Co-encapsulation of magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles and doxorubicin into biodegradable PLGA nanocarriers for intratumoral drug delivery

Imparting of Nearly Superparamagnetic Properties to Cryogel Scaffolds With Mesoporous MNPs for Magneto-Sensitive Tissue Engineering Strategies

This work reports the assembly of mesoporous iron oxide nanoparticles (meso-MNPs) with cryogel scaffolds composed of chitosan and gelatin. Meso-MNPs with a particle size ranging from 2 and 50 nm, a surface area of 140.52 m2 g-1, and a pore volume of 0.27 cm3 g-1 were synthesized on a porous SiO2 template in the presence of PEG 6000 followed by leaching of SiO2. Different ratios of meso-MNPs were successfully incorporated into chitosan:gelatin cryogels up to an amount equivalent to the entire amount of polymer. The morphological structure and physicochemical properties of the cryogels were directly affected by the amount of MNPs. VSM curves showed that all composite cryogels could be magnetized by applying a magnetic field. In the context of the safety of magnetic cryogel scaffolds for use in biomedicine, it is important to note that all values are below the exposure limit for static magnetic fields, and according to cytotoxicity data, scaffolds containing meso-MNPs showed nontoxicity with cell viability ranging from 150% to 275%. In addition, microbial analysis with gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria showed that the scaffolds exhibited activity against these bacteria.

Smart Magnetic Nanocarriers for Codelivery of Nitric Oxide and Doxorubicin for Enhanced Apoptosis in Cancer Cells

Extremely short half-life therapeutic molecule nitric oxide (NO) plays significant roles in the functioning of various physiological and pathological processes in the human body, whereas doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) is a clinically important anticancer drug widely used in cancer chemotherapy. Thus, the intracellular delivery of these therapeutic molecules is tremendously important to achieve their full potential. Herein, we report a novel approach for the development of highly water-dispersible magnetic nanocarriers for codelivery of NO and DOX. Primarily, bifunctional magnetic nanoparticles enriched with carboxyl and thiol groups were prepared by introducing cysteine onto the surface of citrate-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles. DOX was electrostatically conjugated onto the surface of bifunctional nanoparticles via carboxyl moieties, whereas the thiol group was further nitrosated to provide NO-releasing molecules. The developed magnetic nanocarrier exhibited good aqueous colloidal stability, protein resistance behavior, and high encapsulation efficacy for NO (65.5%) and DOX (85%), as well as sustained release characteristics. Moreover, they showed superior cytotoxicity toward cancer (A549 and MCF-7) cells via apoptosis induction over normal (WI26VA4) cells. Specifically, we have developed magnetic nanocarriers having the capability of dual delivery of NO and DOX, which holds great potential for combinatorial cancer treatment.

Cell-Penetrating Peptidic GRP78 Ligand-Conjugated Iron Oxide Magnetic Nanoparticles for Tumor-Targeted Doxorubicin Delivery and Imaging

Although chemotherapy is regarded as an essential option in cancer treatment, it is still far from being perfect. Inadequate tumor drug concentration and systemic toxicity along with broad biodistribution have diminished the utility of chemotherapy. Tumor-targeting peptide-conjugated multifunctional nanoplatforms have emerged as an effective strategy for site-directed tumor tissues in cancer treatment and imaging. Herein, Pep42-targeted iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (IONPs) functionalized with β-cyclodextrin (ßCD) containing doxorubicin (DOX) (Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX) were successfully developed. The physical effects of the prepared NPs were characterized by employing various techniques. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images disclosed that the developed Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX nanoplatforms had a spherical morphology and a core-shell structure with a size of nearly 17 nm. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy showed that β-cyclodextrin, DOX, and Pep42 molecules were successfully loaded on the IONPs. In vitro cytotoxicity analysis revealed that the fabricated multifunctional Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42 nanoplatforms possessed excellent biosafety toward BT-474, MDA-MB468 (cancerous cells), and MCF10A normal cells, while Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX exhibited great cancer cell killing ability. The high cellular uptake along with intracellular trafficking of Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX highlights the usefulness of the Pep42-targeting peptide. In vivo results strongly supported the in vitro results, i.e., significant tumor size reduction was observed by single-dose injection of Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX into tumor-bearing mice. Interestingly, in vivo MR imaging (MRI) of Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX revealed T₂ contrast improvement in the tumor cells and therapeutic ability in cancer theranostics. Taken together, these findings provided strong evidence for the potential capability of Fe₃O₄-ßCD-Pep42-DOX as a multifunctional nanoplatform in cancer therapy and imaging and opens up a new avenue of research in this area.

Sustained Drug Release from Smart Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Although nanomedicine has been highly investigated for cancer treatment over the past decades, only a few nanomedicines are currently approved and in the market; making this field poorly represented in clinical applications. Key research gaps that require optimization to successfully translate the use of nanomedicines have been identified, but not addressed; among these, the lack of control of the release pattern of therapeutics is the most important. To solve these issues with currently used nanomedicines (e.g., burst release, systemic release), different strategies for the design and manufacturing of nanomedicines allowing for better control over the therapeutic release, are currently being investigated. The inclusion of stimuli-responsive properties and prolonged drug release have been identified as effective approaches to include in nanomedicine, and are discussed in this paper. Recently, smart sustained release nanoparticles have been successfully designed to safely and efficiently deliver therapeutics with different kinetic profiles, making them promising for many drug delivery applications and in specific for cancer treatment. In this review, the state-of-the-art of smart sustained release nanoparticles is discussed, focusing on the design strategies and performances of polymeric nanotechnologies. A complete list of nanomedicines currently tested in clinical trials and approved nanomedicines for cancer treatment is presented, critically discussing advantages and limitations with respect to the newly developed nanotechnologies and manufacturing methods. By the presented discussion and the highlight of nanomedicine design criteria and current limitations, this review paper could be of high interest to identify key features for the design of release-controlled nanomedicine for cancer treatment.

