Jujuboside B post-treatment attenuates PM2.5-induced lung injury in mice

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is an air pollutant that causes severe lung injury. We investigated the effects of Jujuboside B (JB), a component of Zizyphi Spinosi Semen, on lung toxicity caused by PM2.5, and we identified the mechanism of its protective effect. Lung injury in an animal model was induced by intratracheal administration of a PM2.5 suspension. After 2 days of PM2.5 pretreatment, mice were administered JB via the tail vein three times over a 2-day period. JB significantly reduced the histological lung damage as well as the lung wet/dry weight ratio. JB also considerably reduced PM2.5-induced autophagy dysfunction, apoptosis, inflammatory cytokine levels, and the number of PM2.5-induced lymphocytes in the bronchial alveolar fluid. We conclude that by regulating TLR2, 4-MyD88, and mTOR-autophagy pathways, JB exerts a protective effect on lung injury. Thus, JB can be used as a potential therapeutic agent for PM2.5-induced lung damage.

Evaluation of immunological adjuvant activities of saponin rich fraction from the fruits of Asparagus adscendens Roxb. with less adverse reactions

The hemolytic activity, in vitro as well as in vivo toxicity, and immunomodulatory potential of saponins-rich fraction of Asparagus adscendens Roxb. fruit (AA-SRF) have been assessed in this study in order to explore AA-SRF as an alternative safer adjuvant to standard Quil-A saponin. The AA-SRF showed lower hemolytic activity (HD₅₀ = 301.01 ± 1.63 µg/ml) than Quil-A (HD₅₀ = 17.15 ± 2.12 µg/ml). The sulforhodamine B assay also revealed that AA-SRF was less toxic to VERO cells (IC₅₀≥200 ± 4.32 µg/ml) than Quil-A (IC₅₀ = 60 ± 2.78 µg/ml). The AA-SRF did not lead to mortality in mice up to 1.6 mg and was much safer than Quil-A for in vivo use. Conversely, mice were subcutaneously immunized with OVA 100 μg alone or along with Alum (200 μg) or Quil-A (10 μg) or AA-SRF (50 μg/100 μg/200 μg) on days 0 and 14. The AA-SRF at 100 μg dose best supported the LPS/Con A primed splenocyte proliferation activity, elevated the serum OVA-specific total IgG antibody, IL-12, CD4 titer and upsurged CD3/CD19 expression in spleen as well as lymph node sections which in turn advocated its adjuvant potential. Thus, AA-SRF can be further studied for use as a safe alternative adjuvant in vaccines.

Toxicological effects of Saponin on the free larval stages of Schistosoma mansoni, infection rate, some biochemical and molecular parameters of Biomphalaria alexandrina snails

Saponins have been used as biopesticides. The objective of the present study is to investigate the toxic effects of Saponin against Biomphalaria alexandrina snails. Results showed that Saponin exhibited a molluscicidal activity against adult B. alexandrina snails at LC₅₀ (70.05 mg/l) and had a larvicidal effect on the free larval stages of Schistosoma mansoni. To evaluate the lethal effects, snails were exposed to either LC₁₀ (51.8 mg/l) or LC₂₅ (60.4 mg/l) concentrations of Saponin. The survival, the infection rates, protein, albumin, and total fat levels were decreased, while glucose levels were increased in exposed snails compared to control snails. Also, these concentrations significantly raised Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Glutathione S Transferase (GST) levels, whereas reduced Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in exposed snails. Furthermore, these concentrations resulted in endocrine disruptions where it caused a significant increase in testosterone (T) level; while a significant decrease in Estradiol (E2) levels were noticed. As for Estrogen (E) level, it was increased after exposure to LC₁₀ Saponin concentration while after exposure to LC₂₅ concentration, it was decreased. Also, LC₁₀ and LC₂₅ concentrations of Saponin caused a genotoxic effect and down-regulation of metabolic cycles in the snails. In conclusion, Saponins caused deleterious effects on the intermediate host of schistosomiasis mansoni. Therefore, B. alexandrina snails could be used as models to screen the toxic effects of Saponins in the aquatic environment and if it was used as a molluscicide, it should be used cautiously and under controlled circumstances.

Terrestrosin D, a spirostanol saponin from Tribulus terrestris L. with potential hepatorenal toxicity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Tribuli (FT) has been commonly used as a traditional medicine for thousands of years. With the diverse uses of FT, more attention has been paid to its hepatorenal toxicity. However, the compounds causing the hepatorenal toxicity of FT remain undetermined. Terrestrosin D (TED), a major spirostanol saponin isolated from FT, may exert hepatorenal toxicity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to evaluate the potential hepatorenal toxicity of TED, and preliminarily explore the possible mechanism of TED-induced hepatorenal toxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytotoxicity assays, a repeated-dose 28-day in-vivo study, a toxicokinetic study, and a tissue distribution study were used to evaluate the potential hepatorenal toxicity of TED. Furthermore, network pharmacology was applied to preliminarily explore the possible mechanism of TED-induced hepatorenal toxicity.

RESULTS

Both the in vitro and in vivo studies showed that the spirostanol saponin TED had potential hepatorenal toxicity. Nonetheless, hepatorenal toxicity induced by oral treatment with TED at a dosage range of 5 - 15 mg/kg daily for 28 consecutive days to Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats was reversible after 14 days of TED withdrawal. The toxicokinetic study demonstrated that the systematic exposure of SD rats to TED had an accumulation phenomenon and a dose-dependent trend after a 28-day repeated-dose oral administration. The tissue distribution study revealed that TED had a targeted distribution in the liver and kidneys accompanied by a phenomenon of accumulation in SD rats. Network pharmacology combined with molecular docking methods was used to screen for the key targets (HSP90AA1, CNR1, and DRD2) and the key pathways of TED-induced hepatorenal toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

The spirostanol saponin TED, a major spirostanol saponin isolated from FT, had potential hepatorenal toxicity.

Dereplication of Bioactive Spirostane Saponins from Agave macroacantha

A dereplication strategy using UPLC-QTOF/MSE, the HMAI method, and NMR spectroscopy led to the identification of five main steroidal saponins (1-5), including three previously unknown compounds named macroacanthosides A-C (3-5), in a bioactive fraction of Agave macroacantha. The major saponins were isolated, and some of them together with the saponin-rich fraction were then evaluated for phytotoxicity on a standard target species, Lactuca sativa. The inhibition values exhibited by the pure compounds were confirmed to be in agreement with the phytotoxicity of the saponin-rich fraction, which suggests that the saponin fraction could be applied successfully as an agrochemical without undergoing any further costly and/or time-consuming purification processes. The NMR data of the pure compounds as well as of those corresponding to the same compounds in the fraction were comparable, which indicated that the main saponins could be identified by means of this replication workflow and that no standards are required.

Protective effects of glutamine against soy saponins-induced enteritis, tight junction disruption, oxidative damage and autophagy in the intestine of Scophthalmus maximus L

Soy saponins, as thermo-stable anti-nutrients in soybean meal (SBM), are the primary causal agents of SBM-induced enteritis, which represents a well-documented pathologic alternation involving the distal intestines of various farmed fish. Our previous work showed that soy saponins might lead to SBM-induced enteritis, destroy tight junction structure and induce oxidative damage in juvenile turbot. Glutamine, as a conditionally essential amino acid, is an important substrate utilized for the growth of intestinal epithelial cells. An 8-week feeding trial was carried out to determine whether glutamine can attenuate the detrimental effects of soy saponins. Three isonitrogenous-isolipidic experimental diets were formulated as follows: (i) fish meal-based diet (FM), considered as control; (ii) FM + 10 g/kg soy saponins, SAP; and (iii) SAP + 15 g/kg glutamine, GLN. The results showed that dietary soy saponins significantly increased the gene expression levels of inflammatory markers (IL-1β, IL-8 and TNF-α) and related signaling factors (NF-кB, AP-1, p38, JNK and ERK), which were remarkably attenuated by dietary glutamine. Compared to SAP group, GLN-fed fish exhibited significantly higher expression levels of tight junction genes (CLDN3, CLDN4, OCLN, Tricellulin and ZO-1). Glutamine supplementation in SAP diet markedly suppressed the production of reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl, and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes as well as the mRNA levels of HO-1, SOD, GPX and Nrf2. Furthermore, GLN-fed fish had a remarkably lower number of autophagosomes compared to SAP-fed fish. In conclusion, our study indicated that glutamine could reverse the harmful effects of soy saponins on intestinal inflammation, tight junction disruption and oxidative damage, via attenuation of NF-кB, AP-1 and MAPK pathways and activation of Nrf2 pathway. Glutamine may have the function of controlling autophaghic process within an appropriate level of encountering inflammation.

