsenoside extract, and a significant difference was observed at concentration of 125 mg x L(-1) (P < 0.05). The shoot lengths of American ginseng were not significantly inhibited by 0.2-125 mg x L(-1) ginsenosides extractions. After 20 days of growth in nutrient solution amended with 25 mg x L(-1) ginsenosides extraction, plant height of 3-year-old American ginseng seedling was decreased by 28% compared to the control, and the biomass of aerial parts was also reduced by 50% (P < 0.05). However, the growth of newly-grown fibrous root was not significantly inhibited. Comparatively, when American ginseng embryos were cultivated into sterile or non-sterile soil, neither radicle lengths nor shoot lengths were significantly affected by 0.2-125 mg x kg(-1) ginsenoside extracts. In conclusion, ginsenosides showed autotoxic effect on growth of American ginseng radicle and adult seedling, however, this effect was weakened in field soil.
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Yang M, Zhang X, Xu Y, Mei X, Jiang B, Liao J, Yin Z, Zheng J, Zhao Z, Fan L, He X, Zhu Y, Zhu S. Autotoxic ginsenosides in the rhizosphere contribute to the replant failure of Panax notoginseng. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118555. [PMID: 25695831 PMCID: PMC4335038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Sanqi ginseng (Panax notoginseng) growth is often hampered by replant failure. In this study, we aimed to examine the role of autotoxicity in Sanqi replant failures and assess the role of ginsenosides in autotoxicity. METHODS The autotoxicities were measured using seedling emergence bioassays and root cell vigor staining. The ginsenosides in the roots, soils, and root exudates were identified with HPLC-MS. RESULTS The seedling emergence and survival rate decreased significantly with the continuous number of planting years from one to three years. The root exudates, root extracts, and extracts from consecutively cultivated soils also showed significant autotoxicity against seedling emergence and growth. Ginsenosides, including R1, Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rb3, Rg2, and Rd, were identified in the roots and consecutively cultivated soil. The ginsenosides, Rg1, Re, Rg2, and Rd, were identified in the root exudates. Furthermore, the ginsenosides, R1, Rg1, Re, Rg2, and Rd, caused autotoxicity against seedling emergence and growth and root cell vigor at a concentration of 1.0 µg/mL. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrated that autotoxicity results in replant failure of Sanqi ginseng. While Sanqi ginseng consecutively cultivated, some ginsenosides can accumulate in rhizosphere soils through root exudates or root decomposition, which impedes seedling emergence and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaodan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Yanguo Xu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xinyue Mei
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Bingbing Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jingjing Liao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhaobo Yin
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jianfen Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhi Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Liming Fan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiahong He
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Youyong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Shusheng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Biodiversity and Pest Management of Education Ministry of China, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
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Yu J, Xin YF, Gu LQ, Gao HY, Xia LJ, You ZQ, Xie F, Ma ZF, Wang Z, Xuan YX. One-month toxicokinetic study of SHENMAI injection in rats. J Ethnopharmacol 2014; 154:391-399. [PMID: 24747029 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE 'SHENMAI' injection (SMI) has been widely used in cardioprotection and modulation of the immune system because of its great efficacy. SMI primarily comprises the saponins from Panax ginseng and Ophiopogon japonicas. The profiles of saponins in SMI during long-term toxicokinetics remain unclear. MiR-146a possesses excellent sensitivity as a bio-marker in the innate immunity modification effect of SMI. AIM OF THE STUDY Is to monitor the exposure level of SMI during a one-month toxicokinetic experiment, an analytical method involving ESI-LC-MS/MS technology was developed to determine 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd), 20 (S)-protopanaxatriol-type ginsenoside (Rg1, Re, Rf), oleanolic acid-type ginsenoside (Ro), and ophiopogonin D in rats. The levels of AST, CK, ALT, SOD, GSH-pX, MDA, miR-146a, and ECG were measured to explore the effects of SMI in cardiologic function and immune activity. RESULTS Results show that the levels of AST, CK, and MDA decreased upon the administration of SMI. The level of miR-146a increased upon the administration of SMI dosage. During the administration of SMI, increasing exposure levels of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides were also observed. CONCLUSION The 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides were considered potential PK/TK markers because of their high exposure levels that continuously increased. Oxidative stress was slightly alleviated during the toxicokinetic study. Based on the level of miR-146a, negatively regulated innate immunity was observed. The regulation became more serious with increasing exposure levels of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides. Negatively regulated innate immunity could be induced by long-term administration of SMI (>0.4g/kg).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yu
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yan-Fei Xin
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Li-Qiang Gu
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hai-Yan Gao
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Li-Juan Xia
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhen-Qiang You
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Feng Xie
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhu-Feng Ma
- Chiatai QingChunbao Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Chiatai QingChunbao Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yao-Xian Xuan
- Center for Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 182 Tianmushan Road, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, China.