Functional Nanomaterials in Biomedicine: Current Uses and Potential Applications

Nanomaterials, that is, materials made up of individual units between 1 and 100 nanometers, have lately involved a lot of attention since they offer a lot of potential in many fields, including pharmacy and biomedicine, owed to their exceptional physicochemical properties arising from their high surface area and nanoscale size. Smart engineering of nanostructures through appropriate surface or bulk functionalization endows them with multifunctional capabilities, opening up new possibilities in the biomedical field such as biosensing, drug delivery, imaging, medical implants, cancer treatment and tissue engineering. This article highlights up-to-date research in nanomaterials functionalization for biomedical applications. A summary of the different types of nanomaterials and the surface functionalization strategies is provided. Besides, the use of nanomaterials in diagnostic imaging, drug/gene delivery, regenerative medicine, cancer treatment and medical implants is reviewed. Finally, conclusions and future perspectives are provided.

Surface Engineering of Nanomaterials with Polymers, Biomolecules, and Small Ligands for Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is a speedily growing area of medical research that is focused on developing nanomaterials for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. Nanomaterials with unique physicochemical properties have recently attracted a lot of attention since they offer a lot of potential in biomedical research. Novel generations of engineered nanostructures, also known as designed and functionalized nanomaterials, have opened up new possibilities in the applications of biomedical approaches such as biological imaging, biomolecular sensing, medical devices, drug delivery, and therapy. Polymers, natural biomolecules, or synthetic ligands can interact physically or chemically with nanomaterials to functionalize them for targeted uses. This paper reviews current research in nanotechnology, with a focus on nanomaterial functionalization for medical applications. Firstly, a brief overview of the different types of nanomaterials and the strategies for their surface functionalization is offered. Secondly, different types of functionalized nanomaterials are reviewed. Then, their potential cytotoxicity and cost-effectiveness are discussed. Finally, their use in diverse fields is examined in detail, including cancer treatment, tissue engineering, drug/gene delivery, and medical implants.

Antibody Conjugated PLGA Nanocarriers and Superparmagnetic Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of Oxaliplatin to Cells from Colorectal Carcinoma

Anti-CD133 monoclonal antibody (Ab)-conjugated poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanocarriers, for the targeted delivery of oxaliplatin (OXA) and superparamagnetic nanoparticles (IO-OA) to colorectal cancer cells (CaCo-2), were designed, synthesized, characterized, and evaluated in this study. The co-encapsulation of OXA and IO-OA was achieved in two types of polymeric carriers, namely, PLGA and poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG) by double emulsion. PLGA_IO-OA_OXA and PEGylated PLGA_IO-OA_OXA nanoparticles displayed a comparable mean diameter of 207 ± 70 nm and 185 ± 119 nm, respectively. The concentration of the released OXA from the PEGylated PLGA_IO-OA_OXA increased very rapidly, reaching ~100% release after only 2 h, while the PLGA_IO-OA_OXA displayed a slower and sustained drug release. Therefore, for a controlled OXA release, non-PEGylated PLGA nanoparticles were more convenient. Interestingly, preservation of the superparamagnetic behavior of the IO-OA, without magnetic hysteresis all along the dissolution process, was observed. The non-PEGylated nanoparticles (PLGA_OXA, PLGA_IO-OA_OXA) were selected for the anti-CD133 Ab conjugation. The affinity of Ab-coated nanoparticles for CD133-positive cells was examined using fluorescence microscopy in CaCo-2 cells, which was followed by a viability assay.

Nanoparticles for Magnetic Heating: When Two (or More) Is Better Than One

The increasing use of magnetic nanoparticles as heating agents in biomedicine is driven by their proven utility in hyperthermia therapeutic treatments and heat-triggered drug delivery methods. The growing demand of efficient and versatile nanoheaters has prompted the creation of novel types of magnetic nanoparticle systems exploiting the magnetic interaction (exchange or dipolar in nature) between two or more constituent magnetic elements (magnetic phases, primary nanoparticles) to enhance and tune the heating power. This process occurred in parallel with the progress in the methods for the chemical synthesis of nanostructures and in the comprehension of magnetic phenomena at the nanoscale. Therefore, complex magnetic architectures have been realized that we classify as: (a) core/shell nanoparticles; (b) multicore nanoparticles; (c) linear aggregates; (d) hybrid systems; (e) mixed nanoparticle systems. After a general introduction to the magnetic heating phenomenology, we illustrate the different classes of nanoparticle systems and the strategic novelty they represent. We review some of the research works that have significantly contributed to clarify the relationship between the compositional and structural properties, as determined by the synthetic process, the magnetic properties and the heating mechanism.

Drug Delivery by Ultrasound-Responsive Nanocarriers for Cancer Treatment

Conventional cancer chemotherapies often exhibit insufficient therapeutic outcomes and dose-limiting toxicity. Therefore, there is a need for novel therapeutics and formulations with higher efficacy, improved safety, and more favorable toxicological profiles. This has promoted the development of nanomedicines, including systems for drug delivery, but also for imaging and diagnostics. Nanoparticles loaded with drugs can be designed to overcome several biological barriers to improving efficiency and reducing toxicity. In addition, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers are able to release their payload on demand at the tumor tissue site, preventing premature drug loss. This review focuses on ultrasound-triggered drug delivery by nanocarriers as a versatile, cost-efficient, non-invasive technique for improving tissue specificity and tissue penetration, and for achieving high drug concentrations at their intended site of action. It highlights aspects relevant for ultrasound-mediated drug delivery, including ultrasound parameters and resulting biological effects. Then, concepts in ultrasound-mediated drug delivery are introduced and a comprehensive overview of several types of nanoparticles used for this purpose is given. This includes an in-depth compilation of the literature on the various in vivo ultrasound-responsive drug delivery systems. Finally, toxicological and safety considerations regarding ultrasound-mediated drug delivery with nanocarriers are discussed.