Saponin toxicity as key player in plant defense against pathogens

Microbial pathogens attack every plant tissue, including leaves, roots, shoots, and flowers during all growth stages. Thus, they cause several diseases resulting in a plant's failure or loss of the whole crop in severe cases. To combat the pathogens attack, plants produce some biologically active toxic compounds known as saponins. The saponins are secondary metabolic compounds produced in healthy plants with potential anti-pathogenic activity and serve as potential chemical barriers against pathogens. Saponins are classified into two major groups the steroidal and terpenoid saponins. Here, we reported the significance of saponin toxins in the war against insect pests, fungal, and bacterial pathogens. Saponins are present in both cultivated (chilies, spinach, soybean, quinoa, onion, oat, tea, etc.) and wild plant species. As they are natural toxic constituents of plant defense, breeders and plant researchers aiming to boost plant imm unity should focus on transferring these compounds in cash crops.

Saponin fraction from Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn as a novel cosmetic additive: Extraction, biological evaluation, analysis of anti-acne mechanism and toxicity prediction

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. (S. mukorossi), known as 'mu huan zi' in Chinese folklore, belongs to the family Sapindaceae and it has been traditionally used for treating coughing and excessive salivation, removing freckle, whitening skin, etc. Evidence-based medicine also verified the antimicrobial, anti-tyrosinase and anti-acne activity of S. mukorossi extract, suggesting that it has the potential to be a pharmaceutical and cosmetic additive.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was intended to evaluate the freckle-removing and skin-whitening activities of S. mukorossi extracts, and further analyzing the potential anti-acne mechanism.

METHODS

Saponin fractions were purified by using the semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and their antibacterial activity was detected against Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), which was the leading cause of inflamed lesions in acne vulgaris. The anti-lipase and anti-tyrosinase activities were assayed using a commercial kit, while the potential anti-acne mechanism was predicted on the basis of the network pharmacology. Active components of saponin fraction were identified by HPLC-MS analysis. Furthermore, the different toxicity level of compounds was predicted according to the quantitative structure-activity relationship, and the first application of crude extract and saponin fraction to facial masks was analyzed based on the comprehensive evaluation method.

RESULTS

The saponin fraction (F4) purified from the fermentation liquid-based water extract (SWF) showed the best antibacterial activity against P. acnes ATCC 6919 with the MIC of 0.06 mg/mL, which was 33-fold of its parent SWF (with the MIC of 2.0 mg/mL). Compared with SWF, the application of F4 caused greater inhibition rates on lipase and tyrosinase. Chemical constituents of F4 were evaluated, from which four oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins were detected to contribute to the above biological activities of F4. The mechanism of the four compounds on anti-acne was predicted, and seven targets such as PTGS2 and F2RL1 were obtained to be important for the treatment of acne. The four compounds were also predicted to have different levels of toxicity to various species, and they were not harmful to rats. Besides, F4 and SWF were applied to facial masks and there was no significant influence on the physicochemical properties including pH, stability, and sensory characteristics.

CONCLUSION

This work demonstrated that oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins were speculated to contribute to the skin-whitening, freckle-removing, and anti-acne activities of F4. These findings will facilitate the development of the S. mukorossi extract and the allied products as the new and natural anti-acne agent and cosmetic additives.

Anti-breast cancer and toxicity studies of total secondary saponin from Anemone raddeana Rhizome on MCF-7 cells via ROS generation and PI3K/AKT/mTOR inactivation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizome of Anemone raddeana Regel (A. raddeana) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia for the treatment of carbuncle and swelling. Carbuncle swollen is an explanation of tumor in the theory of TCM and softening and resolving hard mass effects are one of the important pharmacological activities of A. raddeana.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the potential anti-breast cancer effect and toxicological properties of alkali-ethanol extract from A. raddeana, namely total secondary saponin (TSS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-proliferative effect of total saponin of A. raddeana (ATS) and TSS were tested using MTT assay. Hoechst staining, flow cytometry analysis, DCFH-DA fluorescence microscopy and western blot were carried out to evaluate the mechanisms of action of TSS. The potential anti-breast cancer activity and toxicological properties of TSS were tested in vivo.

RESULTS

ATS and TSS could inhibit the proliferation of A549, HepG2, MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and SKBr-3 cells, especially for MCF-7 cells. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that TSS (10, 12 and 15 μg/ml) could induce cell cycle arrest on G0/G1 phase and promote apoptosis of MCF-7 cells. TSS could increase Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, elevate cytochrome c levels in cytosol and activate caspase-3/9. In addition, TSS also induced ROS generation and inactivated PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway which may involved in the mitochondrial dysfunction of MCF-7 cells. TSS showed slight toxic at the dosage of 100 and 200 mg/kg by oral administration without any toxic potential for 28 days. TSS (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) showed significant inhibitory effect on growth of transplanted tumor in mice. At last, twenty-three C-3 monosaccharide oleanane-type triterpene saponins were tentatively identified, which may contributed to the anti-cancer activity of TSS.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that TSS exhibited anti-proliferative and pro-apoptosis activities on MCF-7 cells via ROS-mediated activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. TSS might be used as chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of breast cancer with relatively low toxicity.

[Acute toxicity mechanism of Panax notoginseng saponins in larvae zebrafish based on metabonomics]

Based on metabolomics,the metabolites of larvae zebrafish with overdose of Panax notoginseng saponins( PNS) were compared with those in normal group of larvae zebrafish to investigate the possible toxicity mechanism of overdose PNS in larvae zebrafish. An experimental animal model of long-term toxicity induced by PNS overdose was established by administering 1-6 dpf at low,medium and high doses of PNS,respectively. The ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry( UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) technique was combined with principal component analysis( PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis( OPLS-DA) to screen and identify biomarkers associated with toxicity,and then the MetaboAnalyst database was used to analyze metabolism-related pathways. The results showed that the metabolites of each group could be distinguished distinctly,and they deviated more from the normal group in a time and dose dependent manner. Twenty-nine potential biomarkers related to toxicity( VIP>1,P<0. 05) were identified preliminarily,mainly involving six metabolic pathways. From the metabonomics point of view,the toxicity mechanism of overdose PNS may be related to the disorders of lipid metabolism,amino acid metabolism and energy metabolism.

Hepatocellular Toxicity of Paris Saponins I, II, VI and VII on Two Kinds of Hepatocytes-HL-7702 and HepaRG Cells, and the Underlying Mechanisms

Rhizoma paridis is a popularly-used Chinese medicine in clinics, based on the pharmacodynamic properties of its saponin components. The four main saponins in Rhizoma paridis are designated saponins I, II, VI, and VII. At present, much attention is focused on the anticancer effect of Rhizoma paridis which is manifested in its cytotoxicity to various cancer cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hepatocellular toxicities of the four saponins in Rhizoma paridis and the relative intensities of their cytotoxic effects. It was found that the four saponins were cytotoxic to two types of hepatocytes-HL-7702 and HepaRG cells. The cytotoxicities of the four saponins to the two cell models were compared. One of the most cytotoxic saponins was Rhizoma paridis saponin I (PSI). This was used to determine the mechanism of hepatocellular toxicity. Results from MTT assays demonstrated that the four saponins induced apoptosis of the two hepatocyte models in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. In addition, fluorescent 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining was used to observe the morphological changes of HepaRG cells after saponin administration. Further, as the concentration increased, PSI-induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from HepaRG cells increased gradually. In addition, PSI enhanced the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and blocked the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle in HepaRG cells. A western blot indicated that PSI upregulated the protein expression levels of p53, p21, and Fas. Furthermore, the PSI-induced changes in the p53 protein increased the Bax/bcl-2 ratio, resulting in enhancement of the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c, activation of caspases-3, -8, and -9, poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP), and ultimately apoptosis. Increased Fas protein activated caspase-8, which led to the activation of caspase-3 and its downstream PARP protein, resulting in cell apoptosis. These results indicate that PSI induced apoptosis in HepaRG cells through activation of ROS and death receptor pathways. The results obtained in this study suggest that the hepatocellular toxicity of saponins in Rhizoma paridis should be considered during the clinical application of this drug. In addition, they provide a reference for future anti-cancer studies on Rhizoma paridis.

Safety investigation of Pulsatilla chinensis saponins from chronic metabonomic study of serum biomedical changes in oral treated rat

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) which is widely used for the treatment of schistosomiasis, inflammatory, bacterial infections. In recent years, P chinensis has been reported to exhibit antitumor activities. However, the mechanisms underlying its toxic effects remain largely unresolved. This paper is designed to investigate the damage of long-term oral P. chinensis saponins (PRS) and to explore its potential damage mechanisms by serum metabonomics approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The serum samples from control and PRS treated rats were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) in positive ionization mode and negative ionization mode. Liver function index of ALT, AST and ALP, blood biochemistry and biomarkers were examined to identify specific changes of injury. Acquired data were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) for differentiating the control and PRS treated groups. Then, serum metabolic profiling was analyzed and pathway analysis performed on the biomarkers reversed after PRS treated and further integration of metabolic networks.

