1
|
Pucchio A, Krance SH, Pur DR, Bhatti J, Bassi A, Manichavagan K, Brahmbhatt S, Aggarwal I, Singh P, Virani A, Stanley M, Miranda RN, Felfeli T. Applications of artificial intelligence and bioinformatics methodologies in the analysis of ocular biofluid markers: a scoping review. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2024; 262:1041-1091. [PMID: 37421481 DOI: 10.1007/s00417-023-06100-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE This scoping review summarizes the applications of artificial intelligence (AI) and bioinformatics methodologies in analysis of ocular biofluid markers. The secondary objective was to explore supervised and unsupervised AI techniques and their predictive accuracies. We also evaluate the integration of bioinformatics with AI tools. METHODS This scoping review was conducted across five electronic databases including EMBASE, Medline, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Web of Science from inception to July 14, 2021. Studies pertaining to biofluid marker analysis using AI or bioinformatics were included. RESULTS A total of 10,262 articles were retrieved from all databases and 177 studies met the inclusion criteria. The most commonly studied ocular diseases were diabetic eye diseases, with 50 papers (28%), while glaucoma was explored in 25 studies (14%), age-related macular degeneration in 20 (11%), dry eye disease in 10 (6%), and uveitis in 9 (5%). Supervised learning was used in 91 papers (51%), unsupervised AI in 83 (46%), and bioinformatics in 85 (48%). Ninety-eight papers (55%) used more than one class of AI (e.g. > 1 of supervised, unsupervised, bioinformatics, or statistical techniques), while 79 (45%) used only one. Supervised learning techniques were often used to predict disease status or prognosis, and demonstrated strong accuracy. Unsupervised AI algorithms were used to bolster the accuracy of other algorithms, identify molecularly distinct subgroups, or cluster cases into distinct subgroups that are useful for prediction of the disease course. Finally, bioinformatic tools were used to translate complex biomarker profiles or findings into interpretable data. CONCLUSION AI analysis of biofluid markers displayed diagnostic accuracy, provided insight into mechanisms of molecular etiologies, and had the ability to provide individualized targeted therapeutic treatment for patients. Given the progression of AI towards use in both research and the clinic, ophthalmologists should be broadly aware of the commonly used algorithms and their applications. Future research may be aimed at validating algorithms and integrating them in clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aidan Pucchio
- Department of Ophthalmology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Queens School of Medicine, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Saffire H Krance
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Daiana R Pur
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Jasmine Bhatti
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Arshpreet Bassi
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | | | - Shaily Brahmbhatt
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | | | - Priyanka Singh
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Aleena Virani
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | | | - Rafael N Miranda
- The Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tina Felfeli
- The Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, 340 College Street, Suite 400, Toronto, ON, M5T 3A9, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Al-Sari N, Kutuzova S, Suvitaival T, Henriksen P, Pociot F, Rossing P, McCloskey D, Legido-Quigley C. Precision diagnostic approach to predict 5-year risk for microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes. EBioMedicine 2022; 80:104032. [PMID: 35533498 PMCID: PMC9092516 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Individuals with long standing diabetes duration can experience damage to small microvascular blood vessels leading to diabetes complications (DCs) and increased mortality. Precision diagnostic tailors a diagnosis to an individual by using biomedical information. Blood small molecule profiling coupled with machine learning (ML) can facilitate the goals of precision diagnostics, including earlier diagnosis and individualized risk scoring. Methods Using data in a cohort of 537 adults with type 1 diabetes (T1D) we predicted five-year progression to DCs. Prediction models were computed first with clinical risk factors at baseline and then with clinical risk factors and blood-derived molecular data at baseline. Progression of diabetic kidney disease and diabetic retinopathy were predicted in two complication-specific models. Findings The model predicts the progression to diabetic kidney disease with accuracy: 0.96 ± 0.25 and 0.96 ± 0.06 area under curve, AUC, with clinical measurements and with small molecule predictors respectively and highlighted main predictors to be albuminuria, glomerular filtration rate, retinopathy status at baseline, sugar derivatives and ketones. For diabetic retinopathy, AUC 0.75 ± 0.14 and 0.79 ± 0.16 with clinical measurements and with small molecule predictors respectively and highlighted key predictors, albuminuria, glomerular filtration rate and retinopathy status at baseline. Individual risk scores were built to visualize results. Interpretation With further validation ML tools could facilitate the implementation of precision diagnosis in the clinic. It is envisaged that patients could be screened for complications, before these occur, thus preserving healthy life-years for persons with diabetes. Funding This study has been financially supported by Novo Nordisk Foundation grant NNF14OC0013659.