Anti-Metastatic and Anti-Angiogenic Effects of Curcumin Analog DK1 on Human Osteosarcoma Cells In Vitro

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a life-threatening malignant bone tumor associated with poor prognosis among children. The survival rate of the patient is still arguably low even with intensive treatment provided, plus with the inherent side effects from the chemotherapy, which gives more unfavorable outcomes. Hence, the search for potent anti-osteosarcoma agent with promising safety profile is still on going. Natural occurring substance like curcumin has gained a lot of attention due to its splendid safety profile as well as it pharmacological advantages such as anti-metastasis and anti-angiogenesis. However, natural curcumin was widely known for its poor cellular uptake, which undermines all potential that it possesses. This prompted the development of synthetically synthesized curcuminoid analog, known as (Z)-3-hydroxy-1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-phenylprop-2- en-1-one (DK1). In this present study, in vitro scratch assay, transwell migration/invasion assay, HUVEC tube formation assay, and ex vivo rat aortic ring assays were performed in order to investigate the anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic potential of DK1. For further comprehension of DK1 mechanism on human osteosarcoma cell lines, microarray gene expression analysis, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and proteome profiler were adopted, providing valuable forecast from the expression of important genes and proteins related to metastasis and angiogenesis. Based on the data gathered from the bioassays, DK1 was able to inhibit the metastasis and angiogenesis of human osteosarcoma cell lines by significantly reducing the cell motility, number of migrated and invaded cells as well as the tube formation and micro-vessels sprouting. Additionally, DK1 also has significantly regulated several cancer pathways involved in OS proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis such as PI3K/Akt and NF-κB in both U-2 OS and MG-63. Regulation of PI3K/Akt caused up-regulation of genes related to metastasis inhibition, namely, PTEN, FOXO, PLK3, and GADD45A. Meanwhile, NF-κB pathway was regulated by mitigating the expression of NF-κB activator such as IKBKB and IKBKE in MG-63, whilst up-regulating the expression of NF-κB inhibitors such as NFKBIA and NFKBIE in U-2 OS. Finally, DK1 also has successfully hindered the metastatic and angiogenic capability of OS cell lines by down-regulating the expression of pro-metastatic genes and proteins like MMP3, COL11A1, FGF1, Endoglin, uPA, and IGFBP2 in U-2 OS. Whilst for MG-63, the significantly down-regulated oncogenes were Serpin E1, AKT2, VEGF, uPA, PD-ECGF, and Endoglin. These results suggest that curcumin analog DK1 may serve as a potential new anti-osteosarcoma agent due to its anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic attributes.

Polyethylene Glycol Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles: Hybrid Nanofluid Formulation, Properties and Drug Delivery Prospects

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are widely used materials for biomedical applications owing to their intriguing chemical, biological and magnetic properties. The evolution of MNP based biomedical applications (such as hyperthermia treatment and drug delivery) could be advanced using magnetic nanofluids (MNFs) designed with a biocompatible surface coating strategy. This study presents the first report on the drug loading/release capability of MNF formulated with methoxy polyethylene glycol (referred to as PEG) coated MNP in aqueous (phosphate buffer) fluid. We have selected MNPs (NiFe₂O4, CoFe₂O4 and Fe₃O₄) coated with PEG for MNF formulation and evaluated the loading/release efficacy of doxorubicin (DOX), an anticancer drug. We have presented in detail the drug loading capacity and the time-dependent cumulative drug release of DOX from PEG-coated MNPs based MNFs. Specifically, we have selected three different MNPs (NiFe₂O₄, CoFe₂O₄ and Fe₃O₄) coated with PEG for the MNFs and compared their variance in the loading/release efficacy of DOX, through experimental results fitting into mathematical models. DOX loading takes the order in the MNFs as CoFe₂O₄ > NiFe₂O₄ > Fe₃O₄. Various drug release models were suggested and evaluated for the individual MNP based NFs. While the non-Fickian diffusion (anomalous) model fits for DOX release from PEG coated CoFe₂O₄, PEG coated NiFe₂O₄ NF follows zero-order kinetics with a slow drug release rate of 1.33% of DOX per minute. On the other hand, PEG coated NiFe₂O₄ follows zero-order DOX release. Besides, several thermophysical properties and magnetic susceptibility of the MNFs of different concentrations have been studied by dispersing the MNPs (NiFe₂O₄, CoFe₂O₄ and Fe₃O₄) in the base fluid at 300 K under ultrasonication. This report on the DOX loading/release capability of MNF will set a new paradigm in view that MNF can resolve problems related to the self-heating of drug carriers during mild laser treatment with its thermal conducting properties.