RESULTS

The results suggested that serum liver function indexes of ALT had significantly changed and stage increased. AST, ALP detection content show volatility changes. Changes in the 15 biomarkers found in the serum, such as acetaminophen glucuronide, 9 E, 11 E-linoleic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid, monoacylglycerides, sphingomyelin (SM), 7-ketodeoxycholic acid and 12-keto-deoxycholic acid, which were closely related to changes in liver injury. It could be seen clearly that with the change of the dosing time, the biomarkers in the serum have undergone obvious, regular and progressive changes through the score plot and corresponding loading plot. The underlying regulations of PRS-perturbed metabolic pathways were discussed according to the identified metabolites.

CONCLUSION

The present study proves the potential of UPLC-QTOF-MS based metabonomics in mapping metabolic response. Long-term oral administration of P. chinensis saponins can cause chronic liver injury, and its safety needs further attention. It is of great significance in safeguarding human health to explore the damage mechanism of Pulsatilla chinensis saponins on liver by serum metabolomics.

Molecular Networking-Based Analysis of Cytotoxic Saponins from Sea Cucumber Holothuria atra

The saponin composition of a specimen of black sea cucumber, Holothuria atra collected in the Persian Gulf was studied by a combined approach including LC-MS/MS, Molecular Networking, pure compound isolation, and NMR spectroscopy. The saponin composition of Holothuria atra turned out to be more complex than previously reported. The most abundant saponins in the extract (1⁻4) were isolated and characterized by 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments. Compound 1 was identified as a new triterpene glycoside saponin, holothurin A5. The side chain of the new saponin 1, unprecedented among triterpene glycosides, is characterized by an electrophilic enone function, which can undergo slow water or methanol addition under neutral conditions. The cytotoxic activity of compounds 1⁻4, evaluated on the human cervix carcinoma HeLa cell line, was remarkable, with IC50 values ranging from 1.2 to 2.5 µg/mL.

A comprehensive review and perspectives on pharmacology and toxicology of saikosaponins

BACKGROUND

Radix Bupleuri (RB) has been widely used in Chinese Traditional Medicine for over 2000 years and is currently marketed in China as Chai-Hu-Shu-Gan tablets and Xiao-Yao-Wan tablets. Saikosaponins (SSs, especially SSa, SSc and SSd), as the major bioactive compounds in RB, represent anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-viral and hepatoprotective effects.

PURPOSE

To summarize recent findings regarding to the extraction, detection, biosynthesis, metabolism, pharmacological/toxicological effects of SSs.

METHODS

Online academic databases (including PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science and CNKI) were searched using search terms of "Saikosaponin", "Radix Bupleuri", "Bupleurum" and combinations to include published studies of SSs primarily from 2003 to 2018. Several critical previous studies beyond this period were also included.

RESULTS

354 papers were found and 165 papers were reviewed. SSs have drawn great attention for their anti-inflammation, anti-viral and anti-cancer effects and contradictory roles in the regulation of cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and liver fibrosis. Meanwhile, increased risks of overdose-induced acute or accumulation-related chronic hepatotoxicity of SSs and RB have also been reported. However, underlying mechanisms of SSs bioactivities, the metabolism of SSs and bioactivities of SSs metabolites are largely unknown.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive review of SSs provides novel insights and perspectives on the limitations of current studies and the importance of metabolism study and the dose-pharmacological/toxic relationship of SSs for the future discovery of SSs-based therapeutic strategies and clinical safe practice.

Where does the toxicity come from in saponin extract?

Saponin-rich plant extracts contain bioactive natural compounds and have many applications, e.g. as biopesticides and biosurfactants. The composition of saponin-rich plant extracts is very diverse, making environmental monitoring difficult. In this study various ecotoxicity data as well as exposure data have been collected to explore which compounds in the plant extract are relevant as plant protection agents and furthermore to clarify which compounds may cause undesired side-effects due to their toxicity. Hence, we quantified the toxicity of different fractions (saponins/non-saponins) in the plant extracts on the aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna and zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. In addition, we tested the toxicity changes during saponin degradation as well. The results confirm that saponins are responsible for the majority of toxicity (85.1-93.6%) of Quillaja saponaria extract. We, therefore, suggest saponins to be the main target of saponin-rich plant extracts, for instance in the saponin-based biopesticide regulation. Furthermore, we suggest that an abundant saponin fraction, QS-18 from Q. saponaria, can be a key monitoring target to represent the environmental concentration of the saponins, as it contributes with 26% and 61% of the joint toxicity to D. magna and D. rerio, respectively out of the total saponins. The degradation products of saponins are 3-7 times less toxic than the parent compound; therefore the focus should be mainly on the parent compounds.

Effects of Camellia sinensis crude saponin on survival and biochemical markers of oxidative stress and multixenobiotic resistance of the Mediterranean mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis

The Ebro Delta (NE Spain), formed by two bays, northern and southern hemidelta, is an area mainly devoted to rice farming. As a result shellfish species inhabiting or cultured in nearby bays may become increasingly threatened by exposure to pollutants associated to agriculture. The latest product applied in the rice fields is a plant based molluscicide called saponin, used to control populations of the giant apple snail (GAS). Saponins are known to also affect other organisms, hence research of its toxicity towards non target species is needed. In this study, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were exposed to three concentrations of suspended solid pellets containing saponin extracts from the plant species Camellia sinensis. Effects across a large set of biochemical markers were investigated in the digestive gland and gill tissue of exposed mussels to saponin for 1 and 7days. In addition, crude saponin was extracted from solid pellets to confirm its correct concentration. Results obtained from this study, showed that the concentration of crude saponin in dry pellets was of 5.5%. Lethal levels of saponin were 3.2 fold higher than the maximal predicted field concentration, and activated respiratory metabolism and expression of transmembrane protein transporters. Mussels, exposed to sub lethal concentrations of saponin showed increase of antioxidant defenses.

Histopathological effects of Pedunsaponin A on Pomacea canaliculata

Pedunsaponin A, a novel molluscicidal compound isolated from Pueraria peduncularis, exhibits strong toxicity against Pomacea canaliculata. To determine the mechanisms of Pedunsaponin A toxicity, its effects on the organs and hemocytes of P. canaliculata were examined in this study. The results showed that Pedunsaponin A had significant toxic effects on different organs of the snail, including the lungs, gills, mantle, siphon tube, ventricle, pericardial cavity, hepatopancreas, kidneys, and the major symptom of this toxicity was the loss of cilia in the lungs and gills. Additionally, in further studies on the effects of Pedunsaponin A treatment, we found that the hemocyte count was changed and hemocyte morphology was damaged, which was primarily reflected by cytoplasm leakage, nuclei deformation, and significant reductions in the number of ribosomes and granulocyte mitochondria. Based on these results and considering that blood vessels are distributed in the lungs and gills, we hypothesized that Pedunsaponin A would first destroy the cilia, which disrupt physiological activities such as respiration, excretion and feeding, and then enter the hemolymph through blood vessels, disrupt the normal function of the hemocytes and destroy the snail immune system, eventually resulting in the death of the snail.

What is the aquatic toxicity of saponin-rich plant extracts used as biopesticides?

Saponin-rich extracts from Quillaja saponaria and Chenopodium quinoa have been registered by US EPA as active ingredients in biopesticides, and extract from tea seed powder, Camellia oleifera has been proposed for biocidal use. If saponin-rich biopesticides are efficient against pests, they are most likely also bioactive in the aquatic environment against non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to conduct an effect assessment of saponin-rich plant extracts by using species sensitivity distributions based on acute toxicity tests. The maximal concentrations protecting 95% of the aquatic species (HC₅) of saponins extracted from quillaja bark, tea seed coat and quinoa seed coat were 2.91 ± 1.00, 0.22 ± 0.11 and 22.9 ± 5.84 mg/L, respectively. The 100-fold difference in toxicity between the saponin-rich extracts from different plant species, indicate that saponin toxicity depends on the species it origins from, making "read-across" between saponins a dubious exercise. In addition, the predicted environmental concentrations of different saponins are close to or higher than their water quality standard, which means that the extracts might pose a risk to the aquatic environment if not used cautiously.

Antitumor and anti-metastatic mechanisms of Rhizoma paridis saponins in Lewis mice

Lung cancer is one of the most common causes of death in the world. Rhizoma paridis saponins (RPS) have been found to show inhibition of pulmonary adenoma in previous research. However, the detailed mechanisms of RPS from a holistic view have not been established. In this study, Lewis pulmonary adenoma mice were successfully established to analyze the pathways involved in RPS intervening tumor formation and progression. As a result, RPS inhibited levels of cytokines or receptors such as VEGFD, VEGFR3, RAGE, IL6R, IL17BR, and CXCL16 which were regarded as the initiators induced tumor cell proliferation, adhesion, angiogenesis, and invasion. Meanwhile, RPS raised the content of SOD and CAT enzymes and thereby inhibited the aberrantly active NF-κB, and phosphorylation of PI3K/Akt and MAPK (including p38, Erk1/2, and JNK) signaling pathways. Soon after, RPS changed mRNA expression of nuclear factors containing NF-κB, HIF-1A, STAT3, and Jun, and consequentially suppressed the expression of angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, adhesion, inflammation, and invasion enzymes. In conclusion, this research provided a holistic view to understand the multi-target antitumor mechanisms of RPS which promoted the application of RPS in the future.

