Single peptide ligand-functionalized uniform hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles achieving dual-targeting drug delivery to tumor cells and angiogenic blood vessel cells

Silicon-containing nanomedicine and biomaterials: materials chemistry, multi-dimensional design, and biomedical application

The invention of silica-based bioactive glass in the late 1960s has sparked significant interest in exploring a wide range of silicon-containing biomaterials from the macroscale to the nanoscale. Over the past few decades, these biomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential in diverse biomedical applications, considering their remarkable bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, facile surface functionalization, controllable synthesis, etc. However, to expedite the clinical translation and the unexpected utilization of silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials, it is highly desirable to achieve a thorough comprehension of their characteristics and biological effects from an overall perspective. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the state-of-the-art progress of silicon-composed biomaterials, including their classification, characteristics, fabrication methods, and versatile biomedical applications. Additionally, we highlight the multi-dimensional design of both pure and hybrid silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials and their intrinsic biological effects and interactions with biological systems. Their extensive biomedical applications span from drug delivery and bioimaging to therapeutic interventions and regenerative medicine, showcasing the significance of their rational design and fabrication to meet specific requirements and optimize their theranostic performance. Additionally, we offer insights into the future prospects and potential challenges regarding silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials. By shedding light on these exciting research advances, we aspire to foster further progress in the biomedical field and drive the development of innovative silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials with transformative applications in biomedicine.

Mesoporous nanodrug delivery system: a powerful tool for a new paradigm of remodeling of the tumor microenvironment

Tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in tumor progression, metastasis and therapy resistance. Remodeling the TME has recently been deemed an attractive tumor therapeutic strategy. Due to its complexity and heterogeneity, remodeling the TME still faces great challenges. With the great advantage of drug loading ability, tumor accumulation, multifactor controllability, and persistent guest molecule release ability, mesoporous nanodrug delivery systems (MNDDSs) have been widely used as effective antitumor drug delivery tools as well as remolding TME. This review summarizes the components and characteristics of the TME, as well as the crosstalk between the TME and cancer cells and focuses on the important role of drug delivery strategies based on MNDDSs in targeted remodeling TME metabolic and synergistic anticancer therapy.

Engineering mesoporous silica nanoparticles for drug delivery: where are we after two decades?

The present review details a chronological description of the events that took place during the development of mesoporous materials, their different synthetic routes and their use as drug delivery systems. The outstanding textural properties of these materials quickly inspired their translation to the nanoscale dimension leading to mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs). The different aspects of introducing pharmaceutical agents into the pores of these nanocarriers, together with their possible biodistribution and clearance routes, would be described here. The development of smart nanocarriers that are able to release a high local concentration of the therapeutic cargo on-demand after the application of certain stimuli would be reviewed here, together with their ability to deliver the therapeutic cargo to precise locations in the body. The huge progress in the design and development of MSNs for biomedical applications, including the potential treatment of different diseases, during the last 20 years will be collated here, together with the required work that still needs to be done to achieve the clinical translation of these materials. This review was conceived to stand out from past reports since it aims to tell the story of the development of mesoporous materials and their use as drug delivery systems by some of the story makers, who could be considered to be among the pioneers in this area.

Decapeptide Modified Doxorubicin Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Targeted Drug Delivery System against Prostate Cancer

Growing instances of prostate cancer with poor prognosis have become a challenging task in cancer therapy. Luteinizing-hormone-releasing-hormone (LHRH) receptors are overexpressed in prostate cancer cells. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated lipids exhibit superiority in terms of retention/circulation in biological systems. PEGylated dipalmitoylphosphatedylethanolamine (DPPE-PEG), covalently linked with 6-hydrazinopyridine-3-carboxylic-acid, was conjugated with new LHRH-receptor positive peptide analog (DPPE-PEG-HYNIC-d-Glu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-d-Asn-Leu-d-Gln-Pro-Gly-NH₂). Surface modified doxorubicin (DOX) loaded solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) was prepared using soylecithin, stearic acid and Poloxamer-188 by solvent emulsification/evaporation method for targeted delivery of DOX into prostate cancer cells. SLN, DOX loaded SLN (DSLN) and surface modified DSLN (M-DSLN) were characterized by means of their size, zeta potential, morphology, storage time, drug payload, and subsequent release kinetics studies. Homogeneity of surface morphology, upon modification of SLN, was revealed from the dynamic light scattering, atomic force microscopy, and scanning electron microscopic studies. Homogeneous adsolubilization of DOX throughout the hydrophobic moiety of SLN was established by the differential scanning calorimetric studies. Release of DOX were sustained in DSLN and M-DSLN. Cellular uptake and in vitro activities of formulations against LHRH positive PC3/SKBR3 cancer cell lines revealed higher cellular internalization, cytotoxicity that followed the sequence DOX < DSLN < M-DSLN. Dye staining and flow cytometry studies revealed higher apoptosis in cancer cells. Such receptor specific drug delivery systems are considered to have substantial potential in prostate cancer therapy.