Magnetic particle targeting for diagnosis and therapy of lung cancers

Over the past decade, the growing interest in targeted lung cancer therapy has guided researchers toward the cutting edge of controlled drug delivery, particularly magnetic particle targeting. Targeting of tissues by magnetic particles has tackled several limitations of traditional drug delivery methods for both cancer detection (e.g., using magnetic resonance imaging) and therapy. Delivery of magnetic particles offers the key advantage of high efficiency in the local deposition of drugs in the target tissue with the least harmful effect on other healthy tissues. This review first overviews clinical aspects of lung morphology and pathogenesis as well as clinical features of lung cancer. It is followed by reviewing the advances in using magnetic particles for diagnosis and therapy of lung cancers: (i) a combination of magnetic particle targeting with MRI imaging for diagnosis and screening of lung cancers, (ii) magnetic drug targeting (MDT) through either intravenous injection and pulmonary delivery for lung cancer therapy, and (iii) computational simulations that models new and effective approaches for magnetic particle drug delivery to the lung, all supporting improved lung cancer treatment. The review further discusses future opportunities to improve the clinical performance of MDT for diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer and highlights clinical therapy application of the MDT as a new horizon to cure with minimal side effects a wide variety of lung diseases and possibly other acute respiratory syndromes (COVID-19, MERS, and SARS).

Fatty Acid Remodeling of Membrane Glycerophospholipids Induced by Bleomycin and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Human Embryonic Kidney Cells

Bleomycin has a long-studied mechanism of action through the formation of a complex with metals, such as iron. The bleomycin-iron complex was recently shown to induce membrane damage by free radical reactivity. Because the use of Fe nanoparticles is spreading for drug delivery strategies, molecular mechanisms of cell damage must include different compartments in order to observe the progression of the cell reactivity. In this study, human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cells were exposed for 24 h to bleomycin and polymeric iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe-NPs), alone or in combination. The fatty acid-based membrane lipidomic analysis evidenced the fatty acid remodeling in response to the treatments. Bleomycin alone caused the increase of saturated fatty acid (SFA) moieties in cell membrane glycerophospholipids with concomitant diminution of monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acid levels. Under Fe-NPs treatment, omega-6 PUFA decreased and trans fatty acid isomers increased. Under coadministration bleomycin and Fe-NPs, all membrane remodeling changes disappeared compared to those of the controls, with only an increase of omega-6 PUFA that elevates peroxidation index remaining. Our results highlight the important role of fatty-acid-based membrane lipidome monitoring to follow up the fatty acid reorganization induced by the drug, to be considered as a side effect of the pharmacological activity, suggesting the need of an integrated approach for the investigation of drug and carrier molecular mechanisms.

PLGA-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Remotely Triggered Cancer Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications

Intelligent drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology have been widely developed and investigated in the field of nanomedicine since they were able to maximize the therapeutic efficacy and minimize the undesirable adverse effects. Among a variety of organic or inorganic nanomaterials available to fabricate drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer therapy and diagnosis, poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) has been extensively employed due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this paper, we review the recent status of research on the application of PLGA-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) in remotely triggered cancer therapy and the strategies for tumor imaging provided by PLGA-based DDSs. We firstly discuss the employment of PLGA-based DDSs for remotely triggered cancer therapy, including photo-triggered, ultrasound-triggered, magnetic field-triggered, and radiofrequency-triggered cancer therapy. Photo-triggered cancer therapy involves photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and photo-triggered chemotherapeutics release. Ultrasound-triggered cancer therapy involves high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment, ultrasound-triggered chemotherapeutics release, and ultrasound-enhanced efficiency of gene transfection. The strategies which endows PLGA-based DDSs with imaging properties and the PLGA-based cancer theranostics are further discussed. Additionally, we also discuss the targeting strategies which provide PLGA-based DDSs with passive, active or magnetic tumor-targeting abilities. Numerous studies cited in our review demonstrate the great potential of PLGA-based DDSs as effective theranostic agent for cancer therapy and diagnosis.

NIR-Light-Triggered Anticancer Strategy for Dual-Modality Imaging-Guided Combination Therapy via a Bioinspired Hybrid PLGA Nanoplatform

A promising approach toward cancer therapy is expected to integrate imaging and therapeutic agents into a versatile nanocarrier for achieving improved antitumor efficacy and reducing the side effects of conventional chemotherapy. Herein, we designed a poly(d,l-lactic- co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based theranostic nanoplatform using the double emulsion solvent evaporation method (W/O/W), which is associated with bovine serum albumin (BSA) modifications, to codeliver indocyanine green (ICG), a widely used near-infrared (NIR) dye, and doxorubicin (Dox), a chemotherapeutic drug, for dual-modality imaging-guided chemo-photothermal combination cancer therapy. The resultant ICG/Dox co-loaded hybrid PLGA nanoparticles (denoted as IDPNs) had a diameter of around 200 nm and exhibited excellent monodispersity, fluorescence/size stability, and biocompatibility. It was confirmed that IDPNs displayed a photothermal effect and that the heat induced faster release of Dox, which led to enhanced drug accumulation in cells and was followed by their efficient escape from the lysosomes into the cytoplasm and drug diffusion into the nucleus, resulting in a chemo-photothermal combinatorial therapeutic effect in vitro. Moreover, the IDPNs exhibited a high ability to accumulate in tumor tissue, owing to the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, and could realize real-time fluorescence/photoacoustic imaging of solid tumors with a high spatial resolution. In addition, the exposure of tumor regions to NIR irradiation could enhance the tumor penetration ability of IDPNs, almost eradicating subcutaneous tumors. In addition, the inhibition rate of IDPNs used in combination with laser irradiation against EMT-6 tumors in tumor-bearing nude mice (chemo-photothermal therapy) was approximately 95.6%, which was much higher than that for chemo- or photothermal treatment alone. Our study validated the fact that the use of well-defined IDPNs with NIR laser treatment could be a promising strategy for the early diagnosis and passive tumor-targeted chemo-photothermal therapy for cancer.