Effect of tea saponin on ephyrae and polyps of the moon jellyfish Aurelia sp.1

The moon jellyfish (Aurelia sp.1) is thought to be a nuisance for the sea cucumber aquaculture, which commonly occur in the sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) culture ponds of the Yellow Sea, China. To develop an appropriate method to control Aurelia sp.1 blooms, the toxic effects of tea saponin on Aurelia sp.1 ephyrae and polyps were tested in laboratory experiments. Our results revealed that tea saponin caused significant morphological changes, behavioral abnormality and mortality in Aurelia sp.1 ephyrae and polyps in 24 h and 48 h exposure experiments. The 24 h and 48 h median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) values of tea saponin for Aurelia sp.1 ephyrae were 1.9 and 1.1 mg L^-1 respectively, while the LC₅₀ value for Aurelia sp.1 polyps was 0.4 mg L^-1 after 24h and 48 h of exposure to tea saponin. Comparison with literature results of tea saponin on A. japonicus indicates that the resistance of A. japonicus to tea saponin is 12–18 times greater than that of Aurelia sp.1 ephyrae. Therefore, the appropriate tea saponin dosage for the control of Aurelia sp.1 should be paid enough attention in order to minimize possible damage for sea cucumber. We suggest that the recommended level of tea saponin to eradicate Aurelia sp.1 ephyrae and polyps in sea cucumber culture ponds be lower than 1.35 mg L^-1.

Content decline of SERCA inhibitors saikosaponin a and d attenuates cardiotoxicity and hepatotoxicity of vinegar-baked Radix bupleuri

Improper usage of unprocessed Radix bupleuri root (chaihu) may cause cardiotoxicity and liver injury. Baking herb with vinegar is believed to attenuate the adverse responses. However, the chemical and molecular basis involved remained unclear. To this end, we investigated the in vitro toxicity of saikosaponin a, c, d, and their hydrolysates saikosaponin b1 and b2. Results showed that SSa and SSd possessed higher affinity with sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) by molecular docking, and exhibited stronger toxic responses on cardiomyocytes and hepatocytes than the other three saikosaponins in equivalent concentrations. Further, SSa and SSd induced LC3 puncta formation in U2OS-mCherry-EGFP-LC3 cells. Blockage of autophagy by 3-methyladenine did not abrogate the cytotoxicities induced by SSa and SSd. In parallel, none of SSc, SSb1, or SSb2 caused cell injury. Our study reveals how changes in chemical ingredients are connected to the toxicity of Chaihu during vinegar baking process and also provides a guidance for structure optimization to reduce drug induced toxicity.

Antifungal activity and cytotoxicity of extracts and triterpenoid saponins obtained from the aerial parts of Anagallis arvensis L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anagallis arvensis L. (Primulaceae) is used in argentinean northwestern traditional medicine to treat fungal infections. We are reporting the isolation and identification of compounds with antifungal activity against human pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, and toxicity evaluation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

to study the antifungal activity of extracts and purified compounds obtained form A. arvensis aerial parts, alone and in combinations with fluconazole (FLU), and to study the toxicity of the active compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Disk diffusion assays were used to perform an activity-guided isolation of antifungal compounds from the aerial parts of A. arvensis. Broth dilution checkerboard and viable cell count assays were employed to determine the effects of samples and combinations of FLU + samples against Candida albicans. The chemical structures of active compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis. Genotoxic and haemolytic effects of the isolated compounds were determined.

RESULTS

Four triterpenoid saponins (1-4) were identified. Anagallisin C (AnC), exerted the highest inhibitory activity among the assayed compounds against C. albicans reference strain (ATCC 10231), with MIC-0 =1µg/mL. The Fractional Inhibitory Concentration Index (FICI=0.129) indicated a synergistic effect between AnC (0.125µg/mL) and FLU (0.031µg/mL) against C. albicans ATCC 10231. AnC inhibited C. albicans 12-99 FLU resistant strain (MIC-0 =1µg/mL), and the FICI=0.188 indicated a synergistic effect between AnC (0.125µg/mL) and fluconazole (16µg/mL). The combination AnC+ FLU exerted fungicidal activity against both C. albicans strains. AnC exerted inhibitory activity against C. albicans ATCC 10231 sessile cells (MIC₅0=0.5µg/mL and MIC₈₀=1µg/mL) and against C. albicans 12-99 sessile cells (MIC₅0=0.75µg/mL and MIC₈₀=1.25µg/mL). AnC exerted haemolytic effect against human red blood cells at 15µg/mL and did not exerted genotoxic effect on Bacillus subtilis rec strains.

CONCLUSIONS

The antifungal activity and lack of genotoxic effects of AnC give support to the traditional use of A. arvensis as antifungal and makes AnC a compound of interest to expand the available antifungal drugs.

Global metabolic profiling for the study of Rhizoma Paridis saponins-induced hepatotoxicity in rats

Rhizoma Paridis saponins (RPS) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) from the plant Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Fr.) Hand.-Mazz. Despite its potentially clinical utility such as anticancer and anti-inflammation, it has slight side effects and toxicity as previous report. In this work, 90-day administration of RPS induced liver injury. ¹ H-NMR- and GC/MS-based metabonomic analyses in conjunction with histopathological examinations, blood biochemistry and hepatic phase I and II enzymes assays were performed to evaluate the toxic mechanisms of RPS induced in rats. As a result, oral administration of RPS possessed certain liver toxicity in SD rats. ¹ H-NMR and GC/MS data indicated that RPS inhibited the oxidation of fatty acids, glycolysis, and TCA cycle pathway, and disturbed glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism. Low expression of TG, T-CHO, and LDL-C and high levels of ALT and AST indicated that chronic exposure to RPS caused hepatocyte damage, synthesis dysfunction, and transportation failure of lipoproteins. In addition, RPS downregulated the mRNA levels of CYP1A2, CYP2E1, and UGTs. In conclusion, we used metabonomics approach to study the toxicity of RPS for the first time. This research demonstrated that metabonomics method was a promising tool to study and diagnose TCM-induced toxicity. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 99-108, 2017.

Curcumin alleviated the toxic reaction of Rhizoma Paridis saponins in a 45-day subchronic toxicological assessment of rats

Rhizoma Paridis saponins (RPS), as steroid saponins, are the main components in Paris polyphylla. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) is the most important component in the spice turmeric. In our previous research, RPS exhibited side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and so forth. Combination with curcumin not only alleviated the toxicity and gastric stimulus induced by RPS, but also improved the quality life of mice bearing tumor cells and enhanced their anticancer effect. This study evaluated subchronic toxicity of 45^th dietary of RPS and curcumin on histopathology, biochemistry, and antioxidant index. As a result, RPS-treatment caused a slight liver injury (the elevation of serum AST, alkaline phosphatase (AKP), alanine transaminase (ALT), and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT), histopathological changes in liver section), oxidative stress (the enhancement of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), separation of thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), but enhancement of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and nuclear factor-regulated factor 2 (Nrf2)), and inflammation (up-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB)). However, these changes were alleviated through co-treatment with curcumin. In conclusion, our work provided useful data for further research and new drug exploration of RPS and curcumin. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1935-1943, 2016.

Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Based Metabolomics Reveals Key Differences between Brachiaria decumbens and B. brizantha, Two Similar Pastures with Different Toxicities

Several species of Brachiaria (Poaceae) currently cover extensive grazing areas in Brazil, providing valuable source of feed for a large cattle population. However, numerous cases of toxicity outbreaks in livestock have raised concerns on safety of using these plants, especially B. decumbens. In this study, chemometric analysis of ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-QTOF-MS) data has for the first time uncovered qualitative and quantitative differences between metabolomes of toxic B. decumbens and nontoxic B. brizantha. The steroidal saponin protoneodioscin was established as the main biomarker for B. decumbens when compared to B. brizantha, and therefore the key explanation for their phytochemical differentiation. Quantification of protodioscin in both plants showed no significant differences; consequently, the idea that this compound is solely responsible for toxicity outbreaks must be discarded. Instead, we propose that the added occurrence of its stereoisomer, protoneodioscin, in B. decumbens, can be considered as the probable cause of these events. Interestingly, the greatest concentrations of saponins for both species were reached during winter (B. decumbens = 53.6 ± 5.1 mg·g(-1) dry weight (D.W.); B. brizantha = 25.0 ± 1.9 mg·g(-1) D.W.) and spring (B. decumbens = 49.4 ± 5.0 mg·g(-1) D.W.; B. brizantha = 27.9 ± 1.4 mg·g(-1) D.W.), although in the case of B. decumbens these values do not vary significantly among seasons.