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11
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Lu D, Liu J, Zhao W, Li P. Chronic toxicity of ginsenoside Re on Sprague-Dawley rats. J Ethnopharmacol 2012; 144:656-663. [PMID: 23063957 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginseng has been widely used for hundreds of years in both China and other countries. It is well accepted that the pharmacological effects of ginseng are attributed to ginsenosides. Ginsenoside Re is one of the active ingredients in ginseng. The present study was carried out to characterize the toxicity of ginsenoside Re after repeated oral administration in Sprague-Dawley rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats (60 males, 60 females) were administrated ginsenoside Re orally in 0, 38, 113, or 375 mg/kg/day doses for 26 weeks (n=15/group each sex). Clinical signs, mortality, body weights, feed consumption, urinalysis, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross findings, organ weights and histopathology were examined at the end of the test period, as well as after the 4-week recovery period. RESULTS Ginsenoside Re did not induce death, adverse effects or dose-dependent changes in feed consumption, or body weight gain. Some statistically significant differences were observed in hematological and biochemical parameters, as well as in body weights of rats treated with ginsenoside Re. However, there was no abnormality of any organs noted in both gross and histopathological examinations. CONCLUSIONS Ginsenoside Re is well tolerated up to a 375 mg/kg/day oral dosage level and non-toxic in both male and female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Lu
- Institute of Frontier Medical Science of Jilin University, ChangChun, Jilin 130021, China
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12
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Abstract
The saponin ginsenoside Rd (1), isolated from Panax notoginseng, is used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, different body pains, trauma, and internal and external bleeding due to injury. In this study, we report that 1 inhibits the cell growth of human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with an IC(50) value of 150.5+/-0.8 mcirog/ml after 48 h of incubation. The drug-treated cells displayed features of apoptosis, including typical morphological characteristics and formation of DNA ladders, as evident from agarose-gel electrophoresis. Flow-cytometric analysis showed that the cell-cycle distribution of HeLa cells exposed to 1 is characterized by a decrease of the G(0)/G(1)-phase and an increase of the S-phase cells, respectively, in a dose-dependent manner. The apoptotic rate of HeLa cells treated for 48 h with 210 microg/ml of 1 was 35.8%. Further, 1 was found to increase the expression of Bax and to decrease the expression of Bcl-2 proteins, respectively, and to lower the mitochondrial transmembrane potential of HeLa cells. The caspase-3 inhibitor DEVD-CHO (at 2 microM) increased the viability of HeLa cells treated with 1. Taken together, our study suggests that ginsenoside Rd (1) significantly inhibits HeLa cell proliferation, and induces cell apoptosis through down-regulating Bcl-2 expression, up-regulating Bax expression, lowering the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and activating the caspase-3 pathway. Thus, 1 could serve as a lead to develop novel chemotherapeutic or chemopreventive agents against human cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Gang Yang
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, PR China
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13
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Liu P, Yin H, Xu Y, Zhang Z, Chen K, Li Y. Effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on postimplantation rat and mouse embryos cultured in vitro. Toxicol In Vitro 2005; 20:234-8. [PMID: 16061349 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2005.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2004] [Revised: 05/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
GRg1 is one of the most important active agents extracted from ginseng. Although there are numerous reports in the medical literature concerning the beneficial effects of GRg1, little is known about its effects on embryonic development. In our study, whole embryo culture was applied to explore the effects of GRg1 on SD rat and ICR mouse embryos during their critical period of organogenesis. All embryos were exposed to different concentrations of GRg1, and scored for their growth and differentiation at the end of the 48-h culture period. Total morphological score decreased significantly at the concentration of GRg1 of 50 microg/ml to mice and at 30 microg/ml to rats. The whole embryonic growth was affected, represented as reduced crown-rump length and head length, and decreased number of somites from 10 microg/ml both in mice and rats. Morphological development was influenced relatively late. To rats, the scores of flexion, forelimb bud and hindlimb bud were significantly reduced at 30 microg/ml, and heart was among the affected organs. However, the effect on heart was not observed in mice, and flexion and limb buds were influenced at 50 microg/ml. These results demonstrate that GRg1 has embryotoxicity during both rat and mouse organogenetic period and rats might be more sensitive than mice. We suggest that pregnant women of first trimester should use ginseng with caution before the exact conclusion is obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- School of Public Health, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Peking University, 38, Xue Yuan Road, Hai Dian District, Beijing 100083, China.