Recent advances and future prospects of iron oxide nanoparticles in biomedicine and diagnostics

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are considered as chemically inert materials and, therefore, being extensively applied in the areas of imaging, targeting, drug delivery and biosensors. Their unique properties such as low toxicity, biocompatibility, potent magnetic and catalytic behavior and superior role in multifunctional modalities have epitomized them as an appropriate candidate for biomedical applications. Recent developments in the area of materials science have enabled the facile synthesis of Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) offering easy tuning of surface properties and surface functionalization with desired biomolecules. Such developments have enabled IONPs to be easily accommodated in nanocomposite platform or devices. Additionally, the tag of biocompatible material has realized their potential in myriad applications of nanomedicines including imaging modalities, sensing, and therapeutics. Further, IONPs enzyme mimetic activity pronounced their role as nanozymes in detecting biomolecules like glucose, and cholesterol etc. Hence, based on their versatile applications in biomedicine, the present review article focusses on the current trends, developments and future prospects of IONPs in MRI, hyperthermia, photothermal therapy, biomolecules detection, chemotherapy, antimicrobial activity and also their role as the multifunctional agent in diagnosis and nanomedicines.

Curcumin Analog DK1 Induces Apoptosis in Human Osteosarcoma Cells In Vitro through Mitochondria-Dependent Signaling Pathway

Osteosarcoma is one of the primary malignant bone tumors that confer low survival rates for patients even with intensive regime treatments. Therefore, discovery of novel anti-osteosarcoma drugs derived from natural products that are not harmful to the normal cells remains crucial. Curcumin is one of the natural substances that have been extensively studied due to its anti-cancer properties and is pharmacologically safe considering its ubiquitous consumption for centuries. However, curcumin suffers from a poor circulating bioavailability, which has led to the development of a chemically synthesized curcuminoid analog, namely (Z)-3-hydroxy-1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-phenylprop-2-en-1-one (DK1). In this study, the cytotoxic effects of the curcumin analog DK1 was investigated in both U-2OS and MG-63 osteosarcoma cell lines using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and cell death was microscopically examined via acridine orange/propidium iodide (AO/PI) double staining. Flow cytometer analysis including Annexin V/Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), cell cycle analysis and JC-1 were adapted to determine the mode of cell death. Subsequently in order to determine the mechanism of cell death, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and proteome profiling was carried out to measure the expression of several apoptotic-related genes and proteins. Results indicated that DK1 induced U-2 OS and MG-63 morphological changes and substantially reduced cell numbers through induction of apoptosis. Several apoptotic genes and proteins were steadily expressed after treatment with DK1; including caspase 3, caspase 9, and BAX, which indicated that apoptosis occurred through a mitochondria-dependent signaling pathway. In conclusion, DK1 could be considered as a potential candidate for an anti-osteosarcoma drug in the near future, contingent upon its ability to induce apoptosis in osteosarcoma cell lines.

Magnetic nanoparticles in cancer diagnosis, drug delivery and treatment

In recent years, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have demonstrated marked progress in the field of oncology. General nanoparticles are widely used in tumor targeting, and the intrinsic magnetic property of MNPs makes them the most promising nanomaterial to be used as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and induced magnetic hyperthermia. The properties of MNPs are fully exploited when they are used as drug delivery agents, wherein drugs may be targeted to the desired specific location in vivo by application of an external magnetic field. Early diagnosis of cancer may be achieved by MRI, therefore, individualized treatment may be combined with MRI, so as to achieve the precise definition and appropriate treatment. In the present review, research on MNPs in cancer diagnosis, drug delivery and treatment has been summarized. Furthermore, the future perspectives and challenges of MNPs in the field of oncology are also discussed.

Luminescent/magnetic PLGA-based hybrid nanocomposites: a smart nanocarrier system for targeted codelivery and dual-modality imaging in cancer theranostics

Cancer diagnosis and treatment represent an urgent medical need given the rising cancer incidence over the past few decades. Cancer theranostics, namely, the combination of diagnostics and therapeutics within a single agent, are being developed using various anticancer drug-, siRNA-, or inorganic materials-loaded nanocarriers. Herein, we demonstrate a strategy of encapsulating quantum dots, superparamagnetic Fe₃O₄ nanocrystals, and doxorubicin (DOX) into biodegradable poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymeric nanocomposites using the double emulsion solvent evaporation method, followed by coupling to the amine group of polyethyleneimine premodified with polyethylene glycol-folic acid (PEI-PEG-FA [PPF]) segments and adsorption of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-targeted small hairpin RNA (shRNA). VEGF is important for tumor growth, progression, and metastasis. These drug-loaded luminescent/magnetic PLGA-based hybrid nanocomposites (LDM-PLGA/PPF/VEGF shRNA) were fabricated for tumor-specific targeting, drug/gene delivery, and cancer imaging. The data showed that LDM-PLGA/PPF/VEGF shRNA nanocomposites can codeliver DOX and VEGF shRNA into tumor cells and effectively suppress VEGF expression, exhibiting remarkable synergistic antitumor effects both in vitro and in vivo. The cell viability waŝ14% when treated with LDM-PLGA/PPF/VEGF shRNA nanocomposites ([DOX] =25 μg/mL), and in vivo tumor growth data showed that the tumor volume decreased by 81% compared with the saline group at 21 days postinjection. Magnetic resonance and fluorescence imaging data revealed that the luminescent/magnetic hybrid nanocomposites may also be used as an efficient nanoprobe for enhanced T₂-weighted magnetic resonance and fluorescence imaging in vitro and in vivo. The present work validates the great potential of the developed multifunctional LDM-PLGA/PPF/VEGF shRNA nanocomposites as effective theranostic agents through the codelivery of drugs/genes and dual-modality imaging in cancer treatment.