Biomedical nanoparticle design: What we can learn from viruses

Viruses are nanomaterials with a number of properties that surpass those of many synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) for biomedical applications. They possess a rigorously ordered structure, come in a variety of shapes, and present unique surface elements, such as spikes. These attributes facilitate propitious biodistribution, the crossing of complex biological barriers and a minutely coordinated interaction with cells. Due to the orchestrated sequence of interactions of their stringently arranged particle corona with cellular surface receptors they effectively identify and infect their host cells with utmost specificity, while evading the immune system at the same time. Furthermore, their efficacy is enhanced by their response to stimuli and the ability to spread from cell to cell. Over the years, great efforts have been made to mimic distinct viral traits to improve biomedical nanomaterial performance. However, a closer look at the literature reveals that no comprehensive evaluation of the benefit of virus-mimetic material design on the targeting efficiency of nanomaterials exists. In this review we, therefore, elucidate the impact that viral properties had on fundamental advances in outfitting nanomaterials with the ability to interact specifically with their target cells. We give a comprehensive overview of the diverse design strategies and identify critical steps on the way to reducing them to practice. More so, we discuss the advantages and future perspectives of a virus-mimetic nanomaterial design and try to elucidate if viral mimicry holds the key for better NP targeting.

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs)-based nanomaterials for improving photodynamic therapy in cancer treatment

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) as novel nanomaterials, have received significant interest in the field of biomedical applications. It is worth noting that a large amount of research is devoted to GQDs-based nanocomposites for cancer treatment, especially for photodynamic therapy (PDT), in that they can act not only as more favorable photosensitizers (PSs) but also nanoplatforms for delivering PSs. In this review, the biological behavior and physicochemical properties of GQDs for PDT are described in detail, and the application of GQDs-based nanocomposites in improved PDT and PDT-based combination therapies is analyzed, which may provide a new strategy for designing efficient PDT systems for cancer treatment.

Advances in mesoporous silica nanoparticles for targeted stimuli-responsive drug delivery: an update

INTRODUCTION

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are outstanding nanoplatforms for drug delivery. Herein, the most recent advances to turn MSN-based carriers into minimal side effect drug delivery agents are covered.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the scientific advances dealing with MSNs for targeted and stimuli-responsive drug delivery since 2015. Delivery aspects to diseased tissues together with approaches to obtain smart MSNs able to respond to internal or external stimuli and their applications are here described. Special emphasis is done on the combination of two or more stimuli on the same nanoplatform and on combined drug therapy.

EXPERT OPINION

The use of MSNs in nanomedicine is a promising research field because they are outstanding platforms for treating different pathologies. This is possible thanks to their structural, chemical, physical and biological properties. However, there are certain issues that should be overcome to improve the suitability of MSNs for clinical applications. All materials must be properly characterized prior to their in vivo evaluation; furthermore, preclinical in vivo studies need to be standardized to demonstrate the MSNs clinical translation potential.

Transferrin receptor-targeted HMSN for sorafenib delivery in refractory differentiated thyroid cancer therapy

Background

Thyroid cancer becomes the most common endocrine cancer with the greatest growing incidence in this decade. Sorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor for the treatment of progressive radioactive iodine-refractory differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC), while the off-target toxicity effect is usually inconvenient for patients taking.

Methods

In this study, hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNs) with transferrin modification (Tf-HMSNs) were loaded with sorafenib (sora@Tf-HMSNs) to help targeted delivery of sorafenib. Due to the biocompatible Tf shell, Tf-HMSNs exhibited excellent bio-compatibility and increased intracellular accumulation, which improved the targeting capability to cancer cells in vitro and in vivo.

Results

Sora@Tf-HMSNs treatment exhibited the strongest inhibition effect of res-TPC-1 cells and res-BCPAP cells compared with sora@HMSNs and sorafenib groups and induced more cancer cell apoptosis. Finally, Western blot analysis was conducted to check the expression of RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway after sorafenib encapsulated Tf-HMSNs treatment.

Conclusion

Overall, sora@Tf-HMSNs can significantly increase the effective drug concentration in cancer cells and thus enhance the anticancer effect, which are expected to be promising nanocarriers to deliver anticancer drugs for effective and safe therapy for RAI-refractory DTC.