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14
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Ginseng has been widely used around the world for many years. Knowledge is limited, however, on its effects on embryonic development. METHODS Whole embryo culture was used to explore the developmental toxicity of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) on mouse embryos. All embryos were exposed to different concentrations of GRb1, and scored for their growth and differentiation at the end of the 48-hr culture period. RESULTS Total morphological score decreased significantly at the concentration of GRb1 of 30 microg/ml and was further reduced at 50 microg/ml. Yolk sac was affected at the lower concentration of 15 microg/ml. Developments of midbrain, forebrain, and optic system were relatively sensitive to GRb1 and were affected at the concentration of 30 microg/ml. Allantois, flexion, branchial arch, and limb buds were affected at 50 microg/ml. At this concentration, the embryonic crown-rump length, head length, and somite number were also reduced significantly compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that GRb1 has teratogenic effect during the mouse organogenetic period. We suggest that before more data in humans is available, ginseng should be used with caution by pregnant women in the first trimester.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
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15
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Chan LY, Chiu PY, Lau TK. Embryotoxicity study of ginsenoside Rc and Re in in vitro rat whole embryo culture. Reprod Toxicol 2005; 19:131-4. [PMID: 15336721 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2004.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2004] [Revised: 05/24/2004] [Accepted: 06/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pregnant women commonly consume ginseng. However, there is little data concerning the effects of ginseng on early pregnancy. METHODS Rat embryos were exposed in vitro to different concentrations of Rc and Re from day 9.5 to day 11.5 after conception. Embryos were scored for growth and differentiation at the end of the culture period. RESULTS Embryos exposed to 50.0 microg/ml Re had significantly lower median morphological score (29.0 versus 48.0), fewer number of somites (15.0 versus 21.0), and smaller yolk sac diameter (3.5 versus 4.1 mm) and crown-rump length (CRL) (2.9 versus 3.4 mm) compare to control embryos. There was no significant difference between embryos exposed to 5.0 microg/ml Re and control embryos. There was also no difference in the biometric and morphologic parameters among control and embryos exposed to 5.0 and 50.0 microg/ml Rc. CONCLUSION There is a significant variability in embryotoxic effects of different ginsenosides. Further studies to evaluate the synergistic embryotoxic effects of ginsenosides are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Y Chan
- Department of Obstetric and Gynaecology, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, PR China.
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16
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Liu P, Xu YJ, Yin HJ, Zhang ZF, Wang JB, Chen KJ, Li Y. [Effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on mouse embryonic development in vitro]. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 2005; 34:175-7. [PMID: 15952656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the developmental toxicity of ginsenoside Rb1 and the potential mechanism of it in vitro. METHODS Whole embryo culture system was used in this research. Embryos were exposed to various concentrations of ginsenoside Rb1, and scored for growth and development at the end of the 48h culture period. RESULTS With the concentration of Rb1 rising, the total morphological scores significantly decreased; Developments of forebrain, midbrain and optic system were relatively sensitive to Rb1 and were affected at the concentration of 30 microg/ml; hindbrain, Branchial arch and limb buds were affected at 50 microg/ml; Yolk sac was affected at the low concentration of 15 microg/ml and the indexes of embryonic growth and development decreased at the high concentration of 50 microg/ml. Moreover, the rate of embryo teratogenicity were obviously increased. CONCLUSION Ginsenoside Rb1 displayed teratogenic action in mice. The damage on structure and function of yolk sac might be part of teratogenic mechanisms of it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China
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17