Activation of Fas death receptor pathway and Bid in hepatocytes is involved in saikosaponin D induction of hepatotoxicity

Drug-induced liver injury can lead to acute liver failure. Saikosaponin D (SSD) is a major component isolated from the medicinal herb Bupleurum falcatum, which has been linked to hepatotoxicity. We previously reported that SSD disrupted PDGF-βR pathway leading to mitochondrial apoptosis in human LO2 hepatocytes. The present study was aimed at further exploring the underlying mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. We initially determined the concentration range of SSD at up to 2μM for subsequent apoptosis examinations. SSD significantly upregulated Fas expression, promoted caspase-8 cleavage and activated the pro-apoptotic protein Bid in LO2 cells. Moreover, SSD reduced the abundance of cytochrome c in mitochondria and increased the cleaved-caspase-3 in LO2 cells, but did not apparently affect PI3K/AKT, ERK and STAT3 pathways that are involved in cell fate regulation. Experiments in vivo showed that one-week treatment with SSD at 300 mg/kg significantly elevated the liver/body weight ratio and caused histological injury in mouse liver. Furthermore, SSD treatment induced massive hepatocyte apoptosis, and significantly downregulated Bcl-2 but upregulated Bax in mouse liver. Taken together, these results revealed a specific mechanism of activation of extrinsic apoptosis pathway and Bid by SSD, which was involved in SSD-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in hepatocytes and potential hepatotoxicity.

The reproductive toxicity of saponins isolated from Cortex Albiziae in female mice

Saponin frsom Cortex Albiziae (SCA) are extensively used in the clinical treatment of tumor and depression. However, SCA may cause several adverse effects, including reproductive toxicity. The present study was designed to assess the mechanism by which SCA cause reproductive toxicity in female mice. The general reproductive toxicity testing was accomplished in female Kunming mice. The animals were divided into four groups: three groups that were treated by oral gavage with 135, 270, and 540 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1) of SCA prepared in physiological saline, respectively, and one vehicle control group that was treated with physiological saline only. The gestational toxicity tests were conducted at 540 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1). The general reproductive toxicity results showed that the pregnancy rate of the SCA-treated group decreased with the pregnancy rate being decreased by 70% at 540 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1). SCA elicited maternal toxicity in the ovary and the uterus, but no fetal toxicity or teratogenicity was observed. The rates of implantation in the early, middle, and late pregnancy were all decreased, with stillbirths and maternal deaths being observed. Histopathological changes showed that SCA adversely affected the ovary and the uterus. In conclusion, SCA-induced reproductive toxicity in female mice is most likely caused by its damage to the ovary and the uterus.

Safety assessment of saponins extract in Dolichos falcatus Klein: Subchronic study in Sprague-Dawley rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dolichos falcatus Klein (DF), a Chinese Dai ethnic medicine popularly known as "Tuoyeteng" in Yunnan province of China, has been widely used in China to treat fracture, rheumatoid arthritis and soft tissue injuries for a long time. Our previous study showed that saponins in DF (DFS) ameliorated the gouty arthritis induced by MSU crystals in vivo and in vitro. The present study was carried out to evaluate the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of DFS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats (10/sex/group) were gavaged with DFS at dose level of 0, 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight /day for 90-days.

RESULTS

DFS administration did not result in mortality or show treatment-related changes in clinical signs of toxicity, body weights gain or feed consumption. Similarly, in addition to slightly hemolytic anemia and gastrointestinal tract lesion in males of high-dose treatment group, no toxicologically significant treatment-related changes in hematological, clinical chemistry, urine analysis parameters, organ weights, and macroscopic and microscopic abnormalities were noted during the testing period.

CONCLUSION

The results of subchronic toxicity study support the NOAEL for DFS as 200 mg/kg/d in females and as 100mg/kg/d in males. These results provide an important reference for further DFS-related clinical trials or new drug exploration.

Striatal patch compartment lesions reduce stereotypy following repeated cocaine administration

Stereotypy can be characterized as inflexible, repetitive behaviors that occur following repeated exposure to psychostimulants, such as cocaine (COC). Stereotypy may be related to preferential activation of the patch (striosome) compartment of striatum, as enhanced relative activation of the patch compartment has been shown to positively correlate with the emergence of stereotypy following repeated psychostimulant treatment. However, the specific contribution of the patch compartment to COC-induced stereotypy following repeated exposure is unknown. To elucidate the involvement of the patch compartment to the development of stereotypy following repeated COC exposure, we determined if destruction of this sub-region altered COC-induced behaviors. The neurons of the patch compartment were ablated by bilateral infusion of the neurotoxin dermorphin-saporin (DERM-SAP; 17 ng/μl) into the striatum. Animals were allowed to recover for eight days following the infusion, and then were given daily injections of COC (25mg/kg) or saline for one week, followed by a weeklong drug-free period. Animals were then given a challenge dose of saline or COC, observed for 2h in activity chambers and sacrificed. The number of mu-labeled patches in the striatum were reduced by DERM-SAP pretreatment. In COC-treated animals DERM-SAP pretreatment significantly reduced the immobilization and intensity of stereotypy but increased locomotor activity. DERM-SAP pretreatment attenuated COC-induced c-Fos expression in the patch compartment, while enhancing COC-induced c-Fos expression in the matrix compartment. These data indicate that the patch compartment contributes to repetitive behavior and suggests that alterations in activity in the patch vs matrix compartments may underlie to this phenomenon.

Rabbit conjunctivae edema and release of NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β from macrophages induced by fractions and esculentosides isolated from Phytolacca americana

CONTEXT

The roots of Phytolacca americana L. (Phytolaccaceae) may be toxic. Despite heated controversy over the toxic compounds of P. americana, especially esculentosides, relevant studies remain scarce.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to screen the toxic fractions and compounds of P. americana, to determine the controlling indices, and to provide evidence for unraveling the mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Petroleum ether (PE), CH2Cl2, n-BuOH, and water fractions were isolated from 70% ethanol extract of P. americana. The n-BuOH fraction was dissolved in 50% ethanol and precipitated by adding ethyl ether. The resultant supernatants and precipitates were referred to as SUPs and SEDs fractions, respectively. SUPs fraction was separated by column chromatography into four main stimulating esculentosides that were identified by HR-ESI/MS and NMR as EsA, EsB, EsC, and EsF. The irritating effects of esculentosides on rabbit conjunctivae (500 μg/eye) was observed by pathological examination and those on macrophages (5, 25, 50 and 100 μg/mL) were evaluated by detecting changes of NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

n-BuOH, SUP fractions, and EsC induced severe conjunctival edema. The four esculentosides induced dose-dependent releases of proinflammatory mediators NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β from macrophages, and releasing amounts peaked after 2 h of treatment. EsC and EsF induced macrophages to release mediators most significantly. EsC (50 μg/mL) functioned more effectively than EsF did, and similarly n-BuOH and SUPs fractions functioned more effectively than the esculentoside mixture. Thus, the four esculentosides exerted proinflammatory effects synergistically.

CONCLUSION

All extracted esculentosides, especially EsC, induced inflammatory stimulation. Phytolacca americana-induced irritation of the gastrointestinal tract may be associated with esculentosides such as EsC.

Isolation, identification and cytotoxicity of a new noroleanane-type triterpene saponin from Salicornia bigelovii Torr

Salicornia bigelovii Torr. has been consumed not only as a popular kind of vegetable, but also as a medicinal plant to treat hypertension, cephalalgia, scurvy and cancer. The present study was designed to investigate its chemical components and cytotoxic activity. A new noroleanane-type triterpene saponin, bigelovii C (1), was separated and purified from Salicornia bigelovii Torr., along with four known triterpene saponins 2-5. The structure of bigelovii C was elucidated as 3-O-(6-O-butyl ester)-β-D-glucuropyranosyl-23-aldehyde-30-norolean-12, 20 (29)-dien-28-oic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, according to various spectroscopic analysis and chemical characteristics. Besides Compounds 3 and 5, bigelovii C had potent cytotoxicity against three human cancer cell lines, MCF7 (breast cancer), Lovo (colon cancer) and LN229 (glioblastoma), especially MCF7. Bigelovii C inhibited the growth of MCF7 cells in dose- and time-dependent manners. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the percentage of apoptotic cells significantly increased upon bigelovii C treatment. Rh123 staining assay indicated that bigelovii C reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential. The mechanism of cell death by bigelovii C may be attributed to the downregulation of Bcl-2 and upregulation of Bax, cleaved caspase-9, caspase-7 and PARP. These results suggested that bigelovii C may impart health benefits when consumed and should be regarded as a potential chemopreventative agent for cancer.

Triterpenoid saponins from Patrinia scabra

AIM

To study the chemical constituents and bioactivity of the roots of Patrinia scabra Bunge.