Collapse
|
3
|
Singh AK, Karjee H, Ghosh S, Chatterjee J, Roy A. Spectropathologic endorsement of ocular carotenoids for early detection of diabetic retinopathy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 268:120676. [PMID: 34890873 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common health concern. Unfortunately, the metabolic pathway causing DR is yet to be understood. The carotenoid level in the human body is known to protect the health of the eyes. In this work, resonance Raman spectroscopy and multivariate analysis of the spectral data of human serum are reported as next-generation spectropathologic tools to detect retinal degeneration efficiently. The proposed technique shows promise by endorsing ocular carotenoids as a critical biomarker for such pathosis. Furthermore, the multivariate analysis of the spectral data distinguishes between two different stages of the disease. The machine learning algorithm is used to estimate a significant accuracy of 94% of the proposed model for the classification. As the carotenoid level can be controlled by dietary intake, we believe that the reported results also indicate a therapeutic role of the same in DR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anang Kumar Singh
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Pin 721302, India
| | - Himadri Karjee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Calcutta National Medical College, Kolkata Pin 700014, India
| | - Sambuddha Ghosh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Calcutta National Medical College, Kolkata Pin 700014, India
| | - Jyotirmoy Chatterjee
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Pin 721302, India
| | - Anushree Roy
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Pin 721302, India.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Du X, Yang L, Kong L, Sun Y, Shen K, Cai Y, Sun H, Zhang B, Guo S, Zhang A, Wang X. Metabolomics of various samples advancing biomarker discovery and pathogenesis elucidation for diabetic retinopathy. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1037164. [PMID: 36387907 PMCID: PMC9646596 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1037164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a universal microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), which is the main reason for global sight damage/loss in middle-aged and/or older people. Current clinical analyses, like hemoglobin A1c, possess some importance as prognostic indicators for DR severity, but no effective circulating biomarkers are used for DR in the clinic currently, and studies on the latent pathophysiology remain lacking. Recent developments in omics, especially metabolomics, continue to disclose novel potential biomarkers in several fields, including but not limited to DR. Therefore, based on the overview of metabolomics, we reviewed progress in analytical technology of metabolomics, the prominent roles and the current status of biomarkers in DR, and the update of potential biomarkers in various DR-related samples via metabolomics, including tear as well as vitreous humor, aqueous humor, retina, plasma, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, and feces. In this review, we underscored the in-depth analysis and elucidation of the common biomarkers in different biological samples based on integrated results, namely, alanine, lactate, and glutamine. Alanine may participate in and regulate glucose metabolism through stimulating N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and subsequently suppressing insulin secretion, which is the potential pathogenesis of DR. Abnormal lactate could cause extensive oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, eventually leading to retinal hypoxia and metabolic dysfunction; on the other hand, high-level lactate may damage the structure and function of the retinal endothelial cell barrier via the G protein-coupled receptor 81. Abnormal glutamine indicates a disturbance of glutamate recycling, which may affect the activation of Müller cells and proliferation via the PPP1CA-YAP-GS-Gln-mTORC1 pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Du
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Le Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Dampness Syndrome, the Second Affiliated Hospital Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ling Kong
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Ye Sun
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- State Key Laboratory of Dampness Syndrome, the Second Affiliated Hospital Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kunshuang Shen
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Ying Cai
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Hui Sun
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- *Correspondence: Hui Sun, ; Xijun Wang,
| | - Bo Zhang
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Sifan Guo
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Aihua Zhang
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Xijun Wang
- National Chinmedomics Research Center, National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Metabolomics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
- State Key Laboratory of Dampness Syndrome, the Second Affiliated Hospital Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, Macau SAR, China
- *Correspondence: Hui Sun, ; Xijun Wang,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li X, Cai S, He Z, Reilly J, Zeng Z, Strang N, Shu X. Metabolomics in Retinal Diseases: An Update. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:944. [PMID: 34681043 PMCID: PMC8533136 DOI: 10.3390/biology10100944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Retinal diseases are a leading cause of visual loss and blindness, affecting a significant proportion of the population worldwide and having a detrimental impact on quality of life, with consequent economic burden. The retina is highly metabolically active, and a number of retinal diseases are associated with metabolic dysfunction. To better understand the pathogenesis underlying such retinopathies, new technology has been developed to elucidate the mechanism behind retinal diseases. Metabolomics is a relatively new "omics" technology, which has developed subsequent to genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics. This new technology can provide qualitative and quantitative information about low-molecular-weight metabolites (M.W. < 1500 Da) in a given biological system, which shed light on the physiological or pathological state of a cell or tissue sample at a particular time point. In this article we provide an extensive review of the application of metabolomics to retinal diseases, with focus on age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), glaucoma, and retinitis pigmentosa (RP).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xing Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China; (X.L.); (Z.H.)
| | - Shichang Cai
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China;
| | - Zhiming He
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China; (X.L.); (Z.H.)
| | - James Reilly
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK;
| | - Zhihong Zeng
- College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Changsha University, Changsha 410022, China;
| | - Niall Strang
- Department of Vision Science, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK;
| | - Xinhua Shu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China; (X.L.); (Z.H.)