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Popovich DG, Kitts DD. Mechanistic studies on protopanaxadiol, Rh2, and ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) extract induced cytotoxicity in intestinal Caco-2 cells. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2004; 18:143-9. [PMID: 15252870 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.20019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Certain ginsenosides, also known as triterpene glycosides, have been recently reported to have a characteristic effect on cultured intestinal and leukemia cell growth. Ginsenoside aglycones 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PD), 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PT), and ginsenoside Rh2 have been identified as having a strong effect on reducing cell viability. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rh2 is thought to be a rare ginsenoside not found in all ginseng products. Rather, Rh2 has been recently reported to be a breakdown product of thermal processing of North American ginseng. In this study, pure ginsenosides PD, PT, Rh2 standards and an enriched Rh2 fraction derived from ginseng leaf were tested in cultured Caco-2 cells for relative cytotoxic potency. PD and Rh2 LC50 were similar after 24 to 72 h, whereas a drop in PT LC50 occurred later at 48 and 72 h. Furthermore, PD and Rh2 affected membrane integrity as indicated by LDH secretion earlier than PT and the enriched Rh2 fraction (P < or = 0.05). Ginsenoside Rh2 showed the greatest (P < or = 0.05) build up of necrotic cells (18.3 +/- 0.1%) at the respective LC50 after 24 h and PD (21.3 +/- 0.3%) showed the largest effect after 44 h of exposure. The effect on apoptotic cells at 44 h of treatment were significantly different (P < or = 0.05) for Rh2 (21 +/- 0.4%), PD (14.6 +/- 0.1%), enriched Rh2 leaf fraction (9.9 +/- 0.6%), and PT (2.3 +/- 0.1%) treatments. Caco-2 caspase-3 activity was different between ginsenoside exposure; Rh2 (10.6 +/- 0.3 nM pNA) had the greatest (P < or = 0.05) activity followed by the enriched Rh2 leaf fraction (8.3 +/- 0.2 nM pNA), PT (7.3 +/- 0.3 nM pNA). The PD (4.8 +/- 0.04 nM pNA) treatment was similar to untreated cells (4.3 +/- 0.05 nM pNA) in caspase-3 activity. These results show variable bioactive response in cultured intestinal cell to specific ginsenosides and an enriched Rh2 North American ginseng extract which may be explained on basis of hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Popovich
- Food, Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Agricultural Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
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Abstract
In this study we show that panaxadiol, a ginseng saponin with a dammarane skeleton, induces apoptotic cell death by depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential in human hepatoma SK-HEP-1 cells. Sequential activation of caspases-9, -3, and -7, but not of caspase-8, occurs after mitochondrial membrane depolarization and cytochrome c release from the mitochondria of panaxadiol-treated cells. Moreover, Cdk2 kinase activity, but not Cdc2 kinase activity, is markedly upregulated in the early stages of apoptosis. Olomoucine or roscovitine, specific Cdks inhibitors, effectively prevent mitochondrial membrane depolarization as well as apoptotic cell death in panaxadiol-treated cells. Thus, panaxadiol-treatment induces cell death-dependent activation of Cdk2 kinase activity, which is functionally associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential and subsequent cytochrome c release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Hua Jin
- College of Pharmacy, The Research Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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Popovich DG, Kitts DD. Structure-function relationship exists for ginsenosides in reducing cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis in the human leukemia (THP-1) cell line. Arch Biochem Biophys 2002; 406:1-8. [PMID: 12234484 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9861(02)00398-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Ginsenosides of the 20(S)-protopanaxadiol and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol classifications including the aglycones, protopanaxadiol (PD), protopanaxatriol (PT), and ginsenosides Rh2 and Rh1 were shown to posses characteristic effects on the proliferation of human leukemia cells (THP-1). A similar efficacy was not apparent for ginsenoside Rg3. The concentrations to inhibit 50% of cells (LC50) for PD, Rh2, PT, and Rh1 were 13, 15, 19, and 210 microg/mL, respectively. PD and PT induced DNA fragmentation at the LC50 after 72 h of treatment, compared to Rh2, Rh1, dexamethasone, and untreated cells. Cell-cycle analysis confirmed apoptosis with PD and PT treatment of THP-1 cells resulting in a buildup of sub-G1 cells after 24, 48, and 72 h of treatment. Rh2 and dexamethasone treatments also increased apoptotic cells after 24 h, whereas Rh1 did not. After 48 and 72 h, Rh2, Rh1, and dexamethasone similarly increased apoptosis, but these effects were significantly (P<0.05) lower than those observed for both PD and PT treatments. Furthermore, treatments that produced the largest buildup of apoptotic cells were also found to have the largest release of lactate dehydrogenase. It can be concluded from these studies that the presence of sugars in PD and PT aglycone structures reduces the potency to induce apoptosis, and alternately alter membrane integrity. These cytotoxic effects were different to THP-1 cells than dexamethasone.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Popovich
- Food, Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Agricultural Science, University of British Columbia, 6650 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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