METHODS

The chemical constituents were isolated using various chromatographic methods, and the structures were elucidated on the basis of spectral analysis and chemical methods. In addition, cytotoxic activities toward HepG2 cells were tested by the MTT method.

RESULTS

A new triterpenoid saponin, 3-O-(4'-isovaleryl)-O-β-D-xylose-12,30-dihydroxy-oleanane-28,13-lactone-22-O- β-D-glucoside (1), along with two known triterpenoid saponins, acanthopanax saponin CP3 (2) and foetoside C (3), were isolated.

CONCLUSION

The aglycone of compound 1 was a new skeleton derivative of oleanolic acid. Compound 2 showed strong cytotoxicity to HePG2 cells (IC50 1.49 μmol·L(-1)).

In vitro cytotoxic and anticlastogenic activities of saxifragifolin B and cyclamin isolated from Cyclamen persicum and Cyclamen libanoticum

CONTEXT

The genus Cyclamen L. (Primulaceae) is rich in saponins known to have interesting biological activities.

OBJECTIVE

To isolate saxifragifolin B and cyclamin, two triterpene saponins, from Cyclamen libanoticum Hildebr and Cyclamen persicum Mill, and to assess their cytotoxic, clastogenic/aneugenic, and anticlastogenic effects, as well as antioxidant potential.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Saxifragifolin B and cyclamin were tested for their cytotoxicity against SK-BR-3, HT-29, HepG2/3A, NCI-H1299, BXPC-3, 22RV1, and normal DMEM cell lines using WST-1 assay. Their clastogenic/aneugenic activities and anticlastogenic effects against the anticancer drug mitomycin C were assessed by the in vitro micronucleus assay in CHO cells. Their antioxidant capacities were determined using Fe(2+)-chelating and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assays.

RESULTS

Both saponins were described for the first time in Cyclamen libanoticum. They showed strong cytotoxic activities against the tested cancer cell lines. Saxifragifolin B was found to be 56- and 37-times more active than mitomycin C against breast adenocarcinoma (SK-BR-3) and lung carcinoma (NCI-H1299), respectively. Also, saxifragifolin B did not induce micronuclei formation and prevented cells from mitomycin C clastogenic effect. Cyclamin induced a significant increase of micronucleated cells after metabolic activation with S9 mix, and did not possess any anticlastogenic activity. Both molecules exhibited low antioxidant activities as compared to reference compounds.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the remarkable cytotoxic activity of saxifragifolin B, especially against breast adenocarcinoma and lung carcinoma and its chemoprotective activity against mitomycin C. Thus, saxifragifolin B could be suggested as a potential cytotoxic drug with a preventive effect against possible exposures to genotoxic agents.

A comparative study on inhibition of total astragalus saponins and astragaloside IV on TNFR1-mediated signaling pathways in arterial endothelial cells

Background

Both total astragalus saponins (AST) and it’s main component astragaloside IV (ASIV) have been used in China as cardiovascular protective medicines. However, the anti-inflammatory activities that are beneficial for cardiovascular health have never been compared directly and the molecular mechanisms remain unresolved. This study was conducted to compare the inhibitory effects of these drugs on TNFα-induced cell responses, related signaling pathways, and the underlying mechanisms in mouse arterial endothelial cells.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Real-time qRT-PCR was performed to determine the expression of cell adhesion molecule (CAM) genes. Immunofluorescent staining was used to detect the nuclear translocation of transcription factor NF-κB-p65. Western Blot analysis was used to identify TNFα-induced NF-κB-p65 phosphorylation, IκBα degradation, and caspase-3 cleavage. Cell surface proteins were isolated and TNFα receptor-1(TNFR1) expression was determined. The results suggest that both AST and ASIV attenuate TNFα-induced up-regulation of CAMs mRNA and upstream nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of NF-κB-p65. However, TNFR1-mediated IκBα degradation, cleavage of caspase-3 and apoptosis were inhibited only by AST. These differences in the actions of AST and ASIV could be explained by the presence of other components in AST, such as ASII and ASIII, which also had an inhibitory effect on TNFR1-induced IκBα degradation. Moreover, AST, but not ASIV, was able to reduce TNFR1 protein level on the cell surface. Furthermore, mechanistic investigation demonstrated that TNFR1-mediated IκBα degradation was reversed by the use of TAPI-0, an inhibitor of TNFα converting enzyme (TACE), suggesting the involvement of TACE in the modulation of surface TNFR1 level by AST.

Conclusion

ASIV was not a better inhibitor than AST, at least on the inhibition of TNFα-induced inflammatory responses and TNFR1-mediated signaling pathways in AECs. The inhibitory effect of AST was caused by the reduction of cell surface TNFR1 level, and TACE could be involved in this action.

One-month toxicokinetic study of SHENMAI injection in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

'SHENMAI' injection (SMI) has been widely used in cardioprotection and modulation of the immune system because of its great efficacy. SMI primarily comprises the saponins from Panax ginseng and Ophiopogon japonicas. The profiles of saponins in SMI during long-term toxicokinetics remain unclear. MiR-146a possesses excellent sensitivity as a bio-marker in the innate immunity modification effect of SMI.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Is to monitor the exposure level of SMI during a one-month toxicokinetic experiment, an analytical method involving ESI-LC-MS/MS technology was developed to determine 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd), 20 (S)-protopanaxatriol-type ginsenoside (Rg1, Re, Rf), oleanolic acid-type ginsenoside (Ro), and ophiopogonin D in rats. The levels of AST, CK, ALT, SOD, GSH-pX, MDA, miR-146a, and ECG were measured to explore the effects of SMI in cardiologic function and immune activity.

RESULTS

Results show that the levels of AST, CK, and MDA decreased upon the administration of SMI. The level of miR-146a increased upon the administration of SMI dosage. During the administration of SMI, increasing exposure levels of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides were also observed.

CONCLUSION

The 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides were considered potential PK/TK markers because of their high exposure levels that continuously increased. Oxidative stress was slightly alleviated during the toxicokinetic study. Based on the level of miR-146a, negatively regulated innate immunity was observed. The regulation became more serious with increasing exposure levels of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides. Negatively regulated innate immunity could be induced by long-term administration of SMI (>0.4g/kg).

Toxins in botanical dietary supplements: blue cohosh components disrupt cellular respiration and mitochondrial membrane potential

Certain botanical dietary supplements have been associated with idiosyncratic organ-specific toxicity. Similar toxicological events, caused by drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, have forced the withdrawal or U.S. FDA "black box" warnings of major pharmaceuticals. To assess the potential mitochondrial liability of botanical dietary supplements, extracts from 352 authenticated plant samples used in traditional Chinese, Ayurvedic, and Western herbal medicine were evaluated for the ability to disrupt cellular respiration. Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) methanol extract exhibited mitochondriotoxic activity. Used by some U.S. midwives to help induce labor, blue cohosh has been associated with perinatal stroke, acute myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, multiple organ injury, and neonatal shock. The potential link between mitochondrial disruption and idiosyncratic herbal intoxication prompted further examination. The C. thalictroides methanol extract and three saponins, cauloside A (1), saponin PE (2), and cauloside C (3), exhibited concentration- and time-dependent mitochondriotoxic activities. Upon treatment, cell respiration rate rapidly increased and then dramatically decreased within minutes. Mechanistic studies revealed that C. thalictroides constituents impair mitochondrial function by disrupting membrane integrity. These studies provide a potential etiological link between this mitochondria-sensitive form of cytotoxicity and idiosyncratic organ damage.

Protective effects of ginseng total saponins against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in experimental obstructive jaundice rats

CONTEXT

Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Araliaceae), is one of the most extensively used herbs for stroke and chronic debilitating conditions in East Asian countries. Ginsenosides (GS) are the main bioactive compounds for ginseng's efficacy, but the mechanisms have not been fully clarified.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate hepatoprotective effects of GS against ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury in the experimental obstructive jaundice rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

GS was fed to cholestatic rats with IR injury daily for 6 d at a dose of 1.10 g/kg. Levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined by colorimetric method. Apoptosis was measured quantitatively by the terminal transferase UTP nick end-labeling method. Protein expression of Bax and Bcl-2 was detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

After intervention of GS to cholestatic rats with IR injury, the levels of activating blood flow were significantly improved, and the levels of serum ALT were decreased 1.7-times, AST decreased 1.3-times, but SOD activities were increased 1.1-times compared with those of the model rats. It could also reverse histopathological changes and inhibit IR-induced apoptosis of hepatic tissues via decrease of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio (from 2.87 ± 0.57 to 1.65 ± 0.29). Oral administration of GS in a dosage of 26.4 g/kg did not lead to toxic effects in rats.

CONCLUSION

GS attenuated the IR injury in the presence of cholestasis and could be considered for the clinical treatment of cholestasis.