Multifunctional targeted liposomal drug delivery for efficient glioblastoma treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) has been considered to be the most malignant brain tumors. Due to the existence of various barriers including the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and blood–brain tumor barrier (BBTB) greatly hinder the accumulation and deep penetration of chemotherapeutics, the treatment of glioma remains to be the most challenging task in clinic. In order to circumvent these hurdles, we developed a multifunctional liposomal glioma-targeted drug delivery system (c(RGDyK)/pHA-LS) modified with cyclic RGD (c(RGDyK)) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (pHA) in which c(RGDyK) could target integrin α_vβ₃ overexpressed on the BBTB and glioma cells and pHA could target dopamine receptors on the BBB. In vitro, c(RGDyK)/pHA-LS could target glioblastoma cells (U87), brain capillary endothelial cells (bEnd.3) and umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) through a comprehensive pathway. Besides, c(RGDyK)/pHA-LS could also increase the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin encapsulated in liposomes on glioblastoma cells, and was able to penetrate inside the glioma spheroids after traversing the in vitro BBB and BBTB. In vivo, we demonstrated the targeting ability of c(RGDyK)/pHA-LS to intracranial glioma. As expected, c(RGDyK)/pHA-LS/DOX showed a median survival time of 35 days, which was 2.31-, 1.76- and 1.5-fold higher than that of LS/DOX, c(RGDyK)-LS/DOX, and pHA-LS/DOX, respectively. The findings here suggested that the multifunctional glioma-targeted drug delivery system modified with both c(RGDyK) and pHA displayed strong antiglioma efficiency in vitro and in vivo, representing a promising platform for glioma therapy.

Doxorubicin Conjugated to Glutathione Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles (Au-GSH-Dox) as an Effective Therapeutic Agent for Feline Injection-Site Sarcomas-Chick Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane Study

Feline injection-site sarcomas are malignant skin tumours with a high local recurrence rate, ranging from 14% to 28%. The treatment of feline injection-site sarcomas includes radical surgery, radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy. In our previous study it has been demonstrated that doxorubicin conjugated to glutathione-stabilized gold nanoparticles (Au-GSH-Dox) has higher cytotoxic effects than free doxorubicin for feline fibrosarcoma cell lines with high glycoprotein P activity (FFS1, FFS3). The aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of intratumoural injection of Au-GSH-Dox on the growth of tumours from the FFS1 and FFS3 cell lines on chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane. This model has been utilized both in human and veterinary medicine for preclinical oncological studies. The influence of intratumoural injections of Au-GSH-Dox, glutathione-stabilized gold nanoparticles and doxorubicin alone on the Ki-67 proliferation marker was also checked. We demonstrated that the volume ratio of tumours from the FFS1 and FFS3 cell lines was significantly (p < 0.01) decreased after a single intratumoural injection of Au-GSH-Dox, which confirms the positive results of in vitro studies and indicates that Au-GSH-Dox may be a potent new therapeutic agent for feline injection-site sarcomas.

Preparation, Optimization and Toxicity Evaluation of (SPION-PLGA) ±PEG Nanoparticles Loaded with Gemcitabine as a Multifunctional Nanoparticle for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications

The aim of this study was to develop a novel multifunctional nanoparticle, which encapsulates SPION and Gemcitabine in PLGA ± PEG to form multifunctional drug delivery system. For this aim, super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) were simultaneously synthesized and encapsulated with Gemcitabine (Gem) in PLGA ± PEG copolymers via W/O/W double emulsification method. Optimum size and encapsulation efficiency for radiosensitization, hyperthermia and diagnostic applications were considered and the preparation parameters systematically were investigated and physicochemical characteristics of optimized nanoparticle were studied. Then SPION-PLGA and PLGA-Gem nanoparticles were prepared with the same optimized parameters and the toxicity of these nanoparticles was compared with Gemcitabine in human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7). The optimum preparation parameters were obtained with Gem/polymer equal to 0.04, SPION/polymer equal to 0.8 and 1% sucrose per 20 mg of polymer. The hydrodynamic diameters of all nanoparticles were under 200 nm. Encapsulation efficiency was adjusted between 13.2% to 16.1% for Gemcitabine and 48.2% to 50.1% for SPION. In-vitro Gemcitabine release kinetics had controlled behavior. Enhancement ratios for PLGA-Gem and SPION-PLGA-Gem at concentration of nanoparticles equal to IC50 of Gemcitabine were 1.53 and 1.89 respectively. The statistical difference was significant (p-value = 0.006 for SPION-PLGA-Gem and p-value = 0.015 for PLGA-Gem compared with Gemcitabine). In conclusion, we have successfully developed a Gemcitabine loaded super paramagnetic PLGA-Iron Oxide multifunctional drag delivery system. Future work includes in-vitro and in-vivo investigation of radiosensitization and other application of these nanoparticles.

Polylactide-based Magnetic Spheres as Efficient Carriers for Anticancer Drug Delivery

To improve traditional cancer therapies, we synthesized polylactide (PLA) spheres coencapsulating magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs, Fe3O4) and an anticancer drug (doxorubicin, DOX). The synthesis process involves the preparation of Fe3O4 NPs by a coprecipitation method and then PLA/DOX/Fe3O4 spheres using the solvent evaporation (oil-in-water) technique. The Fe3O4 NPs were coated with oleic acid to improve their hydrophobicity and biocompatibility for medical applications. The structure, morphology and properties of the MNPs and PLA/DOX/Fe3O4 spheres were studied using various techniques, such as FTIR, SEM, TEM, TGA, VSM, UV-vis spectroscopy, and zeta potential measurements. The in vitro DOX release from the spheres was prolonged, sustained, and pH-dependent and fit a zero-order kinetics model and an anomalous mechanism. Interestingly, the spheres did not show a DOX burst effect, ensuring the minimal exposure of the healthy cells and an increased drug payload at the tumor site. The pronounced biocompatibility of the PLA/DOX/Fe3O4 spheres with HeLa cells was proven by a WST assay. In summary, the synthesized PLA/DOX/Fe3O4 spheres have the potential for magnetic targeting of tumor cells to transform conventional methods.