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK;
- Department of Vision Science, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fu J, Luo Y, Mou M, Zhang H, Tang J, Wang Y, Zhu F. Advances in Current Diabetes Proteomics: From the Perspectives of Label- free Quantification and Biomarker Selection. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 21:34-54. [PMID: 31433754 DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666190821160207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to its prevalence and negative impacts on both the economy and society, the diabetes mellitus (DM) has emerged as a worldwide concern. In light of this, the label-free quantification (LFQ) proteomics and diabetic marker selection methods have been applied to elucidate the underlying mechanisms associated with insulin resistance, explore novel protein biomarkers, and discover innovative therapeutic protein targets. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this manuscript is to review and analyze the recent computational advances and development of label-free quantification and diabetic marker selection in diabetes proteomics. METHODS Web of Science database, PubMed database and Google Scholar were utilized for searching label-free quantification, computational advances, feature selection and diabetes proteomics. RESULTS In this study, we systematically review the computational advances of label-free quantification and diabetic marker selection methods which were applied to get the understanding of DM pathological mechanisms. Firstly, different popular quantification measurements and proteomic quantification software tools which have been applied to the diabetes studies are comprehensively discussed. Secondly, a number of popular manipulation methods including transformation, pretreatment (centering, scaling, and normalization), missing value imputation methods and a variety of popular feature selection techniques applied to diabetes proteomic data are overviewed with objective evaluation on their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the guidelines for the efficient use of the computationbased LFQ technology and feature selection methods in diabetes proteomics are proposed. CONCLUSION In summary, this review provides guidelines for researchers who will engage in proteomics biomarker discovery and by properly applying these proteomic computational advances, more reliable therapeutic targets will be found in the field of diabetes mellitus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianbo Fu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yongchao Luo
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Minjie Mou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hongning Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jing Tang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Innovative Drug Research Centre, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Yunxia Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Feng Zhu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Innovative Drug Research Centre, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tang Z, Chan MY, Leung WY, Wong HY, Ng CM, Chan VTT, Wong R, Lok J, Szeto S, Chan JCK, Tham CC, Wong TY, Cheung CY. Assessment of retinal neurodegeneration with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eye (Lond) 2020; 35:1317-1325. [PMID: 32581390 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-020-1020-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To comprehensively assess diabetic retinopathy neurodegeneration (DRN) as quantified by retinal neuronal and axonal layers measured with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in subjects with diabetes mellitus (DM). METHODS Articles on the topic of examining macular ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (m-GCIPL), macular retinal nerve fibre layer (m-RNFL), macular ganglion cell complex (m-GCC), and peripapillary RNFL (p-RNFL) measured with SD-OCT in DM subjects without DR (NDR) or with non-proliferative DR (NPDR) were searched in PubMed and Embase up to November 31, 2019. Standardized mean difference (SMD) as effect size were pooled using random-effects model. RESULTS Thirty-six studies searched from online databases and the CUHK DM cohort were included in the meta-analysis. In the comparison between NDR and control, macular measures including mean m-GCIPL (SMD = -0.26, p = 0.003), m-RNFL (SMD = -0.26, p = 0.046), and m-GCC (SMD = -0.28; p = 0.009) were significantly thinner in the NDR group. In the comparison between NPDR and NDR, only mean p-RNFL was significantly thinner in the NPDR group (SMD = -0.27; p = 0.03), but not other macular measures. CONCLUSIONS Thinning of retinal neuronal and axonal layers at macula as measured by SD-OCT are presented in eyes with NDR, supporting DRN may be the early pathogenesis in the DM patients without the presence of clinical signs of DR. In the future, these SD-OCT measures may be used as surrogates of DRN to stratify DM patients with a high risk of DR, and may be used as a therapeutic target if neuroprotection treatment for DR is available.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ziqi Tang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ming Yan Chan
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Wai Yin Leung
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ho Yeung Wong
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ching Man Ng
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Victor T T Chan
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Raymond Wong
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jerry Lok
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Simon Szeto
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jason C K Chan
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Clement C Tham
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Tien Y Wong
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore National Eye Center, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Carol Y Cheung
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Singh AK, Mazumder AG, Halder P, Ghosh S, Chatterjee J, Roy A. Raman spectral probe and unique fractal signatures for human serum with diabetes and early stage diabetic retinopathy. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2018. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/aaed0e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|