Evaluation of the spermicidal and contraceptive activity of Platycodin D, a Saponin from Platycodon grandiflorum

BACKGROUND

The extract of Platycodon grandiflorum has been reported to have effective spermicidal activity. This study was designed to evaluate the spermicidal and contraceptive activity, as well as the safety, of Platycodin D (PD), a major saponin in Platycodon grandiflorum.

METHODS

Using the computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) test criteria, the sperm-immobilizing activity of PD was studied using highly motile human sperm. The sperm viability was assessed by fluorescent staining using SYBR-14 (living sperm) and propidium iodide (dead sperm). The sperm membrane integrity was assessed by evaluating the hypo-osmotic swelling (HOS) and examinations by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The in vivo contraceptive efficacy was evaluated in rats using post-intrauterine PD application. The comet assay was employed to determine whether PD caused DNA damage in the sperm. Vaginal biopsies were also performed to determine whether the PD gel induced vaginal inflammation.

RESULTS

A dose-dependent effect of PD on the sperm motility and viability was observed. The maximum spermicidal effect was observed with a 0.25 mM concentration of PD. More than 70% of the PD-treated sperm lost their HOS responsiveness at a concentration of 0.20 mM PD, indicating that PD caused injury to the sperm plasma membrane. TEM and SEM revealed significant damage to both the head and tail membranes of the sperm. PD decreased the fertility to zero in rats, was non-DNA damaging and was not harmful to the vaginal tissue in the rats.

CONCLUSION

PD has significant spermicidal activity that should be explored in further studies.

Toxic rather than neuropharmacological effect of Ternstroemia sylvatica fruits and identification of 28-O-[β-l-6-rhamnopyranosyl]-R1-barrigenol as a new compound with toxic effects in mice

CONTEXT

Fruits of Ternstroemia sylvatica Schltdl. and Cham. (Theaceae) are used in Mexican traditional medicine to alleviate anxiety, sleep disorders and seizures; however, the active principles have not been identified.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the neuroactive principles of T. sylvatica fruits using neuropharmacological tests on mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methanol and aqueous extracts of pericarp or seeds of T. sylvatica fruits were intraperitoneally administered (1-562 mg/kg, single doses) to mice. The exploratory cylinder, hole board, open field, Rota-rod and sodium pentobarbital-induced hypnosis tests were used to evaluate the CNS depressant effect after 30 min single administration of extracts. From aqueous seeds extract, triterpene glycoside 28-O-[β-l-6-rhamnopyranosyl]-R1-barrigenol was isolated an active compound.

RESULTS

Crude extracts of T. sylvatica fruits, separated from seed and pericarp, showed sedative effect in mice. The aqueous (ED50 = 4.9 ± 0.8 mg/kg) seed extracts is the most active among them. This extract also decrease locomotor activity and disrupt motor coordination of mice. This extract was also the most toxic extract (LD50 = 5.0 ± 1.4 mg/kg; i.p.). The triterpene glycoside 28-O-[β-l-6-rhamnopyranosyl]-R1-barrigenol was identified in this extract as one of the active sedative compounds (ED50 = 0.12 ± 0.01 mg/kg) also with toxic effect (LD50 = 1.11 ± 0.23 mg/kg).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that T. sylvatica fruits has toxic activity rather than CNS depressant activity in mice and that this effect might be related to the presence of 28-O-[β-l-6-rhamnopyranosyl]-R1-barrigenol, one of the active principles of T. sylvatica fruits with sedative and toxic effect.

Assessment of antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of saponin and crude extracts of Chlorophytum borivilianum

The present paper focused on antioxidant and cytotoxicity assessment of crude and total saponin fraction of Chlorophytum borivilianum as an important medicinal plant. In this study, three different antioxidant activities (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging (DPPH), ferrous ion chelating (FIC), and β -carotene bleaching (BCB) activity) of crude extract and total saponin fraction of C. borivilianum tubers were performed. Crude extract was found to possess higher free radical scavenging activity (ascorbic acid equivalents 2578 ± 111 mg AA/100 g) and bleaching activity (IC50 = 0.7 mg mL(-1)), while total saponin fraction displayed higher ferrous ion chelating (EC50 = 1 mg mL(-1)). Cytotoxicity evaluation of crude extract and total saponin fraction against MCF-7, PC3, and HCT-116 cancer cell lines using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell viability assay indicated a higher cytotoxicity activity of the crude extract than the total saponin fraction on all cell lines, being most effective and selective on MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line.

Ulososides and urabosides--triterpenoid saponins from the Caribbean marine sponge Ectyoplasia ferox

Three new triterpene glycosides, named ulososide F (1), urabosides A (2) and B (3), together with the previously reported ulososide A (4), were isolated from the Caribbean marine sponge Ectyoplasia ferox. Their structures were elucidated using extensive interpretation of 1D and 2D-NMR data, as well as HRESIMS. The aglycon of all compounds is a rare 30-norlonastane and the sugar residues were identified after acid hydrolysis and GC analyses. Cytotoxicities of the isolated compounds were evaluated against Jurkat and CHO cell lines by a MTT in vitro assay as well as a hemolysis assay. Unexpectedly, all these saponin derivatives showed very low activity in our bioassays.

Pleckstrin homology domain of Akt kinase: a proof of principle for highly specific and effective non-enzymatic anti-cancer target

While pharmacological inhibition of Akt kinase has been regarded as a promising anti-cancer strategy, most of the Akt inhibitors that have been developed are enzymatic inhibitors that target the kinase active site of Akt. Another key cellular regulatory event for Akt activation is the translocation of Akt kinase to the cell membrane from the cytoplasm, which is accomplished through the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of Akt. However, compounds specifically interacting with the PH domain of Akt to inhibit Akt activation are currently limited. Here we identified a compound, lancemaside A (LAN-A), which specifically binds to the PH domain of Akt kinase. First, our mass spectra analysis of cellular Akt kinase isolated from cells treated with LAN-A revealed that LAN-A specifically binds to the PH domain of cellular Akt kinase. Second, we observed that LAN-A inhibits the translocation of Akt kinase to the membrane and thus Akt activation, as examined by the phosphorylation of various downstream targets of Akt such as GSK3β, mTOR and BAD. Third, in a co-cultured cell model containing human lung epithelial cancer cells (A549) and normal human primary lung fibroblasts, LAN-A specifically restricts the growth of the A549 cells. LAN-A also displayed anti-proliferative effects on various human cancer cell lines. Finally, in the A549-luciferase mouse transplant model, LAN-A effectively inhibited A549 cell growth with little evident cytotoxicity. Indeed, the therapeutic index of LAN-A in this mouse model was >250, supporting that LAN-A is a potential lead compound for PH domain targeting as a safe anti-cancer Akt inhibitor.

Syntheses and structure-activity relationship studies of N-substituted-β-D-glucosaminides as selective cytotoxic agents

Twenty-four diosgenyl saponins bearing cinnamoyl, carbamido and thiosemicarbazone groups were synthesized concisely. The cytotoxicities of the synthetic compounds on six human caner cell lines were evaluated employing MTT method. Structure-activity relationship could be observed, and two of the synthesized compounds (5c and 5f) exhibited selective inhibition on HeLa and MCF-7 cells, while three of them (5d, 5f and 5h) showed strong inhibition against HT1080.

Saponins show high entomotoxicity by cell membrane permeation in Lepidoptera

BACKGROUND

In this study, the effects of three saponins and one sapogenin with a triterpenoid or steroid structure in two lepidopteran insect cell lines, ovarian Bm5 and midgut CF-203 cells, were analysed with regard to cell viability, cell membrane permeation, EcR responsiveness and DNA fragmentation. In addition, the entomotoxic action of Q. saponaria saponin with primary midgut cell cultures and larval stages of the cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis was tested.

RESULTS

Both lepidopteran cell lines show a high sensitivity to all four sapo(ge)nins, with a concentration-dependent viability loss and EC₅₀ values of 25-100 µM in MTT bioassays. A trypan blue assay with Q. saponaria saponin confirmed rapid cell membrane permeation to be a cause of cytotoxicity. Saponins caused no EcR activation in Bm5 cells, but a loss of ecdysteroid signalling was observed with IC₅₀ values of 5-10 µM. Lower saponin concentrations induced DNA fragmentation, confirming their potential to induce apoptosis. Finally, Q. saponaria saponin caused cytotoxicity in primary midgut cell cultures of S. littoralis (EC(50) = 4.7 µM) and killed 70-84% of S. littoralis larvae at pupation at 30-70 mg g(-1) , while lower concentrations retarded larval weight gain and development.

CONCLUSIONS

The data obtained provide evidence that saponins exert a strong activity on lepidopteran cells, presumably based on a cytotoxic action due to permeation of the cell membrane. Primary midgut cell cultures and larvae of S. littoralis showed high sensitivity to Q. saponaria saponin, indicating the insect midgut as a primary target for entomotoxicity and the potential use of saponins in the control of pest Lepidoptera.