Galactosylated chitosan-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles for efficient colon cancer cell-targeted drug delivery

Targeted drug delivery to colon cancer cells can significantly enhance the therapeutic efficiency. Herein, we developed 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-loaded amino-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN-NH2)-based galactosylated chitosans (GCs), which are galactose receptor-mediated materials for colon-specific drug delivery systems. Both unmodified and functionalized nanoparticles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nitrogen sorption and dynamic light scattering. Drug loading capacity and drug release properties were determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometry. 5-FU@MSN-NH2/GC showed high loading capacity and possessed much higher cytotoxicity on human colon cancer cells (SW620 cells) than 5-FU@MSN-NH2 and free 5-FU. But, MSN-NH2/GC did not show significant cytotoxicity. Subsequently, 5-FU@MSN-NH2/GC anti-cancer activity on SW620 cells in vitro was confirmed by cell apoptosis. These results are consistent with the cellular uptake test in which MSN-NH2/GC could specifically recognize and bind to cancer cells by the galectin-receptor recognition. But, it is found that pre-addition of galactose in the medium, leading to competitive binding to the galectin receptor of SW620 cells, resulted in a decrease in the binding of MSN-NH2/GC to the galectin receptor. The results demonstrated the inorganic-organic nanocomposite could be used as a promising drug delivery carrier for the targeted delivery of drug into galectin-positive colon cancer cells to improve therapeutic index while reducing side effects.

Decapeptide functionalized targeted mesoporous silica nanoparticles with doxorubicin exhibit enhanced apoptotic effect in breast and prostate cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Considering the increase in cancer cases and number of deaths per year worldwide, development of potential therapeutics is imperative. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) are among the potential nanocarriers having unique properties for drug delivery. Doxorubicin (DOX), being the most commonly used drug, can be efficiently delivered to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-overexpressing cancer cells using functionalized MSNPs.

AIM

We report the development of decapeptide-conjugated MSNPs loaded with DOX for the targeted drug delivery in breast and prostate cancer cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MSNPs were synthesized and subsequently functionalized with an analog of GnRH by using a heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol as a linker. These targeted MSNPs were then characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. An anticancer drug DOX was loaded and then characterized for drug loading. DOX-loaded nanocarriers were then studied for their cellular uptake using confocal microscopy. The cytotoxicity of DOX-loaded targeted MSNPs and DOX-loaded bare MSNPs was studied by performing MTT assay on MCF-7 (breast cancer) and LNCaP (prostate cancer) cells. Further, acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining, as well as flow cytometry, was performed to confirm the apoptotic mode of cancer cell death.

RESULTS

MSNPs were conjugated with polyethylene glycol as well as an agonist of GnRH and subsequently loaded with DOX. These targeted and bare MSNPs showed excellent porous structure and loading of DOX. Further, higher uptake of DOX-loaded targeted MSNPs was observed as compared to DOX-loaded bare MSNPs in GnRH-overexpressing breast (MCF-7) and prostate (LNCaP) cancer cells. The targeted MSNPs also showed significantly higher (P<0.001) cytotoxicity than DOX-loaded bare MSNPs at different time points. After 48 hours of treatment, the IC50 value for DOX-loaded targeted MSNPs was found to be 0.44 and 0.43 µM in MCF-7 and LNCaP cells, respectively. Acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining and flow cytometry analysis further confirmed the pathway of cell death through apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests GnRH analog-conjugated targeted MSNPs can be the suitable and promising approach for targeted drug delivery in all hormone-dependent cancer cells.

Design and Investigation of Core/Shell GQDs/hMSN Nanoparticles as an Enhanced Drug Delivery Platform in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Due to the excellent photoluminescent properties and singlet oxygen (¹O₂) generating efficiency, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) with maximal emission in near-infrared region (NIR) exhibited great potential in cancer imaging and therapy. However, GQDs can be cleared quickly via the renal system in vivo because of their ultrasmall size, which leads to the compromised cancer cell killing efficacy. Here, we report a hybrid nanoplatform, where GQDs were incorporated into the cavity of hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (hMSN) to form GQDs@hMSN-PEG nanoparticles (NPs). Optical characterization indicated that GQDs@hMSN-PEG NPs still maintained good absorption and emission properties from GQDs, and the composite NPs still possessed similar ¹O₂ generating efficiency. GQDs@hMSN-PEG NPs exhibited good biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo. High cargo-loading efficiency was achieved for doxorubicin (DOX), and the formed GQDs@hMSN(DOX)-PEG NPs showed the feasibility of tumor-oriented drug delivery. The extended retention time in tumor and good drug loading efficacy confirmed that GQDs@hMSN-PEG could serve as one promising candidate for combinational cancer treatment where photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy modules can be integrated into one system.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