Recent progress on magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, surface functional strategies and biomedical applications

This review focuses on the recent development and various strategies in the preparation, microstructure, and magnetic properties of bare and surface functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs); their corresponding biological application was also discussed. In order to implement the practical in vivo or in vitro applications, the IONPs must have combined properties of high magnetic saturation, stability, biocompatibility, and interactive functions at the surface. Moreover, the surface of IONPs could be modified by organic materials or inorganic materials, such as polymers, biomolecules, silica, metals, etc. The new functionalized strategies, problems and major challenges, along with the current directions for the synthesis, surface functionalization and bioapplication of IONPs, are considered. Finally, some future trends and the prospects in these research areas are also discussed.

GEM-loaded magnetic albumin nanospheres modified with cetuximab for simultaneous targeting, magnetic resonance imaging, and double-targeted thermochemotherapy of pancreatic cancer cells

Background

Targeted delivery is a promising strategy to improve the diagnostic imaging and therapeutic effect of cancers. In this paper, novel cetuximab (C225)-conjugated, gemcitabine (GEM)-containing magnetic albumin nanospheres (C225-GEM/MANs) were fabricated and applied as a theranostic nanocarrier to conduct simultaneous targeting, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and double-targeted thermochemotherapy against pancreatic cancer cells.

Methods

Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) and GEM co-loaded albumin nanospheres (GEM/MANs) were prepared, and then C225 was further conjugated to synthesize C225-GEM/MANs. Their morphology, mean particle size, GEM encapsulation ratio, specific cell-binding ability, and thermal dynamic profiles were characterized. The effects of discriminating different EGFR-expressing pancreatic cancer cells (AsPC-1 and MIA PaCa-2) and monitoring cellular targeting effects were assessed by targeted MRI. Lastly, the antitumor efficiency of double/C225/magnetic-targeted and nontargeted thermochemotherapy was compared with chemotherapy alone using 3-(4, 5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and flow cytometry (FCM) assay.

Results

When treated with targeted nanospheres, AsPC-1 cells showed a significantly less intense MRI T2 signal than MIA PaCa-2 cells, while both cells had similar signal strength when incubated with nontargeted nanospheres. T2 signal intensity was significantly lower when magnetic and C225 targeting were combined, rather than used alone. The inhibitory and apoptotic rates of each thermochemotherapy group were significantly higher than those of the chemotherapy-alone groups. Additionally, both MTT and FCM analysis verified that double-targeted thermochemotherapy had the highest targeted killing efficiency among all groups.

Conclusion

The C225-GEM/MANs can distinguish various EGFR-expressing live pancreatic cancer cells, monitor diverse cellular targeting effects using targeted MRI imaging, and efficiently mediate double-targeted thermochemotherapy against pancreatic cancer cells.

Doxorubicin-conjugated polypeptide nanoparticles inhibit metastasis in two murine models of carcinoma

Drug delivery vehicles are often assessed for their ability to control primary tumor growth, but the outcome of cancer treatment depends on controlling or inhibiting metastasis. Therefore, we studied the efficacy of our genetically encoded polypeptide nanoparticle for doxorubicin delivery (CP-Dox) in the syngeneic metastatic murine models 4T1 and Lewis lung carcinoma. We found that our nanoparticle formulation increased the half-life, maximum tolerated dose, and tumor accumulation of doxorubicin. When drug treatment was combined with primary tumor resection, greater than 60% of the mice were cured in both the 4T1 and Lewis lung carcinoma models compared to 20% treated with free drug. Mechanistic studies suggest that metastasis inhibition and survival increase were achieved by preventing the dissemination of viable tumor cells from the primary tumor.

Transferrin-modified nanostructured lipid carriers as multifunctional nanomedicine for codelivery of DNA and doxorubicin

BACKGROUND

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), composed of solid and liquid lipids, and surfactants are potentially good colloidal drug carriers. The aim of this study was to develop surface-modified NLC as multifunctional nanomedicine for codelivery of enhanced green fluorescence protein plasmid (pEGFP) and doxorubicin (DOX).

METHODS

TWO DIFFERENT NANOCARRIERS: pEGFP- and DOX-loaded NLC, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were prepared. Transferrin-containing ligands were used for the surface coating of the vectors. Their average size, zeta potential, and drug encapsulation capacity were evaluated. In vitro transfection efficiency of the modified vectors was evaluated in human alveolar adenocarcinoma cell line (A549 cells), and in vivo transfection efficiency of the modified vectors was evaluated in a mouse bearing A549 cells model.

RESULTS

Transferrin-modified DOX and pEGFP coencapsulated NLC (T-NLC) has a particle size of 198 nm and a +19 mV surface charge. The in vitro cell viabilities of the T-NLC formulations were over 80% compared with the control. T-NLC displayed remarkably greater gene transfection efficiency and enhanced antitumor activity than DOX- and pEGFP-coencapsulated SLN in vivo.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that T-NLC noticeably enhanced antitumor activity through the combination of gene therapy with chemotherapy. Also coating of active transferrin improved the lung cancer cell-targeting of the carriers. In summary, the novel gene and drug delivery system offers a promising strategy for the treatment of lung cancer.