Procoagulant and prothrombotic effects of the herbal medicine, Dipsacus asper and its active ingredient, dipsacus saponin C, on human platelets

BACKGROUND

In spite of the growing popularity of herbal medicines and natural food supplements, their effects on cardiovascular homeostasis remain largely unknown, especially regarding pro-thrombotic risks.

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, 21 herbal tea extracts were screened for the procoagulant activities on platelets, an important promoter of thrombosis to examine if herbal medicines or natural products may have prothrombotic risks. We discovered that Dipsacus asper (DA), known to have analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, potently induced procoagulant activities in platelets. We tried to identify the active ingredient and elucidate the underlying mechanism.

RESULTS

Among 10 major ingredients of DA, dipsacus saponin C (DSC) was identified as a key active ingredient in DA-induced procoagulant activities. DSC-induced procoagulant activities were achieved by the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) and PS-bearing microparticle generation that were caused by the alteration in the activities of phospholipid translocases: scramblase and flippase. These events were initiated by increased intracellular calcium and ATP depletion. Notably, DSC induced a series of apoptotic events including the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, translocation of Bax and Bak, cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation. The key roles of apoptotic pathway and caspase activation were demonstrated by the reversal of DSC-induced PS exposure and procoagulant activities with the pretreatment of caspase inhibitors. Interestingly, EGTA reversed DSC-induced procoagulant activities and apoptotic events suggesting that an intracellular calcium increase may play a central role. These results were also confirmed in vivo where platelets of the rats exposed to DSC or DA exhibited PS exposure. Most importantly, DSC or DA administration led to increased thrombus formation.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that herbal medicines or natural products such as DA or DSC might have prothrombotic risks through procoagulant activation of platelets.

Immunoadjuvant activity, toxicity assays, and determination by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS of triterpenic saponins from Chenopodium quinoa seeds

The adjuvant activity of Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa) saponins on the humoral and cellular immune responses of mice subcutaneously immunized with ovalbumin (OVA) was evaluated. Two quinoa saponin fractions were obtained, FQ70 and FQ90, and 10 saponins were determined by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS. Mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA alone or adjuvanted with Quil A (adjuvant control), FQ70, or FQ90. FQ70 and FQ90 significantly enhanced the amount of anti-OVA-specific antibodies in serum (IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b) in immunized mice. The adjuvant effect of FQ70 was significantly greater than that of FQ90. However, delayed type hypersensitivity responses were higher in mice immunized with OVA adjuvanted with FQ90 than mice treated with FQ70. Concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide-, and OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation were measured, and FQ90 significantly enhanced the Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation. The results suggested that the two quinoa saponin fractions enhanced significantly the production of humoral and cellular immune responses to OVA in mice.

[Study on acute toxicity test of different processed products of Radix polygalae]

OBJECTIVE

To study the acute toxicity of the water extracts (ERWE) and 60% ethanol extracts (EREE) from different processed products of Radix Polygalae (crude Radix Polygalae, licorice, and honey processed Radix Polygalae), thus providing scientific evidence for toxicity study of Radix Polygalae and its safe clinical application.

METHODS

The ERWE and EREE were prepared from different processed products of Radix Polygalae. Their contents of saponins were respectively determined. The poisoning condition and death of the mice administered with ERWE and EREE by gastrogavage were observed within fourteen days. The modified Karber's method was used to calculate LD50 and 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

The EREE of licorice processed Radix Polygalae had the maximum toxicity with highest content of saponins, while the ERWE of honey processed Radix Polygalae had the minimum toxicity with lowest content of saponins.

CONCLUSIONS

Different processing methods have effects on the contents of saponins in Radix Polygalae. The experiment showed that the toxicity of Radix Polygalae is in direct proportion to the content of saponins. The higher the saponins contents, the higher the toxicity.

Triterpene saponins of Quillaja saponaria show strong aphicidal and deterrent activity against the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum

BACKGROUND

Saponins are a class of secondary plant metabolites consisting of a sugar moiety glycosidically linked to a hydrophobic aglycone (sapogenin) that often possess insecticidal activities. Four saponins were selected: two triterpene saponins, Q. saponaria saponins and aescin, and two steroidal saponins, digitonin and diosgenin. Their effects were investigated on an important pest species and a model piercing-sucking insect, the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. The triterpene Q. saponaria saponins bark saponin received special attention because of its high activity. Aphids were challenged by oral and contact exposure to demonstrate aphicidal activities, and in choice experiments to support use as a natural deterrent.

RESULTS

When aphids were exposed to supplemented artificial diet for 3 days, a strong aphicidal activity was recorded for three of the four saponins, with an LC50 of 0.55 mg mL(-1) for Q. saponaria saponins, 0.62 mg mL(-1) for aescin and 0.45 mg mL(-1) for digitonin. The LT50 values ranged between 1 and 4 days, depending on the dose. For diosgenin, only low toxicity (14%) was scored for concentrations up to 5 mg mL(-1). In choice experiments with treated diet, a deterrence index of 0.97 was scored for Q. saponaria saponins at 1 mg mL(-1). In contrast, direct contact showed no repellent effect. Spraying of faba bean plants with Q. saponaria saponins resulted in an LC50 of 8.2 mg mL(-1). Finally, histological analysis in aphids fed with Q. saponaria saponins demonstrated strong aberrations of the aphid gut epithelium, and exposure of midgut CF-203 cell lines to Q. saponaria saponins in vitro confirmed the cytotoxic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The present insect experiments provide strong evidence that saponins, as tested here with triterpene Q. saponaria saponins, can be useful as natural aphicides and deterrents. Furthermore, the insect midgut epithelium is suggested to be a primary target of saponin activity.

Synergistic interactions of saponins and monoterpenes in HeLa cells, Cos7 cells and in erythrocytes

In phytomedicine complex extracts consisting of phenolics, monoterpenes or saponins are traditionally used. It is often impossible to attribute the biological activity of an extract to one or few compounds. As an explanation of the superior activity of extracts, a synergistic effect of combinations of active compounds has been suggested. Since lipophilic monoterpenes or saponins targeting the biomembrane usually accompany polar polyphenols in phytomedical preparations, we decided to investigate their effect as single substances and in combination to gain further insight into potential synergistic effects of herbal medicine. Combinations of the monoterpenes α-pinene, thymol and menthol with the monodesmosidic saponins digitonin, aescin, glycyrrhizic acid and Quillaja saponin demonstrated strong synergistic activity. The IC(50) of haemolysis was lowered by a factor of 10-100 from 316μg/ml to 2μg/ml for aescin, 157μg/ml to 11μg/ml for Quillaja saponins and 20μg/ml to 3μg/ml for digitonin when combined with thymol. A similar significant synergistic cytotoxicity occurred both in HeLa and Cos7 cells by combining the α-pinene, thymol and menthol with the saponins. The IC(50) of glycyrrhizic acid was lowered by a factor 100 from around 300μg/ml to around 1-10μg/ml and the IC(50) of aescin, digitonin and Quillaja saponins about the factor 10. Monoterpenes and monodesmosidic saponins have a common target, the biomembrane, which is present in all animal, fungal and bacterial cells. Disturbance of membrane fluidity and permeability is the mode of action. This activity is non-specific which makes it extremely difficult for bacteria and fungi to develop resistance. This explains the overall success of these molecules as defence chemicals in the plant kingdom. The synergistic effect of combinations of saponins with monoterpenes opens a complete new field of possible applications in medicine to overcome resistance in multidrug resistant microbial and human cell.

Apolipophorin III and transmission electron microscopy as toxicity indicators for harmaline and tea saponin in Spodoptera exigua (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Apolipophorin III, traditionally known for lipid transport in insects is fairly established as toxicity indicator against harmaline and tea saponin during this study. Apolipophorin III expressed in the hemolymph and midgut tissues of 3rd, 4th, 5th larval instars and pupae of Spodoptera exigua. Apolipophorin III presence was further confirmed by achieving its partial cDNA (Genbank accession no. FJ606822) of 448bp. qRT PCR revealed that tea saponin resulted in significant reduction of gene expression in 3rd and 4th larval instars but increased in 5th instar as compared to control. Harmaline caused gradual increase of gene expression in 3rd, 4th and 5th instars after feeding on the treated diet. Fifth instar larvae synonymously resulted in the highest gene expressions against both the biochemicals. After the injection of harmaline and tea saponin abrupt increase in gene expression of 4th, 5th larval instar and pupae was observed as compared to control treatment. Transmission electron microscopy of midgut epithelium after being fed with harmaline and tea saponin depicted certain cytological changes. Harmaline treatment lead to cytoplasm vacuolization, mitochondrial disruption, spherocrystals with concentric layers, irregular nucleus and floating nuclei in cytoplasm. Tea saponin treatment resulted in denser cytoplasm, higher intracellular osmotic concentration and reduced complement of apical microvilli. Cells were found to have only a few mitochondria and glycogen deposits in comparison to control treatment.