Integration of nanotechnology and biomedicine has offered great opportunities for the development of nanoscaled therapeutic platforms. Amongst various nanocarriers, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) is one of the most developed and promising inorganic materials-based drug delivery system for clinical translations due to their simple composition and nanoporous structure. MSNs possess unique structural features, for example, well-defined morphology, large surface areas, uniform size, controllable structure, flexible pore volume, tunable pore sizes, extraordinarily high loading efficiency, and excellent biocompatibility. Progress in structure control and functionalization may endow MSNs with functionalities that enable medical applications of these integrated nanoparticles such as molecularly targeted drug delivery, multicomponent synergistic therapy, in vivo imaging and therapeutic capability, on-demand/stimuli-responsive drug release, etc. In this chapter, the authors overview MSNs' characteristics and the scientific efforts developed till date involving drug delivery and biomedical applications.

An update on applications of nanostructured drug delivery systems in cancer therapy: a review

Cancer is a main public health problem that is known as a malignant tumor and out-of-control cell growth, with the potential to assault or spread to other parts of the body. Recently, remarkable efforts have been devoted to develop nanotechnology to improve the delivery of anticancer drug to tumor tissue as minimizing its distribution and toxicity in healthy tissue. Nanotechnology has been extensively used in the advance of new strategies for drug delivery and cancer therapy. Compared to customary drug delivery systems, nano-based drug delivery method has greater potential in different areas, like multiple targeting functionalization, in vivo imaging, extended circulation time, systemic control release, and combined drug delivery. Nanofibers are used for different medical applications such as drug delivery systems.

Advances in Peptide Functionalization on Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Controlled Drug Release

During the last decade, using versatile, promising, and fascinating mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as site-specific and stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) has received concentrated research interest. As one of the most attractive surface modification units, peptides have inherent bioactivity, biodegradability and biocompatibility. Recent progresses in the utilization of versatile peptides for surface functionalization of MSNs to achieve cell-specific targeting, fluorescence imaging, and intracellular diagnosis and treatment of tumors are summarized in this review. The various functional peptides decorated on the MSNs are introduced and classified into three types, including targeting peptides, stimuli-responsive peptides and multifunctional chimeric peptides. The limitations and challenges of peptide modified MSNs and their potential applications are further discussed.

Autophagy and autophagy dysfunction contribute to apoptosis in HepG2 cells exposed to nanosilica

Great concerns have led to the evaluation of the potential hazards of nanosilica to human health and the environment. However, there still exists persistent debates on the biological effects and toxic consequences induced by nanosilica. The present study investigated both autophagy and apoptosis in ICR mice and Human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2), and then explored the interactive mechanism between these two distinct cell death modalities in HepG2 cells. Mice liver injuries seen by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining indicated the hepatotoxic effects of nanosilica. The TUNEL assay and immunohistochemistry results confirmed that nanosilica could induce both apoptosis and autophagy in vivo. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated apoptosis induction in vitro, while autophagic ultrastructures, LC3-II expression and immunofluorescence clarified autophagy activation by nanosilica. Apoptosis suppression by the autophagy inhibitor of 3-methyladenine (3-MA) implied that autophagy was involved in apoptotic cell death. A mechanistic study verified that nanosilica induced autophagy via negative regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling but not the Beclin-1 associated pathway. The enhancement of p62 accumulation and mTOR down-regulation might account for the molecular mechanism in contribution of autophagy to apoptosis. As an emerging new mechanism of nanomaterial toxicity, autophagy might be a more susceptive indicator for toxicological consequence evaluation in nanoparticle toxicity. The present study provides novel evidence to elucidate the toxicity mechanisms and may be beneficial to more rational applications of nanosilica in the future.

Photodynamic therapy of drug-resistant human colon adenocarcinoma using verteporfin-loaded TPGS nanoparticles with tumor homing and penetrating peptide functionalization

tLyp-1-modified nanoparticles loaded with VP (t-NP) as a dual-targeting drug delivery systemviaNRP-1-mediated endocytosis and penetration.

Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanocarriers for stimuli-responsive target delivery of anticancer drugs

By modifying the outer surface of MSNs with various functional groups or/and using a combination with other nanomaterials, stimuli-responsive and active targeting nanosystems can be designed for stimuli-responsive target delivery of anticancer drugs.