Polymeric nanoparticles for targeted radiosensitization of prostate cancer cells

One of the many issues of using radiosensitizers in a clinical setting is timing daily radiation treatments to coincide with peak drug concentration in target tissue. To overcome this deficit, we have synthesized a novel nanoparticle (NP) system consisting of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs conjugated with prostate cancer cell penetrating peptide-R11 and encapsulated with a potent radio-sensitizer 8-dibenzothiophen-4-yl-2-morpholin-4-yl-chromen-4-one (NU7441) to allow prostate cancer-specific targeting and sustained delivery over 3 weeks. Preliminary characterization studies showed that the R11-conjugated NPs (R11-NU7441 NPs) had an average size of about 274 ± 80 nm and were stable for up to 5 days in deionized water and serum. The NPs were cytocompatible with immortalized prostate cells (PZ-HPV-7). Further, the particles showed a bi-phasic release of encapsulated NU7441 and were taken up by PC3 prostate cancer cells in a dose- and magnetic field-dependent manner while not being taken up in nonprostate cancer cell lines. In addition, R11-NU7441 NPs were effective radiation sensitizers of prostate cancer cell lines in vitro. These results thus demonstrate the potential of R11-conjugated PLGA NPs as novel platforms for targeted radiosensitization of prostate cancer cells.

Synthesis of polymer-lipid nanoparticles for image-guided delivery of dual modality therapy

For advanced treatment of diseases such as cancer, multicomponent, multifunctional nanoparticles hold great promise. In the current study we report the synthesis of a complex nanoparticle (NP) system with dual drug loading as well as diagnostic properties. To that aim we present a methodology where chemically modified poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) polymer is formulated into a polymer-lipid NP that contains a cytotoxic drug doxorubicin (DOX) in the polymeric core and an anti-angiogenic drug sorafenib (SRF) in the lipidic corona. The NP core also contains gold nanocrystals (AuNCs) for imaging purposes and cyclodextrin molecules to maximize the DOX encapsulation in the NP core. In addition, a near-infrared (NIR) Cy7 dye was incorporated in the coating. To fabricate the NP we used a microfluidics-based technique that offers unique NP synthesis conditions, which allowed for encapsulation and fine-tuning of optimal ratios of all the NP components. NP phantoms could be visualized with computed tomography (CT) and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging. We observed timed release of the encapsulated drugs, with fast release of the corona drug SRF and delayed release of a core drug DOX. In tumor bearing mice intravenously administered NPs were found to accumulate at the tumor site by fluorescence imaging.

Intratumoral chemotherapy for lung cancer: re-challenge current targeted therapies

Strategies to enhance the already established doublet chemotherapy regimen for lung cancer have been investigated for more than 20 years. Initially, the concept was to administer chemotherapy drugs locally to the tumor site for efficient diffusion through passive transport within the tumor. Recent advances have enhanced the diffusion of pharmaceuticals through active transport by using pharmaceuticals designed to target the genome of tumors. In the present study, five patients with non-small cell lung cancer epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) negative stage IIIa–IV International Union Against Cancer 7 (UICC-7), and with Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) 2 scores were administered platinum-based doublet chemotherapy using combined intratumoral-regional and intravenous route of administration. Cisplatin analogues were injected at 0.5%–1% concentration within the tumor lesion and proven malignant lymph nodes according to pretreatment histological/cytological results and the concentration of systemic infusion was decreased to 70% of a standard protocol. This combined intravenous plus intratumoral-regional chemotherapy is used as a first line therapy on this short series of patients. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of direct treatment of involved lymph nodes with cisplatin by endobronchial ultrasound drug delivery with a needle without any adverse effects. The initial overall survival and local response are suggestive of a better efficacy compared to established doublet cisplatin–based systemic chemotherapy in (higher) standard concentrations alone according to the UICC 7 database expected survival. An extensive search of the literature was performed to gather information of previously published literature of intratumoral chemo-drug administration and formulation for this treatment modality. Our study shows a favorable local response, more than a 50% reduction, for a massive tumor mass after administration of five sessions of intratumoral chemotherapy plus two cycles of low-dose intravenous chemotherapy according to our protocol. These encouraging results (even in very sick ECOG 2 patients with central obstructive non-small cell lung cancer having a worse prognosis and quality of life than a non-small cell lung cancer in ECOG 0 of the same tumor node metastasis [TNM]-stage without central obstruction) for a chemotherapy-only protocol that differs from conventional cisplatin-based doublet chemotherapy by the route, target site, and dose paves the way for broader applications of this technique. Finally, future perspectives of this treatment and pharmaceutical design for intratumoral administration are presented.

Cytotoxicity of nickel zinc ferrite nanoparticles on cancer cells of epithelial origin

In this study, in vitro cytotoxicity of nickel zinc (NiZn) ferrite nanoparticles against human colon cancer HT29, breast cancer MCF7, and liver cancer HepG2 cells was examined. The morphology, homogeneity, and elemental composition of NiZn ferrite nanoparticles were investigated by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, respectively. The exposure of cancer cells to NiZn ferrite nanoparticles (15.6–1,000 μg/mL; 72 hours) has resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of cell growth determined by MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. The quantification of caspase-3 and -9 activities and DNA fragmentation to assess the cell death pathway of the treated cells showed that both were stimulated when exposed to NiZn ferrite nanoparticles. Light microscopy examination of the cells exposed to NiZn ferrite nanoparticles demonstrated significant changes in cellular morphology. The HepG2 cells were most prone to apoptosis among the three cells lines examined, as the result of treatment with NiZn nanoparticles. In conclusion, NiZn ferrite nanoparticles are suggested to have potential cytotoxicity against cancer cells.